Vowel Length Expands Perceptual and Emotional Evaluations in Written Japanese Sound-Symbolic Words

Abstract

In this study, we examined whether vowel length affected the perceptual and emotional evaluations of Japanese sound-symbolic words. The perceptual and emotional features of Japanese sound-symbolic words, which included short and long vowels, were evaluated by 209 native Japanese speakers. The results showed that subjective evaluations of familiarity, visual imageability, auditory imageability, tactile imageability, emotional valence, arousal, and length were significantly higher for sound-symbolic words with long vowels compared to those with short vowels. Additionally, a subjective evaluation of speed was significantly higher for written Japanese sound-symbolic words with short vowels than for those with long vowels. The current findings suggest that vowel length in written Japanese sound-symbolic words increases the perceptually and emotionally subjective evaluations of Japanese sound-symbolic words.

Full text

behavioral
sciences
Article
Vowel Length Expands Perceptual and Emotional Evaluations
in Written Japanese Sound-Symbolic Words
Zihan Lin †, Nan Wang †, Yan Yan and Toshimune Kambara *


Citation: Lin, Z.; Wang, N.; Yan, Y.;
Kambara, T. Vowel Length Expands
Perceptual and Emotional
Evaluations in Written Japanese
Sound-Symbolic Words. Behav. Sci.
2021,11, 90. https://doi.org/
10.3390/bs11060090
Received: 28 April 2021
Accepted: 16 June 2021
Published: 21 June 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima 7398524, Japan;
zihanlin51@gmail.com (Z.L.); 1151608137wn@gmail.com (N.W.); yanyan201904@gmail.com (Y.Y.)
*Correspondence: tkambara@hiroshima-u.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-82-424-6280
† These authors equally contributed to this study.
Abstract:
In this study, we examined whether vowel length affected the perceptual and emotional
evaluations of Japanese sound-symbolic words. The perceptual and emotional features of Japanese
sound-symbolic words, which included short and long vowels, were evaluated by 209 native Japanese
speakers. The results showed that subjective evaluations of familiarity, visual imageability, auditory
imageability, tactile imageability, emotional valence, arousal, and length were significantly higher
for sound-symbolic words with long vowels compared to those with short vowels. Additionally,
a subjective evaluation of speed was significantly higher for written Japanese sound-symbolic words
with short vowels than for those with long vowels. The current findings suggest that vowel length
in written Japanese sound-symbolic words increases the perceptually and emotionally subjective
evaluations of Japanese sound-symbolic words.
Keywords:
Japanese; sound symbolism; vowel length; semantic differential scale; written sound-
symbolic words; perceptual and emotional evaluations
1. Introduction
In sound symbolism, linguistic features non-arbitrarily associate with perceptual or
emotional features [
1
–
5
]. For example, a pseudoword including a vowel “a” is associated
with a bigger figure than a pseudoword including a vowel “i” [5]. Previous studies of the
bouba-kiki effect showed that some pseudowords (e.g., bouba) were linked with round fig-
ures, whereas other pseudowords (e.g., kiki) were linked with spiky figures [
6
,
7
]. One study
reported that auditory features of spoken pseudowords cross-modal associated with visual
features of figures [
8
]. Linguistic features (specific consonants and vowels) can increase
the expected gustatory features [
9
]. Emotional features are also connected to linguistic
information [
10
]. In addition to sound-symbolic associations between pseudowords (new
words) and referents, real words can be sound symbolically associated with perceptual or
abstract features [
11
,
12
]. Previous findings suggested that the oral shapes to pronounce
linguistic features were associated with perceptual and emotional features [
5
,
13
], whereas
written linguistic features (alphabetic letters and other characters) were also associated
with them [
14
–
16
]. Namba and Kambara (2020) reported that the oral shapes to produce
Japanese vowels were connected to specific perceptual and emotional evaluations (e.g.,
some oral shapes were perceived as bigger, wider, and higher than oral shapes used to
produce other vowels) [
13
]. In addition, Cuskley et al. (2017) showed that pseudowords
with round letters (e.g., gege) were associated with round figures, while those with spiky
letters (e.g., zeze) were associated with spiky figures [
15
]. Based on these previous findings,
combinations of spoken and written linguistic features could affect perceptual and emo-
tional sensitivity. Participants learned the sound-symbolic relationships between linguistic
features and perceptual features in a first or second language ([
17
–
20
]; see for review [
21
]),
and also learned non-sound-symbolic (arbitrary) relationships between linguistic features
and perceptual features in a first or second language [
22
–
26
]. For example, event-related
Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11060090 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 2 of 11
brain negativity occurred around 400 ms when infants detected mismatched pairs of linguis-
tic features and figures, compared to matched pairs of linguistic features and figures [
17
].
Sound-symbolic relationships could occur from already acquired associations between
linguistic and referential features in native languages [
27
]. Other studies also reported
that linguistic information was specifically associated with perceptually and emotionally
subjective evaluations by using semantic differential scales [
14
,
28
–
30
]. For example, partic-
ipants differentially evaluated familiarity, visual imageability, auditory imageability, tactile
imageability, emotional valence (preference), and arousal (excitement) of sound-symbolic
words including voiced consonants and sound-symbolic words including semi-voiced or
unvoiced consonants [
28
]. These findings of sound symbolism suggested that linguistic
information (written and spoken information) was non-arbitrarily associated with specific
perceptual and emotional features.
Previous studies have examined specific associations between perceptual and emo-
tional features of words or pseudowords that included a specific vowel [
14
,
31
–
33
]. The vow-
els of the low second formant (F2) are a,u, and o, whereas vowels of the high F2 are i
and e[
31
,
33
,
34
]. Vowels with low F2 are back vowels, whereas vowels with high F2 are
front vowels [
31
]. The front vowels are associated with smaller features than the back
vowels [
3
,
5
,
35
,
36
]. Such associations between acoustic frequency and referential size are
called frequency codes [
33
]. Klink (2000) reported that products associated with names
which included front vowels were evaluated as lighter (relative to both darker and heavier),
smaller, more feminine, colder, faster, softer, thinner, friendlier, weaker, prettier, more
bitter, and milder than products associated with names which included back vowels [
36
].
