Olympic Rowing – Maximum Capacity over 2000 Meters

Abstract

Olympic rowing in its current form is a high-intensity boat race covering a distance of 2000 m with fastest race times ranging ~5.5-7.5 min, depending on boat class, sex, and environmental factors. To realize such race times, rowers need strength and endurance, which is physiologically evident in an oxidative Adaption of the skeletal muscles, a high aerobic capacity, and the ability to contribute and sustain a relatively high percentage of anaerobic energy for several minutes. Anthropometrically, male and female rowers are characterized by relatively large body measurements. Biomechanics & Physiology: The sitting position of the rower, the involvement of a large muscle mass and the structure of the rowing cycle, consisting of drive and recovery phase where the rower slides back and forth on a sliding seat, affect the cardiovascular and the respiratory system in a unique manner. In Addition to these physiological and anthropometric characteristics, this brief review outlines the extreme metabolic implications of the sport during racing and training and mentions rarely-discussed topics such as established testing procedures, summarizes data on training intensity distribution in elite rowing and includes a short section on heat stress during training and racing in hot and humid conditions expected for the Olympic Games 2021 in Tokyo.

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203GERMAN JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE 72 4/2021
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REVIEW
What is Olympic Rowing?
Olympic rowing in its current form – at least until
Paris 2024 – is a boat race covering a distance of
2000 m. In sweep row ing, two, four or eight male or
female rowers use one oar either on backboard or
starboard. In sculling boats, one, two, or four male
or female rowers generate propulsion with two
sculls (“oars”) each . In this categor y there is also the
only remaining boat class for lightweight rowers,
the lightweight double sculls, in which no male or
female rower may be heavier tha n 72.5 kg or 59.0 kg,
respectively. Depending on boat class and sex, the
world best times for the 2000 m distance vary bet-
ween 5:18 in the men’s eight and 7:07 in the women’s
sing le. Race times for a g iven boat class in w orld elite
A-nals vary by approximately 0.9-1.1% for crewed
boats or single sculls (70), but duration and
PD Dr. Gunnar Treff
Ulm Universit y Hospital, Ulm, Germany
Division of Sports and Rehabilitation
Medicine
Leimgrubenweg 14, D- 89075 Ulm
: gunnar.treff@ uni-ulm.de
SCHLÜSSELWÖRTER:
Trainingsintensitätsverteilung, Aerob, Anaerob,
Tokio, Olympische Spiele
KEY WORDS:
Training Intensity Distribution, Aerobic, Anaerobic,
Tokyo, Olympic Games
›
Olympic rowing in it s current form is a h igh-inten sity boat rac e
covering a d istance of 200 0 m with fastes t race times rang ing
~5.5-7.5 min, dependi ng on boat class, sex , and environment al
factors. To realize such race times, rowers need strength and
endurance , which is physiologic ally evident in a n oxidative ad-
aption of the skelet al muscles, a high aerobic capacit y, and the
ability to contribute and sustain a relatively high percentage
of anaerobic energy for several minutes. Anthropometrically,
male and female rowers are characterized by relatively large
body measu rements.
›
Biomechanics & Physiology: e sitting pos ition of the rower,
the involvement of a la rge muscle mass and the st ructure of the
rowing c ycle, consisting of d rive and recovery pha se where the
rower slides bac k and forth on a slid ing seat, a ect the card iovas-
cular a nd the respirat ory system i n a unique man ner. In addition
to these phys iological and anth ropometric charact eristics, th is
brief rev iew outlines the ex treme metabolic impl ications of the
sport during racing and training and mentions rarely-discussed
topics such as e stablished t esting proce dures, sum marizes da ta
on training intensity distribution in elite rowing and includes
a short sect ion on heat stress duri ng trainin g and racing in hot
and humid c onditions expected for the Olympic Ga mes 2021 in
Tok yo.
