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sustainability
Article
Vitamins and Minerals in Four Traditional Garlic Ecotypes
(Allium sativum L.) from Italy: An Example
of Territorial Biodiversity
Loretta Gambelli, Stefania Marconi, Alessandra Durazzo , Emanuela Camilli , Altero Aguzzi, Paolo Gabrielli,
Luisa Marletta and Silvia Lisciani *
Citation: Gambelli, L.; Marconi, S.;
Durazzo, A.; Camilli, E.; Aguzzi, A.;
Gabrielli, P.; Marletta, L.; Lisciani, S.
Vitamins and Minerals in Four
Traditional Garlic Ecotypes (Allium
sativum L.) from Italy: An Example of
Territorial Biodiversity. Sustainability
2021,13, 7405. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su13137405
Academic Editors: Bernhard
Huchzermeyer and Marc A. Rosen
Received: 17 May 2021
Accepted: 29 June 2021
Published: 1 July 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
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conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria-Centro di Ricerca, CREA-Alimenti e
Nutrizione, Via Ardeatina 546, 00178 Rome, Italy; loretta.gambelli@crea.gov.it (L.G.);
stefania.marconi@crea.gov.it (S.M.); alessandra.durazzo@crea.gov.it (A.D.); emanuela.camilli@crea.gov.it (E.C.);
altero.aguzzi@crea.gov.it (A.A.); paolo.gabrielli@crea.gov.it (P.G.); luisa.francesca.marletta@gmail.com (L.M.)
*Correspondence: silvia.lisciani@crea.gov.it; Tel.: +39-06-51494-652
Abstract:
Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is one of the most important food products in the world and
an ancient and widespread medicinal herb. It is rich in minerals and vitamins, which are both
essential nutrients for human health. This study was carried out on four traditional landraces of
garlic: Rosso di Sulmona, Rosso di Proceno, Bianco Piacentino, and Rosso di Castelliri, all cultivated
with the same agricultural practices in two different areas of the Lazio region. The aim was to
study the effects of both production soil and genetic characteristics on the concentrations of certain
micronutrients in these garlic bulbs. The content of minerals and trace elements (Ca, K, P, mg, Na, Fe,
Zn, Cu, Mn) was determined via ICP plasma after liquid washing. Water-soluble vitamins (riboflavin,
niacin, thiamine, B6, vitamin C) were evaluated using an HPLC and UV detector. Among the minerals
identified, potassium was most represented, with a value ranging between 645 and 1057 mg/100 g
d.w., whose content is influenced by the interaction between cultivars and cultivation area, suggesting
that pedoclimatic and genetic characteristics determine this content. Among vitamins, vitamin C
was found to be most represented, with an amount that varied from 9.7 to 15.6 mg/100 g f.w. and
did not depend on the cultivar or the geographical area. Among the B vitamins, the most abundant
was vitamin B6, the maximum content of which was found in the Rosso di Castelliri cultivar grown
in Viterbo (2.04 mg/100 g f.w.). Its concentration is influenced by the cultivar and the soil and their
interaction. The results obtained showed good levels of essential micronutrients and highlighted that
for some of them, the effect of soil typology is expressed in the presence of specific characteristics
linked to the genotype.
Keywords: Italian garlic; minerals; vitamins
1. Introduction
Fruits and vegetables play an important role in human health, as they contain impor-
tant essential components such as dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals,
all of which may reduce the risk of chronic diseases [
1
,
2
] and improve the immune system
factor currently of great importance [
3
,
4
]. Minerals and vitamins are considered to be
micronutrients, and they are not aimed at the production of energy, but act mainly as
coenzymes and cofactors [
5
–
7
]. They are necessary for the functioning and maintenance
of the human organism, which is not able to synthesize them; therefore, it is necessary to
acquire them through an adequate, balanced, and varied diet [
8
–
10
]. Micronutrients in-
teract with each other to regulate biological processes, and they are very important be-
cause, even in small quantities, they work together to (i) regulate energy metabolism,
nerve function, and muscle contraction; (ii) regulate oxidative function; (iii) maintain
bone and blood health; (iv) control water and electrolyte balance; and (v) help immune
Sustainability 2021,13, 7405. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137405 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2021,13, 7405 2 of 12
function [
10
–
14
]. An appropriate diet is necessary to provide humans with vitamins and
minerals, while a low intake of healthy foods and an unbalanced diet can lead to mineral
deficiencies—currently a widespread issue in at-risk population groups [
8
,
15
,
16
]—and,
at the same time, to an overuse of dietary supplements or fortified foods, which is grow-
ing rapidly [17].