Psycholinguistic research showed that a long distance between objects promoted speech
production of uand æ, whereas a short distance between objects promoted speech produc-
tion of i[
37
]. As another perspective of sound symbolism of vowels (vowel symbolism [
32
]),
Hamano theoretically showed that vowel length was associated with temporal and spatial
length of actions (i.e., speed and length [
32
]). Based on the vowel length, we can categorize
sound-symbolic words, including long vowel(s) and sound-symbolic words, including
short vowel(s). Vowel length in speech can be detected by infants [
38
,
39
], although the
learning of vowel length consists of many factors that affect vowel length (e.g., vowel
height [
40
]). In addition, another study suggested that 8- to 10-month-old infants preferred
bi-syllabic heavy to light words which included stimuli with long vowels [
41
]. Although
few psycholinguistic studies have examined the effects of vowel length in Japanese sound-
symbolic words, a German psycholinguistic study conducted by Bross [
42
] reported that
German pseudowords which included a long vowel (e.g., mutoh) were associated with long
or large objects, while German pseudowords, which included short vowels (e.g., mutto),
were associated with short or small objects. The author also showed that the associative
relations between vowel length and object length were strong connections, whereas the
associative relations between vowel length and object size were weak connections [
42
].
Although previous theoretical and experimental studies have shown that vowel length
was associated with time (i.e., speed) and distance (i.e., length [
32
]) or size [
42
], vowel
length would be also associated with other perceptual features (e.g., visual imageability,
auditory imageability, and tactile imageability) and emotional features (e.g., familiarity,
emotional valence, and arousal) based on previous psycholinguistic findings of vowel
symbolism [14,36].
The aim of the current study is to investigate the effects of vowel length in writ-
ten Japanese sound-symbolic words. In this survey, participants evaluated each written
Japanese sound-symbolic word using eight semantic differential scales (familiarity,
visual
imageability, auditory imageability, tactile imageability, emotional valence, arousal, length,
and speed) on a 5-point semantic differential scale from 1 to 5 (e.g., familiarity: 1: unfa-
miliar; 5: familiar). We selected six semantic differential scales from a behavioral study
that examined written Japanese sound-symbolic words [
28
]. We also selected two semantic
differential scales (length and speed) based on a theoretical study of Japanese sound symbol-
ism [
32
] and an experiment that clarified the relationship between vowel length and object

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 3 of 11
length [
42
]. The current study extended the previous studies by using selected semantic
differential scales. A previous study successfully compared 10 sound-symbolic words
which included two voiced consonants (e.g.,
ダラダラ
in Japanese, daradara) with 10 sound-
symbolic words which included two unvoiced consonants (e.g.,
タラタラ
in Japanese,
taratara) in order to identify sound-symbolic effects of voiced consonants [
28
]. Therefore,
we compared 10 sound-symbolic words with two long vowels (e.g.,
ブーブー
in Japanese,
buubuu) with those with two short vowels (e.g.,
ブブ
in Japanese, bubu) in order to identify
sound-symbolic effects of vowel length using the successful methods of the previous study.
The stimuli were written Japanese sound-symbolic words. Psycholinguistic studies have
focused not only on the sound-symbolic phenomenon in European languages [
3
,
5
] but
also on non-European languages, including the Japanese language [
14
,
28
]. The Japanese
language also includes numerous sound-symbolic words [
32
]. For instance, some dic-
tionaries only list Japanese sound-symbolic words [
43
]. In this study, the sample was
native speakers of Japanese to assess Japanese native speakers’ evaluations of Japanese
sound-symbolic words. Since previous studies on sound symbolism have focused on
young samples’ evaluations of vowels and sound-symbolic words [
14
,
28
], we collected
data from a wider range of samples from a crowdsourcing company and Google Forms
rather than samples of previous research in order to control for age effects on sound-
symbolic judgments. In addition, we pseudorandomized the presentation order of items
between participants to control the presentation order effects of stimuli [
44
]. We predicted
that written Japanese sound-symbolic words with long vowels would be perceived as
spatially longer and temporally slower than those with short vowels. This prediction was
consistent with previous theoretical and experimental findings [
32
,
42
]. A theoretical study
showed that Japanese sound-symbolic words with short vowels showed events which
were completed instantaneously (temporally speedy) and in a short distance (spatially
short), whereas Japanese sound-symbolic words with long vowels showed events that
took a long time (temporally slow) and space (spatially long) [
32
]. An experiment also
reported that vowel length was spatially associated with object length [
42
]. In addition,
we also predicted that the vowel length in written Japanese sound-symbolic words affects
familiarity, multisensory imageabilities, emotional valence, and arousal. A previous study
showed that each written Japanese vowel (a,i,u,e, and o) could be individually associated
with specific multisensory features including physical aspects and emotional features
including familiarity, emotional valence, and arousal [
14
]. Although the previous findings
did not directly examine effects of vowel length to familiarity, multisensory imageabilities,
emotional valence, and arousal, the previous results suggest that a written Japanese vowel
itself could be differentially connected to familiarity, multisensory imageabilities, emotional
valence, and arousal [14].
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
A total of 209 Japanese native speakers (115 females; M
age
= 39.42; SD
age
= 9.25;
age range = 20–70 years) participated in this survey research. These participants were
recruited from a crowd-sourcing company (Crowdworks, Inc., Tokyo, Japan). Each partic-
ipant received 220 Japanese yen (JPY) as a monetary reward for their participation after
completion of the survey. After each participant read and consented to the written expla-
nation of the study, they answered the questionnaire. This research was approved by the
ethical committee of the Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences at Hiroshima
University (approval code: 2020001).