›
Das olympische Rudern in seiner aktuellen Form ist ein
hochinten sives Bootsrennen über ei ne Strecke von 2000 m. Die
schnells ten Rennzeiten liegen zw ischen ~5.5 und 7.5 min, ab -
hängi g von Bootsklasse, G eschlecht und Umweltfa ktoren. Um
solche Rennzeit en zu realisieren, benötigen R uderer Kraft und
Ausdauer, was sich physiologisch in ei ner oxidativ adapt ierten
Skelettmusk ulatur zeig t, in einer hohen aeroben Ka pazität und
der Fähigkeit, einen relativ hohen A nteil anaerober Energ iebe-
reitstellung über mehrere Mi nuten aufrechtzuerhalten. Anth-
ropometri sch zeichnen sich männl iche und weibliche Ruderer
durch relat iv große Körper maße aus.
›
Biomechanik & Physiologie: Die Sitzpos ition des Ruderers,
die ak tive Nutzun g einer großen Muskel masse und di e Strukt ur
des Ruderzy klus, best ehend aus Zug- und Vorrollphase , in der der
Ruderer mit seinem Sit z im Boot zurück- bzw. vorrol lt, beein us-
sen das Herz-K reislauf- u nd das Atmung ssystem au f einzigar tige
Weise. Zusätz lich zu diesen phy siologischen und a nthropometri-
schen Merkma len skizzier t dieser ku rze Überblick d ie extremen
metaboli schen Auswirk ungen des Sports wä hrend des Rennens
und des Traini ngs und erwähnt s elten diskutierte emen wie
etablier te Testverfa hren, fasst Daten zur Tra iningsintensit äts-
verteilu ng im Elite-R udern zusammen u nd geht in einem kurzen
Abschn itt auf den Hitzes tress während des Trai nings und der
Rennen unter hei ßen und feuchten Bed ingungen ei n, wie sie bei
den Olympis chen Spielen 2021in Tokio zu erwar ten sind.
May 2021
Tref f G, Winkert K, Steinacke r JM.
Olympic rowing – max imum capacity over
2000 meters. Dtsch Z Spor tmed. 2021; 72:
203-211.
doi:10.5960/dzsm. 2021.485
June 2021
1. ULM UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL, Division of
Sports and Rehabilitation Medicine,
Ulm, Germany
Olympic Rowing –
Maximum Capacity over 2000 Meters
Tre G 1, Winkert K 1, Steinacker JM 1
Olympisches Rudern – das Maximum über 2000 Meter
Article inc orporates the Creative C ommons
Attribution – Non Commercial License.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa /4.0/

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204 GERMAN JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE 72 4/2021
Olympic Rowing over 2000 Meters
variation are substantially inf luenced by environmen-
tal conditions, which are mainly race direction relative
to wind, magnitude of wind and waves, occasionally the
current of the water, as well as water temperature and,
of course, altitude.
To realize such race times , rowers have to accelerate a mass
of approximately 15 kg per person for the boat plus the rower’s
mass at the start. After the start, which is followed by a transi-
tion phase, rowers usua lly change to a race pace. Race tactics in
the middle of the race often include spri nts, where stroke rate is
increased and rowers aim to build a gap to their opponents. In
the na l 500 m of the rowi ng race, speed is of ten boosted and t he
race usu ally ends wit h a spurt. is pacing results in a pa rabolic
racing prole, wh ich is more pronounced in winners of Olympic
races than in their opponents (48). However, pacing strategies
dier a nd some very successful boats du ring the Olympic c ycles
2012-16 and 2016-20 rowed with more homogenou s 500 m. is
takes advanta ge of the fact that a steady pace requ ires less peak
power than a non-steady one, because the resistance of the wa
-
ter increa ses with speed by the second power, whi le the energy
required increases by 2.4th to 3rd power (11, 81). Model calcu-
lations assume that even the variations in boat speed within
each row ing cycle (caused by the boat’s inconstant propulsion),
increase the 2000 m-race duration by about 5 s, compared to a
boat hypothetically moving at consta nt speed (23). e average
mechanical power output of male rowers within a race ranges
450-550 W (30), requiring a considerable amount of energy to
generate forces of ~ 480 N. is prole of rowing as a strength
dependent, m id-term endu rance sport deter mines the demands
for successful competitive rowing.