Moreover, the characterization of compounds of nutritional and nutraceutical na-
ture in the different ecotypes of most consumed foods allows the maintenance of a rich
food biodiversity and ensures diet quality, especially in vulnerable populations [
18
,
19
].
Agricultural crops are the primary source of minerals and vitamins, so micronutrient-
related malnutrition can be solved by increasing the consumption of vegetable products [
8
].
Garlic (Allium sativum L.) belongs to the plant family Amaryllidaceae and it is one of
the most important bulb crops [
20
]. Native to Central Asia, it is now cultivated worldwide.
Garlic has been appreciated since ancient times for its aroma and flavor, which make it
suitable for consumption in numerous recipes around the world [
21
,
22
]. The first mention
of garlic can be traced back to an Egyptian papyrus, the Codex Ebers, dating from 1550 BC,
containing hundreds of recipes used, for instance, as a therapeutic cure for headaches
and insect bites, and as a painkiller [
23
]. In fact, in addition to the use of garlic as a food
product, it is also known as a medicinal plant; garlic has been used for healing a wide
variety of disorders, including leprosy, diarrhea, constipation, asthma, fever, and infec-
tion [
24
,
25
]. The benefits associated with its consumption are attributed to the presence of
different functional compounds in it. The synergistic interactions between all the compo-
nents, vitamins, saponins, and moderate levels of carotenoids contribute to provide the
observed health benefits of garlic [
21
,
26
]. The advantages attributed to garlic consumption
should also include the high fructooligo-/polysaccharide (FOS) content, responsible for
its prebiotic activity, together with dietary fiber [
27
]. In recent years, many researchers
have demonstrated various significant biological functions of garlic, including anticancer,
cardiovascular protective, anti-inflammatory, and immune modulatory [
28
–
32
]. In particu-
lar, the wide variety of dietary and medicinal functions of garlic can be attributed to its
oil-soluble organosulfur compounds, which are also the main factors responsible for its
characteristic flavor and taste [
21
,
31
]. The organosulfur compounds of garlic bulbs are a
major source of sulfur in the human diet [
33
–
35
]. Garlic also contains a decent percent-
age of sodium, potassium, and magnesium, as well as vitamins, such as C and B [
36
,
37
].
Most of the studies present in the literature addressed “commercial” garlic samples, but its
particular type of reproduction (agamic) has favored the development and diffusion of
numerous local ecotypes that were adapted to different climates and soils [
38
]. Despite the
fact that garlic has been propagated asexually with cloves in many areas of the world
by farmers, there is a great diversity in its morphological and agronomic characteristics,
mostly due to the existence of various ecotypes that have been cultivated in the same areas
for a long time, resulting in the accumulation of natural mutations [39–41].
The genotype significantly affects the chemical composition of garlic bulbs, as well
as their growing conditions [
34
–
41
]. The quality and fertility of the soil have a direct
influence on the levels of nutrients in food crops, in particular on micronutrients. Many fac-
tors, such as rainfall, sunshine, temperature [
42
–
44
], species, and soil characteristics,
including mineral composition and bioavailability, crop systems, and fertilization practices,
play critical roles in plant mineral uptake, affecting the morphology, physiology, and nutri-
tional quality [
33
,
43
–
46
]. Therefore, cultivation in selected areas can be used to optimize
the content of compounds and, consequently, the quality of the final product [34].
Accordingly, differences in geography and farming conditions may determine varia-
tions in mineral content for certain plant species. In addition, fertilizer application rates and
soil properties may have a significant effect on the mineral composition of garlic bulbs [
41
].
In this regard, as reported by Naruka and Dhaka [47], nitrogen fertilization has a positive
influence on the N, P, K, and S contents of the bulb, due to the improved nutritional environ-
ment both in the root zone and the plant system. An increased availability of nutrients in
Sustainability 2021,13, 7405 3 of 12
the root zone, coupled with increased metabolic activity at the cellular level, might increase
the nutrient uptake and accumulation in the vegetative plant parts [46,48–51].