2.2. Materials
This study consisted of 20 Japanese sound-symbolic words (Appendix A). The sound-
symbolic words were selected from a Japanese sound-symbolic dictionary [
43
], whereas two
written Japanese sound-symbolic words (hyohyo and nyanya) checked by a native speaker
of Japanese (the last author) were added. Based on a previous study that examined sound-

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 4 of 11
symbolic effects of consonants by comparing 10 pairs of sound-symbolic words which
included two voiced consonants (e.g.,
ダラダラ
in Japanese, daradara) with sound-symbolic
words which included two unvoiced consonants (e.g.,
タラタラ
in Japanese, taratara) [
28
],
we collected 10 pairs of sound-symbolic words which included two long vowels (e.g.,
ブー
ブー
in Japanese, buubuu) and sound-symbolic words which included two short vowels
(e.g.,
ブブ
in Japanese, bubu). These written sound-symbolic words were shown in Japanese
katakana moraic script, which is one of the traditional scripts of Japanese, alongside the
morphographic kanji and moraic hiragana scripts [
45
,
46
]. The Roman script was also
used in certain circumstances [
45
,
46
]. Katakana moraic script was used for loanwords
(foreign words) and native words, which included sound-symbolic words, whereas kanji
and hiragana scripts were used mainly for native words. A katakana symbol generally
represented a pair of a consonant or a palatalized consonant and vowel or a vowel itself
(e.g., a pair of a consonant and vowel:
ブ
in Japanese, bu; a vowel itself:
ア
in Japanese,
a). Palatalization was represented in the orthography by attaching small ya (
ヤ
), yu (
ユ
),
and yo (
ヨ
) to the preceding katakana or hiragana symbol (e.g.,
チュ
in Japanese, chu [
46
]).
Each long vowel of a pair of a consonant and vowel or a vowel itself was shown as
ー
(dash, ch
¯
oonpu in Japanese; [
46
]) attached to a katakana or hiragana symbol in the Japanese
writing system (e.g., ブーin Japanese, buu; [46]).
2.3. Procedures
We used Google Forms to conduct the survey. Before the survey, all participants read
an explanation about the task. Participants were asked “Please evaluate presented ono-
matopoeic words by using eight evaluative items of five levels from one to five. The eight
evaluative items of each onomatopoeic word consist of familiarity (1, unfamiliar; 5, fa-
miliar), visual imageability (1: not visually imageable, 5: visually imageable), auditory
imageability (1: not auditorily imageable, 5: auditorily imageable), tactile imageability
(1: not tactilely imageable, 5: tactilely imageable), emotional valence (1: dislike; 5: like),
arousal (1: calm; 5: excited), length (1: short; 5: long), and speed (1: slow; 5: fast). Please
choose the most appropriate number from 1 to 5 for each evaluative item.” The scales of the
evaluative items were semantic differential scales [
30
]. These semantic differential scales
were also based on theoretical linguistic and psycholinguistic research [
13
,
14
,
28
,
32
,
47
].
To control the order of the presentation of the stimuli, the order of the evaluative items
was pseudorandomized between participants by preparing two lists of items to evaluate.
We previously wrote a necessity to control the presentation order of written stimuli in
surveys as a future direction of a previous article [14].
We used linear mixed-effects models to include participants and paired items as
random effects, vowel length (0: SV; 1: LV) as fixed effects, and subjective evaluations
of 5-point semantic differential scales (familiarity, visual imageability, auditory image-
ability, tactile imageability, emotional valence, arousal, length, and speed) as dependent
variables [
24
,
28
,
48
]. Based on the linear mixed-effects models, we clarified the differences
between the perceptual and emotional evaluations of LV and SV.
3. Results
Descriptive statistics were analyzed with the means and standard deviations. Cron-
bach’s alphas were calculated to assess reliabilities of semantic differential scales and
a linear mixed-effects model analysis was conducted to examine the differences between
subjective evaluations of LV and SV. First, we calculated means and standard deviations
by using R [
49
] and a psych package [
50
] to assess the means and standard deviations
of all words, LV, SV, and each written Japanese sound-symbolic word. We also checked
whether the calculated means and standard deviations of R were consistent using Microsoft
Excel and the statistical software SPSS. The means and standard deviations of subjective
evaluations of all written Japanese sound-symbolic words, LV, and SV are shown in
Table 1
,
whereas the means and standard deviations of each written Japanese sound-symbolic word
are shown in Table S1.

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 5 of 11
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics for written Japanese sound-symbolic words including long vowels (LV)
and short vowels (SV).
Subjective Evaluations ALL LV SV
M SD M SD M SD
Familiarity 2.97 1.29 3.18 1.28 2.76 1.26
Visual imageability 2.85 1.40 3.20 1.40 2.49 1.31
Auditory imageability 3.14 1.39 3.52 1.33 2.77 1.35
Tactile imageability 2.44 1.32 2.69 1.36 2.19 1.22
Emotional valence 2.90 1.04 2.95 1.03 2.86 1.04
Arousal 2.65 1.06 2.71 1.10 2.59 1.00
Length 2.72 1.30 3.69 0.91 1.75 0.80
Speed 2.95 1.07 2.71 1.00 3.19 1.08
M: mean; SD: standard deviation; ALL: all written Japanese sound-symbolic words used in this study; LV:
written Japanese sound-symbolic words including long vowels; SV: written Japanese sound-symbolic words
including short vowels. These means and standard deviations were calculated in R [
49
] and psych [
50
]. In the
survey study, participants evaluated each written Japanese sound-symbolic word by using 5-point semantic
differential scales [
29
,
30
] associated with familiarity (1: unfamiliar; 5: familiar), visual imageability (1: not visually
imageable; 5: visually imageable), auditory imageability (1: not auditorily imageable; 5: auditorily imageable),
tactile imageability (1: not tactilely imageable; 5: tactilely imageable), emotional valence (1: dislike; 5: like),
arousal (1: calm; 5: excited), length (1: short; 5: long), and speed (1: slow; 5: fast).
Second, we calculated Cronbach’s alphas to examine the reliability of each subjective
evaluation. Regarding written Japanese sound-symbolic words with long vowels, the Cron-
bach’s alphas (raw alphas in the psych package on R) for familiarity, visual imageabilities,
auditory imageability, tactile imageability, emotional valence (affection), arousal (excite-
ment), length, and speed were 0.73, 0.74, 0.78, 0.79, 0.72, 0.68, 0.89, and 0.75, respectively.