Metabolism
During racing, the amount of energy provided by multiple
energetic pathways for several minutes is outstanding. is
warrants a brief summary of the metabolic aspects to under
-
stand the sport: e energetic pathways during exercise are
(i) anaerobic or non-oxidative pathways (i.e., substrate-level
phosphorylation with and without lactate production) and (ii)
aerobic or oxidative pathways (i.e., oxidative phosphorylation).
Oxidative Phosphorylation depends on oxygen delivery to the
working muscle and sucient supply of reducing equivalents
from carbohydrates and fat. During the race, contributions of
the pathways change considerably, which has already been de-
monstrated experimentally – and theoretically – in the 80’s of
the last century (39, 59) (Figure1).
e schematic row ing race outlined before nicely illust rates
the complex combination of, in simplied terms, those three
main energ y-generating pathways and thei r changing percent-
ages. At the start, a lot of energy is required to accelerate the
boat. is is mainly enabled through directly available ade-
nosine tri phosphate (ATP) stored in the muscle and creatine
phosphate (PCr) al lowing for anaerobic ATP s ynthesis without
lactate appearance. Even though the PCr stores within the
muscle are approximat ely 10-fold hig her than those of ATP, the
directly available PCr stored in the muscle is consumed with-
in seconds. However, it is dicult to specify exactly how long
the stored PCr will last, because the ratio of PCr-breakdown
and -resynthesis largely depends on duration, intensity, and
type (20, 61). Immediately after the start, the anaerobic-lac-
tic (or glycolytic) pathway gains importance, where glucose
is broken down to generate ATP while lactate is produced.
is pathway will relevantly contribute energy throughout
the whole race.
Nevertheless, it is the rel atively slow respondi ng, aerobic sys-
tem that dominates energ y contribution with approximately
67-88%, delivering the main proportions in the 2nd to 4th 500
m race-splits (58, 59). e import ance of the aerobic system for
successful rowing performance is manifold. It is ecient, be-
cause it allows the synthesis 36 units of ATP per unit glucose.
is exceeds by far the ratio from non-oxidative pathways,
which deliver only 2-3 units – but notably with a much higher
ow rate. Furthermore, the aerobic metabolism does not only
have the abil ity to deliver energ y without production of lac tate,
thereby limiting lactate accumulation during the race, it even
allows the oxidation of relevant proportions of the lactate that
is produced in the muscle via the anaerobic metabolism (8, 42).
Hence, it is the aerobic metabolism that keeps lactate concen-
tration and acidosis within tolerable limits during the main
part of the rowing race. On the other hand, the a naerobic lactic
metabolism is indispensable for high-intensity exercise in the
severe domain of ~80–100% V˙O
2
max, because it compensates
for the longer reaction time and limited energy ow rate of the
aerobic system for the extreme energy demand duri ng the race.
Fat metabolism is virtually not relevant during racing, but
essentia l during tra ining. At moderate intensities, ß-oxidation
of fat resynthesizes a huge amount of 130 ATP per unit sub-
strate and facilitates rowing for 1 h or more, albeit at much
lower intensit y than during racin g. For fur ther reading we refer
the reader to reviews (20, 61).
Aerobic Capacity and Adaptions of the Cardio Pulmonary System
As outlined before, aerobic metabolism is essential for racing.
Unsurprisingly, maximum oxygen consumption (V˙O
2
max),
which is the standard measure of a erobic capacity, is very h igh
in rowers, ranging between 6-7 L/min and above 4 L/min in
male (44, 51, 75) and female elite rowers (4). V˙O
2
max is posi-
tively correlated to performance on the ergometer both in
male (25) and female (4) rowers and also related to on water
performance (65, 85). V˙O2max, being the gross criterion of the
cardiopulmonar y system, is the product of cardiac output and
arterio-venous oxygen dierence (Fick’s principle). Since peak
arterio-venous ox ygen dierence di ers not very much between
athletes and non-athletes, cardiac output is the major contri-
butor of a high V˙O
2
max (36). A V˙O
2
max of 7 L/min requires a
cardiac output of approximately 40 L/min (81). Even in male
lightweight rowers (i.e., body mass before competition ≤72.5
kg) at a V˙O
2
max of “only” 5.0 L/min, cardiac output has been
measured as high as 30 L/min (50).