Despite the importance of knowledge of close linkage between the nutritional profile
of local products and territory and cultivation practices [
52
], food composition data on
Italian-specific landraces are still scarce, and studies are incomplete, especially regarding
information on the amounts of vitamins. The identification and highlighting of the chemi-
cal properties of the landraces compared with “commercial” varieties may represent an
added value of the product to better address the consumer preference [
27
,
53
] and stim-
ulate cultivation, thus contributing to the protection of this biodiversity by promoting
its conservation [
53
]. The valorization of the typical products by identifying and evalu-
ating nutritional quality and safety characteristics represents an important goal for the
preservation of local ecosystems [52,53].
We previously reported differences in some of the characteristics of four Italian lan-
draces of white and red garlic: Rosso di Castelliri, Bianco Piacentino, Rosso di Sulmona,
and Rosso di Proceno qualified on the national market, and some enrolled in the Italian
Register of varieties, with regard to their carbohydrate profile [
27
]. These varieties were
well characterized as regards their morphological and organoleptic properties, but not as
regards their chemical–nutritional characteristics, which are substantially determined by
the genotype, cultivation, techniques/agronomic practices, and environmental conditions.
In this context, this study has been conducted to determine the content of the main
minerals, oligo-elements, and soluble vitamins and, primarily, to evaluate how cultivar
and growing area may affect the amount of micronutrients for the four “typical varieties”
produced with the same agronomic procedures in two different geographical areas of the
Lazio region (Viterbo and Alvito).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Samples
Four traditional ecotypes of Allium sativum L. were chosen for this study: Bianco Pia-
centino, Rosso di Castelliri, Rosso di Sulmona, and Rosso di Proceno. All four varieties,
named for their geographic origin, were widespread in Italy and grown in many geo-
graphic areas; the samples studied were produced in the Lazio region, in two different
geographical areas (Viterbo and Alvito), using the same trail conditions (Table 1).
Table 1. Main agronomic trail of garlic production.
Agronomic Trail
Basal dressing (kg/ha) 250 (potassium sulphate) 250 (DAP 18/46)
Top dressing (kg/ha)
In the first decade of March 150
(ammonium nitrate)- in the second decade
of April 250 (ammonium nitrate)
Fertilisation Unit for proposed
technique
143 N
115 P
125 K
44 S
3 mg
Fertilisation Unit for conventional
technique
97 N
115 P
44 S
Antiparasitic treatment (number) 1 (melody compact -Iprovalicarb + oxychloride-)
Antiparasitic inspection (number) 6 (copper-based products -bordeaux mixture and
copper oxychloride- in spring)
Pest check (L/ha) 3—Stomp—Pendimetalin based in pre-emergency
1.5—Setossidim in post-emergency
Sustainability 2021,13, 7405 4 of 12
The main chemical parameters of garlic soils coming from Alvito and Viterbo were
reported in Table 2.
Table 2. Characteristics of Viterbo and Alvito soil.
Parameter (Unit) Viterbo Alvito
pH (1:2.5 in water) 6.6 7.7
Total N (% of soil d.w.) 0.09 0.20
Assimilable P (ppm. Olsen’s method) 33 78
Exchangeable K (ppm. Intern’s method) 421 342
CaCO3(% of soil d.w.) 5.1 11.2
Sand (% of soil d.w.) 65 6
Silt (% of soil d.w.) 23 48
Clay (% of soil d.w.) 12 46
The four landraces of garlic selected can be distinguished thanks to some morpho-
logical characteristics, such as outer skin color of bulb, skin color of the cloves, and shape
and structures of bulb. Furthermore, variability between cultivars was described for some
biometric parameters, such as bulb size and the number of cloves for each bulb [27].
All four varieties were cultivated, harvested, and collected for the study between
15 June and 30 July of the same year.
For each ecotype, two pools (each made from 12 garlic) representing the two produc-
tion areas were prepared; each pool was homogenized and analyzed for their moisture
content, then prepared according to the different analyses: cut/ground/cool; cut/frozen;
and cut/freeze-dried.
2.2. Analytical Procedures
2.2.1. Quality Assurance
The contents were found through single determinations and continuous monitoring
of the quality of the analyses, including reference materials, duplicate determinations,
and recoveries in the analytical series. Quality assurance showed that the quality of
the analyses was satisfactory. Quality control of analytical procedures was performed
through the precise and accurate execution of the validated methods. Appropriate reagents,
equipment and suitable tests (e.g., System Suitability Testing) were used during the analysis
to check the analytic repeatability and the validity of the result; the standard deviation (SD)
of all the analytical values was calculated; and the accuracy of the procedure was estab-
lished by the analysis of standard reference materials (SRMs) and standard compounds.