Regarding written Japanese sound-symbolic words with short vowels, the Cronbach’s
alphas (raw alphas in the psych package on R) for familiarity, visual imageability, audi-
tory imageability, tactile imageability, emotional valence (affection), arousal (excitement),
length, and speed were 0.77, 0.74, 0.79, 0.79, 0.72, 0.67, 0.83, and 0.87, respectively. Cron-
bach’s alphas were also assessed using SPSS statistical software. The Cronbach’s alphas
for the semantic differential scales associated with evaluations excluding arousal were
greater than 0.70. The semantic differential scales of arousal (0.68 in LV and 0.67 in SV,
respectively) were at least higher than 0.65. In general, a Cronbach’s alpha of more than
0.70 is acceptable [
51
]. The Cronbach’s alphas of arousal in this study were categorized
as arbitrary labels such as reasonable, adequate, moderate, and satisfactory as used in
previous studies [
52
]. Published research shows that a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.6 or 0.7 is
acceptable [
53
]. Thus, these findings suggested that the semantic differential scales would
be approximately reliable, although the Cronbach’s alphas of arousal were not higher than
0.7 (0.68 in LV and 0.67 in SV).
Third, we conducted a linear mixed-effects model analysis to examine the differences
between subjective evaluations of written Japanese sound-symbolic words, with long and
short vowels. In the linear mixed-effects model, random effects were participants and
paired items (paired words), and fixed effects (independent variables) were vowel length (0:
SV; 1: LV). In addition, dependent variables were all the evaluations of the 5-point semantic
differential scales such as familiarity, visual imageability, auditory imageability, tactile
imageability, emotional valence, arousal, length, and speed. For the mixed-effects modeling,
we used R [
49
], lme4 [
54
,
55
], and lmerTest packages [
56
]. Each syntax of the mixed-effects
models was lmer (each subjective evaluation ~ vowel length + (1 | participant) + (1 |
paired items), data = data, control = lmerControl (optimizer = “bobyqa,” optCtrl = list
(maxfun = 100,000))) based on previous psycholinguistic research [
24
,
28
,
48
]. The results
showed that familiarity, visual imageability, auditory imageability, tactile imageability,
emotional valence, arousal, and length were higher for LV than SV, while speed was only
higher for SV than LV (see Table 2).

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 6 of 11
Table 2.
Results of mixed-effects models for paired list of written Japanese sound-symbolic words including long vowels
(LV) and short vowels (SV).
F VI AI TI EV A L S
Random Effects Variance (SD)
Participants
(intercept)
0.24 (0.49) 0.25 (0.50) 0.32 (0.57) 0.34 (0.58) 0.17 (0.41) 0.12 (0.35)
0.08 (0.28) 0.13 (0.36)
Paired items
(intercept)
0.42 (0.65) 0.45 (0.67) 0.39 (0.62) 0.32 (0.57) 0.25 (0.50) 0.27 (0.52)
0.02 (0.14) 0.04 (0.21)
Residual
1.00 (1.00) 1.17 (1.08) 1.13 (1.06) 1.04 (1.02) 0.69 (0.83) 0.75 (0.86)
0.64 (0.80) 0.91 (0.95)
Fixed effects Estimate (SE)
Intercept 2.76 (0.21)
***
2.49 (0.22)
***
2.77 (0.20)
***
2.19 (0.18)
***
2.86 (0.16)
***
2.59 (0.17)
***
1.75 (0.05)
***
3.19 (0.07)
***
Vowel length 0.43 (0.03)
***
0.71 (0.03)
***
0.75 (0.03)
***
0.51 (0.03)
***
0.10 (0.03)
***
0.13 (0.03)
***
1.95 (0.02)
***
−0.49 (0.03)
***
F: familiarity; VI: visual imageability; AI: auditory imageability; TI: tactile imageability; EV: emotional valence; A: arousal; L: length; S:
speed; SD: standard deviation; SE: standard error; ***: p< 0.001. The mixed-effects models were conducted in R [
49
], R packages included
lme4 [
54
,
55
] and lmerTest [
56
]. Dependent variables are subjective evaluations, whereas participants and paired words are random effects.
In addition, vowel length (0: SV; 1: LV) is a fixed effect. In the survey study, participants evaluated each written Japanese sound-symbolic
word by using 5-point semantic differential scales [
29
,
30
] associated with familiarity (1: unfamiliar; 5: familiar), visual imageability (1: not
visually imageable; 5: visually imageable), auditory imageability (1: not auditorily imageable; 5: auditorily imageable), tactile imageability
(1: not tactilely imageable; 5: tactilely imageable), emotional valence (1: dislike; 5: like), arousal (1: calm; 5: excited), length (1: short; 5:
long), and speed (1: slow; 5: fast).
4. Discussion
In this survey research, we investigated whether vowel length (long or short vowels) af-
fected perceptual and emotional subjective evaluations of written Japanese sound-symbolic
words. Two findings emerged from this survey: First, written Japanese sound-symbolic
words with long vowels were perceived as more familiar, visually imageable, auditorily
imageable, tactilely imageable, preferable, excited, and longer than those with short vowels.
Second, written Japanese sound-symbolic words with short vowels were perceived as faster
than those with long vowels. The current findings suggest that vowel length in written
Japanese sound-symbolic words increases the perceptually and emotionally subjective
evaluations of Japanese sound-symbolic words.
4.1. Effects of Vowel Length in Written Words
The current study showed that written Japanese sound-symbolic words with long
vowels were perceived as more familiar, visually imageable, auditorily imageable, tactilely
imageable, preferable, excited, and longer than those with short vowels. Our findings were
congruent with previous findings. Hamano [
32
] theoretically showed that sound-symbolic
words with a long vowel referred to spatially and temporally longer actions than those
with a short vowel. In addition, Bross [
42
] showed that names with a long vowel were
associated with longer and bigger objects than names with a short vowel. The current and
previous findings suggest that the vowel length of sound-symbolic words in a language
increases the temporal and spatial length of referents (actions and objects).
Alternatively, the results of the current research also showed that the vowel length of
sound-symbolic words increased multisensory imageabilities, emotional valence, and arousal.
Words which included long vowel(s) increased the perceptual and emotional referents of
words which included sound-symbolic words. In fact, Pathak et al. reported that words
which included long vowels were more associated with sweet food than words which
included short vowels [
57
]. Another study showed that words which included long vowels
negatively correlated with sharpness [
58
], although this finding does not suggest that
words which included long vowels increased the perceptual and emotional referents of
words. Taken together, words including long vowels could affect multisensory referents
of words.