Such high cardiac output is only achievable through struc-
tural and functional adaptions. In rowers, an increase in left
ventricular wall thickness and mass as well as atrial and ven-
tricular enlargement have been reported (1). Notably, cardiac
ultrasound-derived bi-atrial strain assessment indicates nor
-
mal resting function of structurally enlarged atria in rowers
(62) and maintai ned or even improved left ventricular d iastolic
relaxation velocity despite eccentric left ventricular hypertro-
phy (82). It is worth mentioning that hemodynamics are large-
ly inuenced by the rowing position and the cyclic movement:
Due to the seated position, the large muscles of both legs work
synchronously and are relatively near to the heart, thereby
facilitating venous return to the right heart, which optimizes
cardiac stroke volume via the Frank-Starling mechanism (28).
On the other ha nd, the structu re of the rowing stroke cycle im-
poses Valsalva like maneuvers, because especially at the beg in
of the drive phase (i.e., when the rower applies force to sculls
or oar and moves backward relative to the boat) rowers hold

REVIEW
205GERMAN JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE 72 4/2021
Olympisches Rudern – das Maximum über 2000 Meter
their breath to stabilize the core, which means an increase in
intrathoracic pressure and high isometric cardiac stress by a
transient increase in LV afterload. In the second part of the
rowing cycle, the recovery phase (i.e., when the rower slides
forward and does not apply forces to the handle), the pressure
is released. e patter n creates considerable va riations in mean
arterial pressure and alterations of the cardiac stroke volume
with a decrease of 25% at the b egin of the drive phase and a si m-
ilar increase during recovery (9, 68). e hemodynamic chang-
es during the rowing cycle and specically the high isometric
cardiac stress m ight also be relevant for some of the di erences
in cardiac remodeling in comparison with endurance sports
discipl ines with low isomet ric stress such as long distance run-
ning. Compared to runners, enlargement of the LV in rowers is
accompanied by thicker left ventricular walls and higher left
ventricu lar mass (82). Furthermore, the mag nitude of hemody-
namic cha nges diers bet ween well-trained and elit e-rowers (1),
possibly because the magnitude of intrathoracic compression
increases with mechanical power output.
e heart’s main function is the transport of blood from the
lung to the brain and skeletal muscle in order to deliver oxygen.
e oxygen transport capacity itself is determined by the total
amount of hemoglobin, which is very high in rowers (75) and di-
rectly aects V˙O
2
max and performance variables (74). Interest-
ingly, and in contrast to other endurance athletes, where train-
ing-induced plasma volume expansion exceeds the increase of
hemoglobin mass, hemoglobin concentration in rowers is not
lower than in untrained persons (73). is is due to the close cor-
relation bet ween hemoglobin mas s and muscle mass (64), the lat-
ter also being relatively high in rowers (75). e causality behind
this cor relation is the ox idative adaption of a row er’s muscula ture,
containing approx imately 70% to 80% of Type I bers (33, 37, 60).
ese Type I bers have a high oxidative capacity and therefore
depend on sucient oxygen delivery, which is – when rowing in
normoxia – principally determined by hemoglobin mass, blood
volume, and c ardiac output . However, the oxygen dema nd in com-
petitive rowing may exceed its availability, frequently leading to
exercise i nduced arteri al hypoxemia (52), which is a n unmissable
sign of the severity of exercise. However, this phenomenon is not
limited to rowing, as recently reviewed (10).