2.2.2. Minerals and Oligo-Elements
Mineral (Na, K, Ca, mg, P) and oligo-element (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn) contents were determined
by ICP-Plasma (OPTIMA 8000- Perkin-Elmer) after liquid ashing (6 mL HNO
3
+1mLH
2
O
2
)
of the samples in a microwave digestion system (MILESTONE, ETHOS ONE). The standard
reference material: spinach (Nist 1570, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
TA, U.S. Department of Commerce) was analyzed as a check of the accuracy of the analysis.
2.2.3. Vitamins
•Sample preparation vitamin C
The total vitamin C was calculated using extraction of two separate rates of the same
sample fresh, finely chopped and homogenized. The first aliquot of MPA was added
(metaphosphoric acid) to 5% for the extraction of AA (Ascorbic acid), while the second
aliquot was added with DTT (Dithiothreitol) used as the reducing solution for the extraction
of DHAA (dehydroascorbic acid) [54], filtered with a 0.45 µm filter and injected.
Sustainability 2021,13, 7405 5 of 12
•Sample preparation B vitamins
Freeze-dried samples were hydrolyzed with 0.1 M HCL in an autoclave at 121
◦
C for
30 min, and after cooling the solution was adjusted to pH 4.5 with soda and addition of
2 mL of a solution of enzyme taka diastase and b-amylase, for 17 h in thermostated bath
at 37
◦
C. After cooling, the samples were diluted to a final volume of 25 mL with water,
centrifuged for 15 min at 12,000 RPMA 2 ◦C, filtered with 0.45 um filter and injected.
•Chromatographic determination
Content of vitamin C, measured as total ascorbic acid (TAA) and ascorbic acid (AA),
was determined by HPLC Waters, equipped with a gradient pump 600, autosampler 717
plus, column Alltech (Alltima NH2, 5
µ
m, 4.6
×
250 mM), and UV detector, 996 photodiode
array, at 248 nm [
54
]. The concentration of dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA) was calculated
by subtraction method.
Riboflavin, Niacin, Thiamine and vitamins B6 were determined by the method of
HPLC, using a column C-8 (Acclain 120, 5
µ
m, 4.6
×
250 mM), with a gradient mobile
phase consisting of 50 mM phosphate buffer at pH= 2.5 and methanol at a flow rate of
1.5 mL/min.
For the analysis, we used a chromatograph DIONEX (Sunyvale, CA, USA) equipped
with a gradient pump GP50, an autosampler ASI-100, and a fluorescence detector RF2000,
with wavelengths Ex = 290, Em = 395, and EX = 422 Em = 522, respectively, for the
determination of piridoxamina, piridoxale, piridoxolo and riboflavin. Thiamine and niacin
were determined with a detector UVD170S wavelengths 254 nm and 261 nm [55,56].
2.3. Statistical Analysis
All analyses were performed in triplicate. Data were expressed as means
±
standard
deviation (SD). The statistical analysis was performed using SPSS Software Package 22.0
version (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Two-way ANOVA was done to determine the
impact of area, cultivar and their interaction effect. Multiple comparisons of means were
performed by applying the Tukey HSD test. The student’s t-test was used to compare the
cultivation areas for each cultivar. A p-value of less than 0.05 was taken as significant.
3. Results and Discussion
The content of essential minerals and oligo-elements in the four landraces of garlic
were reported in Table 3. The data showed that potassium (K) was the highest mineral
detected, ranging from 645 mg/100 g d.w. of Bianco Piacentino produced in Alvito,
to 1057 mg/100 g d.w. of Rosso di Sulmona grown in the same area. These values
were comparable to those reported by Bonasia [
53
], but lower than those reported by
Hacısefero˘gulları, et al. [57], on a Turkish garlic variety (21,378.84 mg/Kg). The statistical
analysis (Table 3) revealed that the cultivar, the geographical area, and the interaction
between these variables affected the K content, probably reflecting the high exchangeable
K value in Viterbo soil (Table 2).