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 7 of 11
The perceptual and emotional sensitivity can also be orthographically affected by
written sound-symbolic words. A previous study reported that initial consonants of written
sound-symbolic words affected multisensory imageabilities, emotional valence, and arousal
(e.g., garigari vs. karikari [
28
]). Cuskley and colleagues reported that written pseudowords
with written round letters were associated with round figures, while pseudowords with
spikey letters were associated with spiky figures [
15
]. Another study showed that written
angular letters in spiky shapes as frames facilitated response times in a lexical decision
task [
16
]. These previous findings suggest that visual properties of linguistic features (e.g.,
visual characteristics of letters and font styles) could be congruent with the visual properties
of figures as referents (spiky or round figures [
15
]) or background (e.g., frames [
16
]). In this
study, we used written Japanese sound-symbolic words which included long vowels (e.g.,
フーフー
,fuufuu) and short vowels (e.g.,
フフ
,fufu). The long vowels are represented as
a dash (
ー
:ch
¯
oonpu in Japanese [
46
]). The written form of the dash (
ー
:ch
¯
oonpu) could
affect the perceptually and emotionally subjective evaluations of written Japanese sound-
symbolic words. Ando et al. (2021) reported that native speakers of Japanese evaluated
that the written Japanese vowel i(
イ
) was thinner than other written Japanese vowels such
as a(
ア
), u(
ウ
), e(
エ
), and o(
オ
[
14
]). In the previous case, the visual feature of the written
Japanese vowel i(
イ
) might be perceived as thinner than the others. Similar to previous
findings, in this study, participants might have perceived written Japanese sound-symbolic
words, which included two long vowels shown with 2 dashes (e.g.,
ブーブー
in Japanese,
buubuu) as more familiar, visually imageable, auditorily imageable, tactilely imageable,
preferable, excited, longer, and slower than written Japanese sound-symbolic words which
included short vowels shown with no dash (e.g.,
ブブ
in Japanese, bubu). As another
perspective of the differences between written Japanese sound-symbolic words, including
long and short vowels, character spacing might affect the evaluations. Previous research
has shown that text spacing was essential for increasing reading performance, readability,
and preference, as well as decreasing fatigue in reading [
59
,
60
]. In this study, since the two
dashes (
ー
:ch
¯
oonpu) in written Japanese sound-symbolic words made text spacing larger
between characters, participants could easily perceive written Japanese sound-symbolic
words which included two long vowels, which might increase the perceptual and emotional
evaluations.
4.2. Future Directions
Future studies should develop these findings in terms of research methods. First,
spoken sound-symbolic words were used as stimuli for the survey. If researchers use
spoken sound-symbolic words as stimuli, they may need to control the auditory features
of the stimuli (e.g., sound volume, sound pressure, and speakers). Second, researchers
may directly use perceptual references including pictures (e.g., line drawings), sounds,
objects [
61
], foods, or drinks [
62
] as the referents of sound-symbolic words in rating or
matching tasks. The advantage of using perceptual referents is that participants can directly
evaluate non-arbitrary relationships between written, spoken, or other forms of real words,
including sound-symbolic words or pseudowords and perceptual or emotional referents.
Alternatively, researchers may also use wh-questions or naming tasks as the tasks for the
production of words or pseudowords [
63
–
67
]. Third, researchers can also examine how
participants associate sound-symbolic words with referents by using associative learning
methods. Researchers have investigated arbitrarily associative learning of meaningless
or unfamiliar words in a native or second language with its referential features (mean-
ings) [
23
,
24
,
68
–
70
], while other researchers have also examined non-arbitrarily associative
learning of words and referents [
17
–
21
]. Finally, although we compared written Japanese
sound-symbolic words including long vowels with those including short vowels, the sub-
jective evaluations of the written Japanese sound-symbolic words might be affected by
not only the vowel length, but also the meanings (referents) of the presented Japanese
sound-symbolic words. In fact, the presented pairs of the written Japanese sound-symbolic
words in this study include differential meanings (referents) associated with subjective eval-

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 8 of 11
uations measured in this study (see Appendix A), since we could not find pairs of written
Japanese sound-symbolic words associated with the same meanings (referents). In sound
symbolism, researchers have hypothesized that vowels and consonants in words directly
affect referential features of sound-symbolic words in languages [
3
,
5
,
28
,
32
]. However,
if researchers can find pairs of sound-symbolic words associated with the same or more
similar meanings (referents), researchers may rigorously clarify effects of vowel length in
sound-symbolic words by using the controlled stimuli and methods used in this study.
5. Conclusions
In this survey, in which Japanese native speakers subjectively evaluated each writ-
ten Japanese sound-symbolic word, we examined the effects of vowel length in written
Japanese sound-symbolic words by using eight semantic differential scales associated
with familiarity, visual imageability, auditory imageability, tactile imageability, emotional
valence, arousal, length, and speed. Two findings emerged from this survey. First, written
Japanese sound-symbolic words with long vowels were perceived as more familiar, visu-
ally imageable, auditorily imageable, tactilely imageable, preferable, excited, and longer
than those with short vowels. Second, written Japanese sound-symbolic words with short
vowels were perceived as faster than those with long vowels. Taken together, these find-
ings suggest that vowel length in written Japanese sound-symbolic words increases the
perceptually and emotionally subjective evaluations of Japanese sound-symbolic words.
Supplementary Materials:
The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10
.3390/bs11060090/s1, Table S1: Descriptive statistics for written Japanese sound-symbolic words
including long vowels (LV) and short vowels (SV).
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, T.K.; methodology, Z.L., N.W., Y.Y., and T.K.; software,
Z.L., N.W., and T.K.; validation, Z.L., N.W., and T.K.; formal analyses, Z.L., N.W., and T.K.; investiga-
tion, Z.L. and N.W.; resources, T.K.; data curation, Z.L. and N.W.; writing—original draft preparation,
Z.L., N.W., and T.K.; writing—review and editing, Z.L., N.W., and T.K.; visualization, Z.L., N.W., and
T.K.; supervision, T.K.; project administration, T.K.; funding acquisition, T.K. The first author (Z.L.)
and the second author (N.W.) contributed equally to this study. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
The corresponding author (T.K.) was supported by the Hiroshima University Grant-in-
Aid for Scientific Research, KAKENHI Grant-in-Aid for Research Activity Start-up, KAKENHI
Grant-in-Aid for Early-Career Scientists, and KAKENHI Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C). In
addition, this research was conducted as part of the School of Education Joint Research Project 2020
at Hiroshima University, and received research support from the School of Education.