e aforementioned eects of the rowing cycle are particu-
larly relevant for pulmonary function and breathing mechan-
ics, because the respiratory muscles face a dual demand: they
assist in propulsive force generation and are also an eector of
ventilatory control. Since stroke and respiratory rate increase
in concert, breathing is increasingly entrained. At high work
rates with high respiratory frequencies, the time constraints
on breathing result in high peak ow of more than 10 L/s, a dy-
namic compression of the air way occurs during ex piration, and
tidal volume reaches the at part of the thoracic compliance
curve. e ventilatory response is characterized by restricted
tidal volumes and time and ow constraints for breathing (71)
(Figure 2). Hence, large airways and lung volumes are import-
ant for rowers. Of note, lung capacity has been reported to be
as high as 11.68 L (GB elite rower Pete Reed, according to (13)).
Anaerobic Capacity
e severit y of rowing is al so highli ghted by an ext reme post-ra-
ce acidosis, with pH values as low as 6.74 (49), associated with
whole blood lactate concentrations of 26 mmol/L (own, unpu-
blished data obtained from routine ergometer testing of natio-
nal squa d rowers) and seru m lactate concentrations as high as
32 mmol/L (49). ese data indicate a relevant contribution of
anaerobic , metabolism dur ing racing , which amounts to appro-
ximately 12-33%, based on the inversed data on aerobic contri-
bution mentioned before. However, the magnitude of post-ra ce
peak lactate concentration is a poor measure of non-ox idative
contribution (38), because it is the resu lt of lactate appea rance
and removal (for review see (15)). To estimate non-oxidative
capacity, the maximal accumulated oxygen decit (MAOD)
(41) is currently the method of choice and also post exercise
lactate kinetics may provide a good and minimally invasive
measure of anaerobic contribution to rowing (37). A traditi-
onal method that for the determination of anaerobic lactic
power that has recently been increasingly discussed again is
the maximum lactate accumulation rate (V˙Lamax) (22).
Figure 1
Relative energy expenditure during simulated rowing. Data were obtained in
highly trained GDR-rowers during 7-min all-out tests. Tests were terminated
after 20, 90, 240, 370, and 420 seconds, where rowers were blinded to the
timepoints of termination. Each time point represents the cumulated con-
tribution of each pathway to the respective time point. Adapted from (59).
Figure 2
Tidal volume (VT) as a function of minute ventilation (VE) during rowing at
different work rates. The breaths of four rowing strokes at each work load
are displayed as symbols coded for breath duration, where + represents
>2.0 s, ☐ represents 1.5-2.0 s, X represents 1.0-1.5 s, and ◊ represents
<1.0 s. Data obtained in four national team rowers. Figure from (71),
printed with permission.

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206 GERMAN JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE 72 4/2021
Olympic Rowing over 2000 Meters
However, its inter pretation is based on several theoretical as-
sumptions and the only data provided for elite rowers is an
average recommendation of less than 0.6 mmol•s-1•kg-1 (21),
but we are not aware of data reporting longitudinal changes.
At least partly related to the diculties in its assessment –
the actual adaptability of anaerobic performance in elite en-
durance rowers and especially its interaction with changes
in aerobic performance appears currently unclear and often
remains anecdotal.
Anthropometrics
In elite rowers, the aforementioned characteristics are asso-
ciated with a relatively large physique; in fact, some of these
characteristics are directly mediated by body size and high
muscle mass (e.g., cardiac output or V˙O
2
max). Furthermore,
from a biomechanical perspective, long leverage is necessary
to facilitate high stroke forces and an extended rowing drive
phase (5, 65). Hence, elite male and female senior open class
rowers exhibit a high body mass of ~94.3 kg and ~76.7 kg and a
standing height of ~193.3 cm and ~180.8 cm, respectively (29).
Consequently, body mass, standing height and lea n body mass
are accepted determinants of rowing performance (25, 45). A
recent analysis revealed that anthropometric characteristics
at junior age already aect long-term career attainment even
within elite U19 National Team rowers (84).
Performance Testing
Measures of rowing performa nce have been reviewed previous-
ly (69). ey can be assessed on-water, which is specic, or on
rowing ergometers, which is semi-specic. On-water perfor-
mance measurements include GPS data and mechanical sen-
sors that a llow to measure force s at the oar, the oarlock (i.e., t he
axis around which the oar rotates), and/or the foot stretcher.