On the other hand, the lowest phosphorus (P) concentration was found in Bianco
Piacentino bulbs produced in Alvito (219 mg/100 g d.w.), whilst the Rosso di Castelliri
garlic grown in Viterbo (347 mg/100 g d.w.) showed the highest content. These values
were higher than those found by Abayomi et al. [
58
] in garlic from Nigeria that showed a P
content of about 10.19 mg/g d.w. As reported in Table 3, the P content was influenced by
the growing area, cultivar and by the interaction between the two variables, suggesting that
the pedoclimatic characteristics, together with the genetic ones, contribute to determine
the quantity of this mineral in bulbs. The amounts of P in samples can be related to the
technical and agronomic trail of garlic (Table 1). In this regard, some authors [
49
,
50
,
59
,
60
]
indicated that fertilization of garlic plant with inorganic N, P and S significantly increased
the N, P, K and S concentration in garlic bulb tissues [46,48].
Magnesium (Mg) content varied between 37 mg/100 g d.w. (Bianco Piacentino from
Alvito) and 54 mg/100 g d.w. (Rosso di Castelliri from Viterbo). As shown in Table 3, the mg
Sustainability 2021,13, 7405 6 of 12
content was influenced by both the cultivar and the soils of growth. The Student’s test
carried out to compare the two cultivation areas of each ecotype only showed significant
differences for the Bianco Piacentino.
Table 3.
Levels of minerals and oligo-elements (mg/100 g d.w.) in four garlic landraces from the Viterbo and Alvito areas.
Area Bianco
Piacentino
Rosso
di Sulmona
Rosso
di Castelliri
Rosso
di Proceno
ANOVA
Cultivar Area C ×A
Na
Viterbo
5±0.3
§
18 ±0.1
§
4±0.4 4 ±0.4
§* *** ***
Alvito
13 ±0.4 6 ±0.6 22 ±5.2 23 ±0.5
Mean 9 ±5.0 a12 ±6.4 ab 13 ±13.7 ab 14 ±10.7 b
K
Viterbo
866 ±18.7
§
723 ±9.9 1016 ±35.4
§
1049 ±143.1
n.s. ** ***
Alvito
645 ±20.7 1057 ±130.4 710 ±19.6 694 ±6.5
Mean 755 ±128.2 890 ±207.3 863 ±178.5 871 ±221.1
Ca
Viterbo
27 ±0.7
§
46 ±0.8 40 ±0.0 40 ±1.0
§*** * ***
Alvito
23 ±0.4 38 ±1.8 50 ±2.5 50 ±0.2
Mean 25 ±2.1 a42 ±4.74 b45 ±6.0 c45 ±5.8 c
mg
Viterbo
47 ±0.0 §48 ±0.6 54 ±0.2 50 ±6.4
* ** n.s.
Alvito
37 ±0.9 49 ±3.4 45 ±1.9 42 ±0.1
Mean 42 ±5.5 a49 ±2.0 b50 ±5.2 bc 46 ±5.5 abc
P
Viterbo
296 ±1.2 293 ±4.7 347 ±0.2 301 ±24.5
* ** *
Alvito
219 ±32.4 303 ±20.3 263 ±6.7 261 ±0.5
Mean 257 ±48.1 a298 ±13.5 a305 ±50.1 b281 ±27.3 a
Fe
Viterbo
1.54 ±0.136 3.48 ±1.178 2.56 ±0.039 3.21 ±1.446
n.s. n.s. n.s.
Alvito
1.54 ±0.132 3.05 ±1.366 2.77 ±0.190 2.98 ±0.103
Mean 1.54 ±0.109 3.26 ±1.070 2.67 ±0.165 3.10 ±0.848
Cu
Viterbo
0.60 ±0.096 0.53 ±0.006 0.61 ±0.002 0.52 ±0.000
n.s. n.s. n.s.