Institutional Review Board Statement:
This study was approved by the ethical committee of the
Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences at Hiroshima University (approval code: 2020001).
This study was conducted in accordance with the code of ethics set by the Declaration of Helsinki
and all its amendments.
Informed Consent Statement:
After each participant read and consented to the written explanation
of the study, they answered the questionnaire.
Data Availability Statement: The data are available on request to the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments:
We would like to thank the editors and reviewers for their supportive handling
and reviews for improving this article. We also thank Yutao Yang, Misa Ando, Ukwueze Jonah
Obinna, and other students and faculty members of the Department of Psychology at Hiroshima
University for their kind support in facilitating this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 9 of 11
Appendix A
Table A1. Stimuli of Written Japanese Sound-Symbolic Words including Long Vowels (LV) and Short Vowels (SV).
LV SV
Japanese Characters,
Alphabetic Letters
(Pronunciation)
English Meanings
Japanese Characters,
Alphabetic Letters
(Pronunciation)
English Meanings
フーフー, fuufuu breathing on something フフ, fufu giggling at something or
somebody
ジージー, jiijii buzz of a cicada; buzz of bell;
sound of burning something ジジ, jiji buzz of an insect, squeak, or
sound of burning something
ヒーヒー, hiihii
crying voice or behavior to
hardship; bird song; throat
sound in difficulty breathing;
beeping
ヒヒ, hihi sound of fast movement of
arrow or wind; beeping
シーシー, shiishii
peeing; sound of peeing;
getting out crumbs between
teeth by using a toothpick
シシ, shishi sobbing
チューチュー, chuuchuu squeak; chirp; sucking
something チュチュ, chuchu chirp; sucking something;
muah
ブーブー, buubuu sound of pig or car; state of
dissatisfaction ブブ, bubu buzz of a bee
ヒョーヒョー, hyoohyoo sound of a trumpet or flute ヒョヒョ, hyohyo sound or behavior of fast and
light movement
ニャーニャー, nyaanyaa meow ニャニャ, nyanya meow; acting like a cat
ジャージャー, jaajaa flow of a large amount of
something ジャジャ, jaja flow of a large amount of
something
コーコー, kookoo
barking of a fox; crowing of a
rooster; a faint sound heard
from a distance
ココ, koko screech of a monkey
LV: written Japanese sound-symbolic words including long vowels; SV: written Japanese sound-symbolic words including short vowels.
The Japanese character was a katakana character that are one type of Japanese character [
45
,
46
]. English meanings do not reflect the degree
of each evaluation (familiarity, visual imageability, auditory imageability, tactile imageability, emotional valence, arousal, length, and
speed). We translated written Japanese sound-symbolic words in a dictionary of sound-symbolic words [
43
] to English meanings, whereas
we originally added two Japanese sound-symbolic words including hyohyo and nyanya and translated them to English after checking
meanings with a native speaker of Japanese (the last author).
References
1.
Dingemanse, M.; Blasi, D.E.; Lupyan, G.; Christiansen, M.H.; Monaghan, P. Arbitrariness, iconicity, and systematicity in language.
Trends Cogn. Sci. 2015,19, 603–615. [CrossRef]
2. Kawahara, S. Sound symbolism and theoretical phonology. Lang. Linguist. Compass 2020,14, 12372. [CrossRef]
3. Newman, S.S. Further experiments in phonetic symbolism. Am. J. Psychol. 1933,45, 53. [CrossRef]
4.
Perniss, P.; Thompson, R.L.; Vigliocco, G. Iconicity as a general property of language: Evidence from spoken and signed languages.
Front. Psychol. 2010,1, 227. [CrossRef]
5. Sapir, E. A study in phonetic symbolism. J. Exp. Psychol. 1929,12, 225–239. [CrossRef]
6. Köhler, W. Gestalt Psychology; Liveright: New York, NY, USA, 1947.
7.
Ramachandran, V.S.; Hubbard, E.M. Synaesthesia: A window into perception, thought, and language. J. Conscious. Stud.
2001
,8,
3–34. Available online: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/imp/jcs/2001/00000008/00000012/1244 (accessed on 17
June 2021).
8.
Lacey, S.; Jamal, Y.; List, S.M.; McCormick, K.; Sathian, K.; Nygaard, L.C. Stimulus parameters underlying sound-symbolic
mapping of auditory pseudowords to visual shapes. Cogn. Sci. 2020,44, e12883. [CrossRef]
9.
Motoki, K.; Saito, T.; Park, J.; Velasco, C.; Spence, C.; Sugiura, M. Tasting names: Systematic investigations of taste-speech sounds
associations. Food Qual. Prefer. 2020,80, 103801. [CrossRef]
10.
Aryani, A.; Isbilen, E.S.; Christiansen, M.H. Affective arousal links sound to meaning. Psychol. Sci.
2020
,31, 978–986. [CrossRef]
11. Sidhu, D.M.; Pexman, P.M. The sound symbolism of names. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2019,28, 398–402. [CrossRef]

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 10 of 11
12.
Sidhu, D.M.; Westbury, C.; Hollis, G.; Pexman, P.M. Sound symbolism shapes the English language: The maluma/takete effect in
English nouns. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 2021, 1–9. [CrossRef]
13.
Namba, S.; Kambara, T. Semantics based on the physical characteristics of facial expressions used to produce Japanese vowels.
Behav. Sci. 2020,10, 157. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14.
Ando, M.; Liu, X.; Yan, Y.; Yang, Y.; Namba, S.; Abe, K.; Kambara, T. Sound-symbolic semantics of written Japanese vowels in a
paper-based survey study. Front. Commun. 2021,6, 617532. [CrossRef]
15.
Cuskley, C.; Simner, J.; Kirby, S. Phonological and orthographic influences in the bouba-kiki effect. Psychol. Res.
2015
,81, 119–130.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
16.