Changes in on-water performance may be due to changes in
technical eciency of the rower, uncontrol lable environmental
factors, and/or due to changes in physiological performance.
at is why on-water testing is often used for the technical
training of rowers, but physical performance is generally mo-
nitored on rowing ergometers, during controlled laboratory
conditions.
An accepted ergometer test, probably applied by all elite
rowing programs in the world, is the 2000 m test, where the
rower aims to cover the virtual distance of 2 km as fast as pos-
sible. Race times are approximately ≤ 5:50 min and ≤ 6:50 in
male and fem ale elite athletes, respectively. e reliabilit y of the
test is good (ty pical error 1.3% [95%CI 0.9, 2.9] and especially in
small boats on elite le vel, the result is clea rly associated w ith on
water per formanc e outcome (47). However, this test is extremely
exhaustive and does not allow for dierentiated diagnosis of
changes, for example, in basic endurance.
erefore, several world rowing programs (personal obser-
vation: G. T.) employ dierent protocols of incremental step
tests on the rowing ergometer, which were developed in the
80’s of the last century. Step tests enable the creation of a lac-
tate power curve for the calculation of established variables
such as power at 2 or 4 mmol/L blood lactate concentration
or individual threshold concepts (25, 46, 79) which have been
identied a s determinant s of 2000 m ergometer per formance (4,
25). Also, t he maximum power output during a 7 x 2-min incre-
mental step test has re cently been shown to be closely related to
2000 m ergometer performance (r = 0.99) and V˙O2 (r = 0.96) (27).
Furthermore, incremental step tests enable the scientic sta
to dene individual intensity zones for endurance training. It
is worth mentioning that data obtained on rowing ergometers
allow for a sucient transfer to on-water rowing (80), however
they need individual validation.
Incremental step tests can be modied and combined with
metabolic analyzers to assess maximum oxygen consumption
on rowing ergometers in step- or ramp-wise protocols (26),
however several characteristics of the wind-braked rowing
ergometers make these tests more dicult compared to cycle
ergometer tests and require advanced technology, at least if
elite populations are targeted (76).
It is worth ment ioning, that t he reliability and validity of the
frequently used rowing ergometers w as not validated i n similar
quality as is the case wit h e.g., cycle ergometer s. at is surpris-
ing, b ecause the few stud ies published sugge st a limited validity
(7, 35) and furthermore a high stroke-by-stroke variability in
ergometer test ing has been obser ved (77). is gap i n knowledge
may be due to the la ck of appropriate testi ng devices, but since
these have been recently developed (43), it is likely that the in-
ternational rowing community will soon receive such results.
Training
Training of competitive rowers general ly includes rowing (ergo-
meter and boat), non-specic endurance training like cycling
or cross-country skiing, resistance training, and additional
training like stretching or yoga . e volume of training increa-
sed over the decades to 1128 (1104–1200) h/year in Norwegian
rowers (16) and we can assume that most elite rowers train
around 25 h/week (16, 44). ere are two reasons or “justica-
tions” for these h igh volumes: First, the development of row ing
technique and crew ecienc y requires suc ient time. Secondly,
the attempt to optimize aerobic endurance performance th-
rough volume-based training; i.e., adaption of the cardio-re-
spiratory system and in particular of the skeletal muscle via
mitochondrial biogenesis (24). Indeed, there is clear evidence
that endur ance performanc e increases wit h training volume in
rowers (16), runners (14), and that very high volumes at low in-
tensity c an prepare for world records in high intensity exercise
Mechanical power output, heart rate, blood lactate, oxygen uptake,
respiratory ratio, and calculated energy expenditure at first and second
lactate threshold in 11 elite rowers during rowing ergometer testing. LT1
and LT2: Lactate threshold 1 and 2 according to (12); [Lac]: blood lactate
concentration; VO2: oxygen consumption; VO2max: percent of maximum
oxygen consumption; RER: respiratory exchange ratio; AEE: activity related
energy expenditure; CHO and LIP: percentage of carbohydrates and fat,
respectively, contributing to AEE. Data from (83).