Alvito
0.46 ±0.027 0.66 ±0.020 0.55 ±0.015 0.46 ±0.009
Mean 0.53 ±0.102 0.60 ±0.075 0.58 ±0.040 0.49 ±0.034
Zn
Viterbo
1.84 ±0.016 §1.54 ±0.017 1.85 ±0.009 1.49 ±0.106
* * *
Alvito
1.51 ±0.041 1.68 ±0.100 1.60 ±0.084 1.43 ±0.004
Mean 1.67 ±0.192 a1.61 ±0.101 ab 1.73 ±0.155 a1.46 ±0.071 b
Mn
Viterbo
0.53 ±0.005 §0.64 ±0.003 0.60 ±0.002 0.63 ±0.088
** n.s. n.s.
Alvito
0.44 ±0.001 0.58 ±0.065 0.61 ±0.043 0.65 ±0.009
Mean 0.49 ±0.054 a0.61 ±0.050 b0.61 ±0.025 a0.64 ±0.053 b
Data are expressed as Mean
±
S.D.; Student’s t-test between two areas of each cultivar: § is statistically significant (p< 0.05). Two-way
ANOVA effect: * statistically significant differences at pbelow 0.05; ** statistically significant differences at p-value below 0.01; *** statistically
significant differences at p-value below 0.001. Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) test: by row, means of each cultivar followed by
different superscript (a,b,c) are significantly different (p< 0.05).
With regards to (Ca), the lowest amounts were found in the Bianco Piacentino landrace;
with values of 23 mg/100 g d.w. and 27 mg/100 g d.w. (cultivated in Viterbo and Alvito,
respectively), in agreement with the values detected by Brandolini et al. [
61
]. On the
contrary, the highest Ca values were detected in Rosso di Castelliri and Rosso di Proceno
(50 mg/100 g d.w.), both from Alvito. The Ca levels in the four landraces were in line
with those reported by Bonasia [
53
], where six Italian ecotypes of garlic from Puglia region
were analyzed. As reported in Table 3, the amount of Ca in bulbs were strongly affected
by cultivar; however, it was also influenced by both the soil and from the interaction of
the two variables. The Tukey’s test performed to compare the groups showed that there
were not significant differences in the Ca content of Rosso di Castelliri and the Rosso
di Proceno cultivars. On the contrary, the Ca in Bianco Piacentino presented significant
differences if compared to the other three ecotypes, as did Rosso di Sulmona (Table 3).
Sustainability 2021,13, 7405 7 of 12
Statistical analysis conducted for determining the effect of the soil for each landrace showed
significant differences between Alvito and Viterbo areas for the Bianco Piacentino and
Rosso di Proceno varieties.
As for sodium (Na), the results showed heterogeneous values, ranging from 4 mg/100 g d.w.
in Rosso di Castelliri and Rosso di Proceno, both cultivated in Viterbo, to 23 mg/100 g d.w.
in Rosso di Proceno grown in Alvito. A two-way ANOVA test demonstrated that Na can
be influenced by the growing area, as well as by the genotype and also by the interaction
between the two variables (Table 3). Differences between the geographic regions were
evident and significant for three cultivars (Rosso di Sulmona, Bianco Piacentino, Rosso di
Proceno). The Na values studied on fresh samples (data not shown) ranged from 2 mg 100 g
f.w. of Rosso di Castelliri grown in Viterbo, to 9 mg/100 g f.w. of Rosso di Proceno
cultivated in Alvito, in accordance to the mean value of 4 mg/100 g f.w., observed for Italian
commercial garlic present in CREA’S Food Composition Tables [
62
]. A similar heterogeneity
in the sodium content was also reported by Petropoulos at al. [
41
], although they reported
higher values ranging from 7.0 mg/100 g f.w. to 36 mg/100 f.w. were reported.
Among the oligo-elements, iron (Fe) was the most representative in garlic bulbs,
and this content ranged between 1.54 mg/100 g d.w. of the Bianco Piacentino from Alvito
and Viterbo, to 3.48 mg/100 d.w. of Rosso di Sulmona produced in Viterbo. The value
of the Fe did not depend on the characteristics of the cultivar and the cultivation soil,
as demonstrated by statistical analysis (Table 3).
The quantity of zinc (Zn) was rather homogeneous in all samples and ranged from
1.43 mg/100 g d.w. detected in Rosso di Proceno from Alvito to 1.85 mg/100 g d.w.
of Rosso Castelliri from Viterbo; despite this, the statistical analysis showed that the
Zn content was influenced by soil, cultivar and the interaction between these (Table 3).
Zn concentrations were similar to those reported by Islam et al. [
63
] for large multi-clove
garlics from India, China and Bangladesh, where Zn content was in the range of from
9.6 ppm and to 19.18 ppm.