De Carolis, L.; Marsico, E.; Arnaud, V.; Coupé, C. Assessing sound symbolism: Investigating phonetic forms, visual shapes and
letter fonts in an implicit bouba-kiki experimental paradigm. PLoS ONE 2018,13, e0208874. [CrossRef]
17.
Asano, M.; Imai, M.; Kita, S.; Kitajo, K.; Okada, H.; Thierry, G. Sound symbolism scaffolds language development in preverbal
infants. Cortex 2015,63, 196–205. [CrossRef]
18.
Imai, M.; Kita, S.; Nagumo, M.; Okada, H. Sound symbolism facilitates early verb learning. Cognition
2008
,109, 54–65. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
19.
Kantartzis, K.; Imai, M.; Kita, S. Japanese sound-symbolism facilitates word learning in English-speaking children. Cogn. Sci.
2011,35, 575–586. [CrossRef]
20.
Yang, J.; Asano, M.; Kanazawa, S.; Yamaguchi, M.K.; Imai, M. Sound symbolism processing is lateralized to the right temporal
region in the prelinguistic infant brain. Sci. Rep. 2019,9, 1–10. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21.
Imai, M.; Kita, S. The sound symbolism bootstrapping hypothesis for language acquisition and language evolution. Philos. Trans.
R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2014,369, 20130298. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22.
Havas, V.; Taylor, J.S.H.; Vaquero, L.; De Diego-Balaguer, R.; Rodríguez-Fornells, A.; Davis, M.H. Semantic and phonological
schema influence spoken word learning and overnight consolidation. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 2018,71, 1469–1481. [CrossRef]
23.
Kambara, T.; Tsukiura, T.; Shigemune, Y.; Kanno, A.; Nouchi, R.; Yomogida, Y.; Kawashima, R. Learning-dependent changes
of associations between unfamiliar words and perceptual features: A 15-day longitudinal study. Lang. Sci.
2013
,35, 80–86.
[CrossRef]
24.
Liu, X.; Horinouchi, H.; Yang, Y.; Yan, Y.; Ando, M.; Obinna, U.J.; Namba, S.; Kambara, T. Pictorial referents facilitate recognition
and retrieval speeds of associations between novel words in a second language (L2) and referents. Front. Commun.
2021
,6, 605009.
[CrossRef]
25.
Takashima, A.; Bakker, I.; van Hell, J.G.; Janzen, G.; McQueen, J. Richness of information about novel words influences how
episodic and semantic memory networks interact during lexicalization. NeuroImage 2014,84, 265–278. [CrossRef]
26.
Takashima, A.; Bakker, I.; van Hell, J.G.; Janzen, G.; McQueen, J.M. Interaction between episodic and semantic memory networks
in the acquisition and consolidation of novel spoken words. Brain Lang. 2017,167, 44–60. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27.
Saji, N.; Akita, K.; Kantartzis, K.; Kita, S.; Imai, M. Cross-linguistically shared and language-specific sound symbolism in novel
words elicited by locomotion videos in Japanese and English. PLoS ONE 2019,14, e0218707. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28.
Kambara, T.; Umemura, T. The relationships between initial consonants in Japanese sound symbolic words and familiarity,
multi-sensory imageability, emotional valence, and arousal. J. Psycholinguist. Res. 2021, 1–12. [CrossRef]
29. Osgood, C.E.; Suci, G.J. Factor analysis of meaning. J. Exp. Psychol. 1955,50, 325–338. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Osgood, C.E.; Suci, G.; Tannenbaum, P. The Measurement of Meaning; University of Illinois Press: Urbana, IL, USA, 1957.
31. Berlin, B. The first congress of ethnozoological nomenclature. J. R. Anthr. Inst. 2006,12, S23–S44. [CrossRef]
32.
Hamano, S. The Sound-Symbolic System of Japanese; Studies in Japanese Linguistics (Series); CSLI Publications: Stanford, CA, USA,
1998.
33.
Ohala, J.J. The frequency code underlies the sound symbolic use of voice pitch. In Sound Symbolism; Hinton, L., Nichols, J.,
Ohala, J.J., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1994; pp. 325–347.
34.
Nishi, K.; Strange, W.; Akahane-Yamada, R.; Kubo, R.; Trent-Brown, S.A. Acoustic and perceptual similarity of Japanese and
American English vowels. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2008,124, 576–588. [CrossRef]
35.
Shinohara, K.; Kawahara, S. A cross-linguistic study of sound symbolism: The images of size. In Proceedings of the 36th Annual
Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society; Linguistic Society of America: New York, NY, USA, 2010; pp. 396–410. [CrossRef]
36. Klink, R.R. Creating brand names with meaning: The use of sound symbolism. Mark. Lett. 2000,11, 5–20. [CrossRef]
37. Vainio, L. Magnitude sound symbolism influences vowel production. J. Mem. Lang. 2021,118, 104213. [CrossRef]
38.
Mugitani, R.; Pons, F.; Fais, L.; Dietrich, C.; Werker, J.F.; Amano, S. Perception of vowel length by Japanese- and English-learning
infants. Dev. Psychol. 2009,45, 236–247. [CrossRef]
39.
Sato, Y.; Sogabe, Y.; Mazuka, R. Discrimination of phonemic vowel length by Japanese infants. Dev. Psychol.
2010
,46, 106–119.
[CrossRef]
40.
Bion, R.A.H.; Miyazawa, K.; Kikuchi, H.; Mazuka, R. Learning phonemic vowel length from naturalistic recordings of Japanese
infant-directed speech. PLoS ONE 2013,8, e51594. [CrossRef]
41.
Hayashi, A.; Mazuka, R. Emergence of Japanese infants’ prosodic preferences in infant-directed vocabulary. Dev. Psychol.
2017
,
53, 28–37. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
42.
Bross, F. Cognitive associations between vowel length and object size: A new feature contributing to a bouba/kiki effect. In
Proceedings of the Conference on Phonetics & Phonology; Humboldt-Universität: Berlin, Germany, 2018; pp. 17–20.

Behav. Sci. 2021,11, 90 11 of 11
43. Ono, M. (Ed.) Nihongo Onomatope Jiten [Japanese Onomatopoeia Dictionary]; Shogakukan: Tokyo, Japan, 2007.
44.