VARIABLE LT1 LT2
Mechanical power output (W) 262±24 356±30
Heart rate (min-1)139±10 166±7
Maximum Heart Rate (%) 71±4 85±3
[Lac] (mmol·L-1)0.8±0.3 2.4±0.3
VO2 (L·min-1)4.2±0.5 5.5±0.4
VO2max (%) 65±7 84±6
RER ( ) 0.88±0.04 0.95±0.04
AEE (kJ·min-1)89.6±10.0 118.0±9.2
CHO (%) 61.1±1.2 84.3±1.1
LIP (%) 38.9±1.2 15.7±1.1
Table 1

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207GERMAN JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE 72 4/2021
Olympisches Rudern – das Maximum über 2000 Meter
like 4000 m track cycling (63). On the other hand, considering
the relatively short race duration a nd high intensit y of a rowing
race, such h igh train ing volume may appea r surprisin g, especi-
ally i n the light of resea rch indicating t hat low volume high-in-
tensity t raining ca n induce simila r performance improvements
and metabolic changes in the skeletal muscle as high-volume
low intensity training (19), albeit the ndings on high intensi-
ty training and mitochondrial biogenesis are controversial, as
extensively reviewed Bishop et al. (2).
However, according to the literature and personal observa-
tions in several high-performance rowing programs, it seems
to be consensus that successful elite rowing training necessi-
tates a “certain” volume of ~ 20-25 h/week (even though low-
er numbers of 12-15 h/wk are reported, too (55)), a dominant
proportion of low intensity training, and always a smaller per-
centage of “higher” intensities. e latter is clearly supported
by the literature, indicating that high intensity training in
elite athletes is ex tremely eective, if added on an a lready hig h
training volume (34). It is therefore not surprising that the
training intensity distribution (i.e. the distribution of dierent
training intensities over a given period of time) has received
increased attention in recent years. Figure 3 illustrates that
leading world rowing programs apply a pyramidal intensity
distribution (i.e., the proportion of a particular training in-
tensity zone in the total training decreases with increasing
intensity (78)). To the best of our knowledge, there are no data
available indicat ing that a polarized intensity dist ribution (i.e.,
highest percentages spent in both low-intensity, followed by
considerable amounts of high intensities, exercise but only a
small proportion of tra ining at mid intensities (78)) is superior
to a pyramidal on the long term in elite rowing. In particular,
we have not seen any data suggesting that successful rowers
avoid mid or lactate threshold intensities, which is more or
less a characteristic of polarized distributions. However, po-
larized trai ning may be superior i n individual athletes (79) and
is probably applied by most coaches during certain phases of
a competitive season. It is beyond the scope of this review to
present the current literature on training volume, intensity
distribution, and periodization, but even this brief outline in-
dicates that most elite rowers train “a lot” and that individual
variability within the detailed programs is high.
Rowing training is physically demanding (72), due to the
volume, the muscular eort, but also due to the enormous met-
abolic expense. is is underlined by our own data in Table 1,
indicating that already at a low to moderate intensity around
lactate threshold 1, male elite rowers spend a considerable
amount of energy. Extrapolated to a hard training week in-
cluding 16-h of rowing, this w ill result in a metabolic expense
of 85,584 kJ/week. If accounting for resting metabolic rate and
8 h of additional training like cycling etc., energy expenditure
approximates 110,688 kJ/week (83).
is energy expenditure implicates that rowers depend on
sucient nutr ition to avoid relative energ y deciency in sports
(31). Furthermore, the metabolic strain also poi nts to an upper
limit of t raining volume, which has principally been ca lculated
already in 1977 by A lois Mader (39). Beyond such ceiling, reg res-
sion may occur, as underpinned by current data for excessive
high-intensity training (17). It is worth noting that the only de-
scription to date of an exercise-associated hy ponatremia that
occur red during a training camp w ith multiple, but not in itsel f
long trai ning sessions, wa s also published in the eld of rowin g
where hyponatremia was related to training stress (40).