Concerning the copper (Cu) content, the concentrations were found between
0.46 mg/100 g d.w. of Bianco Piacentino and Rosso di Proceno (both from Alvito) and
0.66 mg/100 g d.w. of Rosso di Sulmona grown in Alvito (Table 3). These quantities were
not affected by any of the variables considered.
The detection of manganese (Mn) showed that this oligo-element was in a smallest
amount, 0.44 mg/100 g d.w., in Bianco Piacentino cultivar grown in Alvito, and as a
maximum value of 0.65 mg/100 g d.w. in Rosso di Proceno grown in Alvito. These data
were higher than the values reported by Abayomi [
58
] and Otunola [
64
]. The values of the
Mn were influenced only by the types of the cultivar (Table 3).
The contents of vitamin B6 in the different cultivars (Table 4) were rather heteroge-
neous with the lowest value of 0.88 mg/100 g f.w. found in the Rosso di Proceno grown in
Alvito and with the highest one of 2.04 mg/100 g f.w. recorded in the Rosso di Castelliri
from Viterbo. These data were higher than the value of 0.32 mg/100 g f.w. published
by Cardelle-Cobas [
65
]. Vitamin B6 in the four garlic landraces were influenced by the
characteristics of cultivar, soil and interaction between these (Table 4).
Niacin concentrations were included between 0.56 mg/100 g f.w. of Rosso di Proceno
grown in Alvito, and 0.9 mg/100 g f.w. of Bianco Piacentino grown in the Viterbo region
and Rosso di Sulmona grown in Alvito. Values obtained were comparable with those
reported on the Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan, which shows a Niacin
amount corresponding to 0.7 mg/100 g f.w. [
66
]. Statistical analysis confirmed that the
concentration of this vitamin was influenced only by the cultivar, but not by growth area,
as confirmed by the Student’s t-test for the comparison of means of the two areas.
Table 4shows the content of some water-soluble vitamins in the studied samples.
The values pointed out that, among the B-group vitamins, vitamin B6 was the most
represented, followed by niacin, thiamine and finally riboflavin. Vitamin C was contained
in greater quantities than all other vitamins detected.
Sustainability 2021,13, 7405 8 of 12
Table 4. Levels of vitamins (mg/100 g f.w.) in four garlic landraces from the Viterbo and Alvito areas.
Area Bianco
Piacentino
Rosso
di Sulmona
Rosso
di Castelliri
Rosso
di Proceno
ANOVA
Cultivar Area C ×A
Thiamine
Viterbo
0.27 ±0.077 0.20 ±0.005 0.26 ±0.005 0.21 ±0.036
n.s. n.s. n.s.
Alvito 0.25 ±0.073 0.19 ±0.017 0.22 ±0.020 0.24 ±0.010
Mean 0.26 ±0.062 0.19 ±0.011 0.24 ±0.025 0.22 ±0.025
Riboflavin
Viterbo
0.02 ±0.001 0.01 ±0.001
§
0.04 ±0.002
§
0.02 ±0.001
*** * ***
Alvito 0.02 ±0.002 0.02 ±0.000 0.02 ±0.002 0.02 ±0.001
Mean 0.02 ±0.002 a0.02 ±0.004 a0.03 ±0.011 b0.02 ±0.001 a
Niacin
Viterbo
0.91 ±0.000 0.80 ±0.060 0.66 ±0.040 0.62 ±0.020
*** n.s n.s
Alvito 0.77 ±0.030 0.91 ±0.030 0.60 ±0.040 0.56 ±0.030
Mean 0.84 ±0.084 a0.86 ±0.075 a0.63 ±0.047 b0.59 ±0.039 b
Vitamin B6
Viterbo
1.60 ±0.010 1.37 ±0.090 2.04 ±0.230 §1.03 ±0.052
*** n.s. n.s.
Alvito 0.98 ±0.097 1.37 ±0.026 0.99 ±0.056 0.88 ±0.072
Mean 1.29 ±0.357 a1.37 ±0.054 a1.52 ±0.609 b0.96 ±0.099 c
Vitamin C
Viterbo
11.4 ±2.23 12.6 ±3.61 13.0 ±3.97 9.7 ±1.85
n.s. n.s. n.s.