Francis, A.L.; Ciocca, V. Stimulus presentation order and the perception of lexical tones in Cantonese. J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
2003
,
114, 1611–1621. [CrossRef]
45.
Goetry, V.; Urbain, S.; Morais, J.; Kolinsky, R. Paths to phonemic awareness in Japanese: Evidence from a training study. Appl.
Psycholinguist. 2005,26, 285–309. [CrossRef]
46. Yamaguchi, T. Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction; Continuum: New York, NY, USA, 2007.
47.
Kambara, T.; Umemura, T.; Ackert, M.; Yang, Y. The relationship between psycholinguistic features of religious words and core
dimensions of religiosity: A survey study with Japanese participants. Religions 2020,11, 673. [CrossRef]
48.
Baayen, R.; Davidson, D.; Bates, D. Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. J. Mem. Lang.
2008,59, 390–412. [CrossRef]
49.
R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria,
2013; Available online: https://www.r-project.org (accessed on 4 March 2020).
50.
Revelle, W. psych: Procedures for Personality and Psychological Research; Northwestern University: Evanston, IL, USA, 2013; Available
online: http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=psychVersion=1.3.2. (accessed on 14 June 2021).
51.
Cortina, J.M. What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications. J. Appl. Psychol.
1993
,78, 98–104. [CrossRef]
52.
Taber, K.S. The use of Cronbach’s alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. Res. Sci. Educ.
2018,48, 1273–1296. [CrossRef]
53.
Van Griethuijsen, R.A.L.F.; Van Eijck, M.W.; Haste, H.; Brok, P.J.D.; Skinner, N.C.; Mansour, N.; Gencer, A.S.; Boujaoude, S. Global
patterns in students’ views of science and interest in science. Res. Sci. Educ. 2015,45, 581–603. [CrossRef]
54. Bates, D.M. Fitting Linear Mixed Models in R. R News 2005,5, 27–30. Available online: https://cran.opencpu.org/doc/Rnews/
Rnews_2005-1.pdf#page=27 (accessed on 14 June 2021).
55.
Bates, D.; Maechler, M.; Bolker, B.; Walker, S. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J. Stat. Softw.
2015
,67, 1–48.
[CrossRef]
56.
Kuznetsova, A.; Brockhoff, P.B.; Christensen, R.H.B. lmerTest package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. J. Stat. Softw.
2017
,82,
1–26. [CrossRef]
57.
Pathak, A.; Calvert, G.A.; Motoki, K. Long vowel sounds induce expectations of sweet tastes. Food Qual. Preference
2020
,86,
104033. [CrossRef]
58.
Fujisawa, N.; Iwamiya, S.-I.; Takada, M. Auditory imagery associated with Japanese onomatopoeic representation. J. Physiol.
Anthr. Appl. Hum. Sci. 2004,23, 351–355. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
59.
Ling, J.; van Schaik, P. The influence of line spacing and text alignment on visual search of web pages. Displays
2007
,28, 60–67.
[CrossRef]
60.
Wang, L.; Sato, H.; Rau, P.-L.P.; Fujimura, K.; Gao, Q.; Asano, Y. Chinese text spacing on mobile phones for senior citizens. Educ.
Gerontol. 2008,35, 77–90. [CrossRef]
61.
Sakamoto, M.; Watanabe, J. Bouba/kiki in touch: Associations between tactile perceptual qualities and Japanese phonemes. Front.
Psychol. 2018,9, 295. [CrossRef]
62.
Sakamoto, M.; Watanabe, J. Cross-modal associations between sounds and drink tastes/textures: A study with spontaneous
production of sound-symbolic words. Chem. Senses 2015,41, 197–203. [CrossRef]
63.
Ikegaya, N.; Motoi, H.; Iijima, K.; Takayama, Y.; Kambara, T.; Sugiura, A.; Silverstein, B.H.; Iwasaki, M.; Asano, E. Spatiotemporal
dynamics of auditory and picture naming-related high-gamma modulations: A study of Japanese-speaking patients. Clin.
Neurophysiol. 2019,130, 1446–1454. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64.
Iwaki, H.; Sonoda, M.; Osawa, S.-I.; Silverstein, B.H.; Mitsuhashi, T.; Ukishiro, K.; Takayama, Y.; Kambara, T.; Kakinuma, K.;
Suzuki, K.; et al. Your verbal questions beginning with ’what’ will rapidly deactivate the left prefrontal cortex of listeners. Sci.
Rep. 2021,11, 1–14. [CrossRef]
65.
Kambara, T.; Brown, E.C.; Silverstein, B.H.; Nakai, Y.; Asano, E. Neural dynamics of verbal working memory in auditory
description naming. Sci. Rep. 2018,8, 15868. [CrossRef]
66.
Kambara, T.; Sood, S.; Alqatan, Z.; Klingert, C.; Ratnam, D.; Hayakawa, A.; Nakai, Y.; Luat, A.F.; Agarwal, R.; Rothermel, R.; et al.
Presurgical language mapping using event-related high-gamma activity: The Detroit procedure. Clin. Neurophysiol.
2018
,129,
145–154. [CrossRef]
67.
Nakai, Y.; Jeong, J.-W.; Brown, E.; Rothermel, R.; Kojima, K.; Kambara, T.; Shah, A.; Mittal, S.; Sood, S.; Asano, E. Three- and
four-dimensional mapping of speech and language in patients with epilepsy. Brain 2017,140, 1351–1370. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68.
Horinouchi, H.; Liu, X.; Kabir, R.S.; Kobayashi, R.; Haramaki, Y.; Kambara, T. Associative pairs of a new word form and single
referent are learned better than associative pairs of a new word form and multiple referents in a single-day learning context. J.
Psycholinguist. Res. 2021. in preparation for resubmission.
69.
Yan, Y.; Yang, Y.; Ando, M.; Liu, X.; Kambara, T. Associative learning of new word forms in a first language and gustatory stimuli:
A behavioral experiment. Front. Commun. 2021. under review.
70.
Yang, Y.; Yan, Y.; Ando, M.; Liu, X.; Kambara, T. Associative learning of new word forms in a first language (L1) and haptic
referents in a single-day experiment. Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2021. accepted.