Heat Stress
e Olympic Games in Tokyo 2021 will be held in hot and
humid conditions with expected Wet Bulb Globe Tempe-
ratures (WBGT) peaking at 28.6 ± 2.8° C (18). Such con-
ditions are not fully compensable even by pre-acclimati-
zed athletes – although pre-acclimatization is highly
Figure 3
Training intensity distribution in elite rowing according to published studies. France (FRA), New Zealand (NZL), NOR (Norway), CRO (Croatia), DK (Denmark),
BEL (Belgium), INT (Various countries); Numbers in brackets represent sample size of the respective publication; zones represent training intensities below
first lactate or ventilatory threshold (zone 1), between first and second lactate or ventilatory threshold (zone 2), and above second lactate or ventilatory
threshold (zone 3) (66, 78); if no separate data were provided for zones 2 and 3, these are presented together.

REVIEW
208 GERMAN JOURNAL OF SPORTS MEDICINE 72 4/2021
Olympic Rowing over 2000 Meters
recommended – b ecause in hot and hu mid conditions, met abo-
lic heat production in endura nce events is likely to exceed heat
dissipation.
e Olympic row ing regatta itself will be held in the morn-
ing hours with expected W BGT ranging 25 < 28° C. Neverthe-
less, coaches and rowers fear these conditions, and for good
reasons, because the unavoidable heat stress reduces both
maximum and sub-maximumperformance (53). e good
news is: based on established heat stress models (57) – which
are of course limited for such special populations as high-
ly trained athletes – the core of an acclimatized rower will
probably not reach a critical temperatu re of 39 ≤ 40° C during
a 6-min race, as long as the rower is not “overheated” already
at the start. Hence, it is recommended that rowers reduce pre-
race heat exposition and apply pre- and per-cooling routines
(reviewed by (3)). Notably, we recommend such routines also
for daily training in such conditions, because core tempera-
ture is a function of environment, metabolic heat (and thus
intensity), duration, and heat dissipation.
If dissipation is very low due to hot and humid conditions,
a critica l increase in core temperature is likely also at moder-
ate intensities, if training duration is long and environmental
factors are unfavorable. However, we are not aware of specif-
ic medical or scientic reports on heat illness and -stroke in
rowing.
Areas of Future Research
Within this brief review some areas for future research were
already mentioned: Met abolic expense a nd consequences for a
factu al limitat ion of training volume, the assessment of ana ero-
bic power and capacity and their potential for adaption in eli-
te rowers, its interaction with aerobic training, and practical
consequences. We are also awa iting research on qu ality criteria
for rowing ergometers validity, which is crucial for anaerobic
power assessment.
ere are some – perhaps eterna l – questions of rowing that
are still not clearly answered, such as the proportions of spe-
cic vs. non-specic endurance training, the optimal dosage
and timing of strength vs. endurance training in a concurrent
sport, or the perfect t raining intensity di stribution for Olympic
rowing. Modern technologies of training data acquisition can
help us to answer more questions here in the future. In the eld
of biomechanics, modern motion capt ure systems increasing ly
allow mea surement of a rower’s movement in the boat and w ill
enable resea rchers to link these data to the e stablished mecha-
nical sensors attached to the boat.
From a physiological perspective, aspects of brain blood
ow remain unresolved (as recently highlighted by (81)), pro-
bably mainly because it currently cannot be measured during
high-intensity rowing due to technical limitations. ere are
also n iche topics left such as the impact of the hi gh hemoglobin
mass of elite rowers on the buering capacity of the blood. A
whole eld of new questions will arise if „coastal rowing“ be-
comes an Oly mpic discipline and if the race d istance should be
cut to 1500 m at the Olympic Ga mes in Los Angeles i n 2028. e
latter, however, would end the uniqueness of this sport in the
form described here.
Conict of Interest
e authors have no conict of interest.
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