Alvito 12.4 ±2.93 15.6 ±8.48 14.6 ±6.16 10.5 ±6.03
Mean 11.9 ±2.21 14.1 ±5.60 13.8 ±4.32 10.1 ±3.66
Data are expressed as Mean
±
S.D.; Student’s t-test between two areas of each cultivar: § is statistically significant (p< 0.05). Two-way
ANOVA effect: * statistically significant differences at pbelow 0.05; *** statistically significant differences at p-value below 0.001. Tukey’s
honestly significant difference (HSD) test: by row, means of each cultivar followed by different superscript (a,b,c) are significantly different
(p< 0.05).
As reported in Table 4, the lowest thiamine content was found in the Rosso di Sulmona
from Alvito (0.19 mg/100 g f.w.); whereas the highest content was that of Bianco Piacentino
grown in Viterbo (0.27 mg/100 g f.w.). The obtained values were comparable with those
reported on the Italian Food Composition Tables [
62
], where thiamine value for commercial
samples of garlic is 0.23 mg/100 g f.w. The thiamine content was not influenced by the
cultivation area, nor by the cultivar, nor by the interaction of the two variables considered.
Statistical analysis comparing the means between areas of each cultivar confirmed that
there were no significant differences for any pair of samples studied.
The lowest content of riboflavin was detected in the Rosso di Sulmona from Viterbo
with a value of 0.01 mg/100 g f.w, while the highest content was that of Rosso Castelliri
from Viterbo (0.04 mg/100 g f.w.). All values were lower than those reported for samples
in the Italian Food Composition Tables [
62
] corresponding to 0.07 mg/100 g. Further-
more, the ANOVA test showed that the riboflavin concentration was influenced by the
growth area, the cultivar and by the interaction between these two factors (Table 4). Differ-
ences between the cultivation areas for each cultivar were significant for Rosso di Sulmona
and Rosso Castelliri.
Vitamin C content ranged from a minimum value of 9.7 mg/100 g found in Rosso di
Proceno coming from Viterbo, to a maximum value corresponding to 15.6 mg/100 g in
Rosso di Sulmona grown in Alvito. These amounts were comparable to those reported
on the Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan, which reports a Vitamin C value
of 12 mg/100 g f.w. [
66
]. Conversely, the values obtained were distinctively higher than
those reported for some Italian varieties by Fratianni et al. [
67
] and were not significantly
influenced by soil, cultivar or cultivar–soil interaction (Table 4). These results may be due
to the fact that the vitamin C content depends on many factors, not least its sensitivity
to pre- and post-harvest conditions [
68
]. It is well known that different crop varieties
produce and store different amounts of vitamin C in their tissues, and its concentration is
affected by a combination of factors, such as the cultivar type, climatic and soil conditions,
Sustainability 2021,13, 7405 9 of 12
maturity at harvest, storage duration and conditions, type and duration of chemical and
thermal processing, physical damage, etc. [69].
4. Conclusions
Our results indicated that the four Italian garlic landraces studied were a good source
of minerals and vitamins, and their content was differently affected by the genotype and the
growing area. The most represented mineral was K, followed by P, mg and Ca. These con-
centrations were influenced by the cultivation area and therefore by the characteristics of
the soil, since the agronomic trails were the same for Viterbo and Alvito areas.
As concerns the vitamins, the results showed that vitamin C was the most represented,
and its values were independent from the area and cultivar.
The values of the B vitamins showed a greater cultivar effect for riboflavin, niacin and
vitamin B6. Furthermore, many of the micronutrients were influenced by the interaction
between cultivar and growing area, suggesting that the effect of the soil on their content is
expressed in the presence of some characteristics related to the genotype.
Therefore, the study of the chemical composition of traditional foodstuffs and their
nutritional characteristics, in relation to biodiversity, is important for the definition of their
total quality and to enhances and preserves the identity of local products. Furthermore,
knowledge about the properties of these garlic varieties could also promote their cultivation
and consumption as food. Nowadays, garlic is used mainly in the formulation of food
supplements, for its beneficial effects on blood pressure and on the functionality of the
cardiovascular system.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, S.L., L.G., S.M. and L.M.; methodology, L.G., A.A., P.G.,
S.L. and S.M.; software, E.C.; validation, L.M., A.D., L.G. and S.L.; investigation, A.D., L.M., A.A.,
P.G.; data curation, S.M., S.L., E.C. and L.G.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M. and E.C.;
writing—review and editing, A.D.; supervision, S.L., L.M. and S.M. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments:
This research was supported by the Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry
Policies—BIOVITA Project.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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