Avocado oil: Production and market demand, bioactive components, implications in health, and tendencies and potential uses

Abstract

Avocado is a subtropical/tropical fruit with creamy texture, peculiar flavor, and high nutritional value. Due to its high oil content, a significant quantity of avocado fruit is used for the production of oil using different methods. Avocado oil is rich in lipid‐soluble bioactive compounds, but their content depends on different factors. Several phytochemicals in the oil have been linked to prevention of cancer, age‐related macular degeneration, and cardiovascular diseases and therefore have generated an increase in consumer demand for avocado oil. The aim of this review is to critically and systematically analyze the worldwide production and commercialization of avocado oil, its extraction methods, changes in its fat‐soluble phytochemical content, health benefits, and new trends and applications. There is a lack of information on the production and commercialization of the different types of avocado oil, but there are abundant data on extraction methods using solvents, centrifugation‐assisted aqueous extraction, mechanical extraction by cold pressing (varying concentration and type of enzymes, temperature and time of reaction, and dilution ratio), ultrasound‐assisted extraction, and supercritical fluid to enhance the yield and quality of oil. Extensive information is available on the content of fatty acids, although it is limited on carotenoids and chlorophylls. The effect of avocado oil on cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases has been demonstrated through in vitro and animal studies, but not in humans. Avocado oil continues to be of interest to the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries and is also generating increased attention in other areas including structured lipids, nanotechnology, and environmental care.

Full text

Received: 5February 2021 Revised: 6May 2021 Accepted: 17 May 2021
DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12784
COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY
Avocado oil: Production and market demand, bioactive
components, implications in health, and tendencies and
potential uses
Braulio Cervantes-Paz1,2Elhadi M. Yahia1
1Facultad de Ciencias Naturales,
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Juriquilla, México
2Instituto de Investigación de Zonas
Desérticas, Universidad Autónoma de San
Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, México
Correspondence
Elhadi M. Yahia,Facultad de Ciencias Nat-
urales, Universidad Autónoma de Queré-
taro Av. de las Ciencias S/N, Juriquilla,
Querétaro, Qro.,76230, México.
Email: yahia@uaq.mx
Funding information
CONACyT, Grant/Award Numbers:
I1200/169/2019, MOD.ORD./38/2019,
CB2017-2018, GENERAL, A1-S-28359
Abstract
Avocado is a subtropical/tropical fruit with creamy texture, peculiar flavor, and
high nutritional value. Due to its high oil content, a significant quantity of avo-
cado fruit is used for the production of oil using different methods. Avocado oil
is rich in lipid-soluble bioactive compounds, but their content depends on differ-
ent factors. Several phytochemicals in the oil have been linked to prevention of
cancer, age-related macular degeneration, and cardiovascular diseases and there-
fore have generated an increase in consumer demand for avocado oil. The aim
of this review is to critically and systematically analyze the worldwide produc-
tion and commercialization of avocado oil, its extraction methods, changes in its
fat-soluble phytochemical content, health benefits, and new trends and applica-
tions. There is a lack of information on the production and commercialization
of the different types of avocado oil, but there are abundant data on extraction
methods using solvents, centrifugation-assisted aqueous extraction, mechanical
extraction by cold pressing (varying concentration and type of enzymes, tempera-
ture and time of reaction, and dilution ratio), ultrasound-assisted extraction, and
supercritical fluid to enhance the yield and quality of oil. Extensive information
is available on the content of fatty acids, although it is limited on carotenoids
and chlorophylls. The effect of avocado oil on cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascu-
lar diseases has been demonstrated through in vitro and animal studies, but not
in humans. Avocado oil continues to be of interest to the food, pharmaceutical,
and cosmetic industries and is also generating increased attention in other areas
including structured lipids, nanotechnology, and environmental care.
KEYWORDS
bioactive compounds, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, fatty acids, Perseaamericana, processing
1INTRODUCTION
Concerns for a better health in recent years have triggered a
particular interest in diverse dietary components, with spe-
cial attention to fat, which has been correlated to diverse
diseases such as obesity, type 2diabetes, and cardiovascu-
lar diseases (CVD) (Cascio et al., 2012). Nevertheless, it has
been observed that the Mediterranean diet, using olive oil
as the principal fat source (Bach-Faig et al., 2011), is associ-
ated with good health, attributing such benefits to the high
levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) present in
this oil (Hoenselaar, 2012).
4120 ©2021InstituteofFoodTechnologistsR
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AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4121
Similar to olive oil, avocado oil contains high MUFA
levels (Berasategi et al., 2012;Krist,2020; Villa-Rodríguez
et al., 2011), particularly oleic acid (Nogueira-de-Almeida
et al., 2018). In addition, other physicochemical charac-
teristics such as acids, iodine and peroxide values, and
unsaponifiable matter are also similar in avocado and
olive oils (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., 2018). The other
vegetable oils (except coconut) show higher iodine and
saponification values, but lower acids values than avo-
cado and olive oils (Table 1). The similarity between
both oils includes the lipid-soluble bioactive compounds
(LSBC) content, such as total chlorophylls. However, total
phenolic compounds and total tocopherols appear to be
superior in olive oil than in avocado oil, whereas total
carotenoids content is higher in avocado oil than in olive
oil. Canola, sunflower, peanut, and soybean oils have rela-
tively zero LSBC amounts (Table 1). The content of nutri-
ents (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., 2018), fatty acids, and
phytochemicals varies depending on the variety, harvest
season, and ripening stage of the fruit (Ashton et al., 2006;
Lu et al., 2005,2009). Thus, it is assumed that similar
to olive oil, avocado oil may contribute to risk reduction
of chronic degenerative diseases (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al.,
2014a,2014b;Dreher&Davenport,2013; Krist, 2020).
Avocado oil is mainly obtained by mechanical (cold
pressing) and chemical (use of organic solvents) methods
from the flesh of avocado fruit, although occasionally it
is also extracted from the skin and the seed. Fruit culti-
var, maturity stage, extraction method (Costagli & Betti,
2015; Wong et al., 2011), fruit tissue type, and different
extraction conditions such as pH, temperature, or added
enzymes (Werman & Neeman, 1987) are factors determin-
ing the avocado oil yield and quality (Permal et al., 2020;
Woolf et al., 2009;Yangetal.,2020). The commonly pro-
duced oil has the quality grade for culinary uses, but it is
usually further refined for the cosmetic industry (Costagli
& Betti, 2015;Tan,2019).
Avocado is mostly consumed fresh, but the recent
demand for avocado oil has increased considerably due to
its potential use in the culinary and cosmetic industries,
and its beneficial effects on human health (Krist, 2020).
Although avocado oil extraction methods and its content
of lipids and nutritional components have been well doc-
umented (Flores et al., 2019; Nogueira-de-Almeida et al.,
2018;Rydlewskietal.,2020), there has not been a sys-
tematic review that discusses the content of other LSBC,
especially carotenoids and chlorophylls, as well as their
changes caused by extraction methods and conditions,
type of avocado, harvest time, and ripening stage. Informa-
tion on the implications of these LSBC in human health, as
well as innovations in the use of avocado oil, is also limited.
Therefore, the aim objective of this review was to present
an overview of the current status of avocado oil, discussing
the extraction methods used, the effect caused by diverse
factors on the composition of fatty acids and LSBC, their
implications in human health, and recent innovations and
future trends of avocado oil.
2PRODUCTION AND MARKET
DEMAND OF AVOCADO OIL
The high nutritional value, creamy texture, and peculiar
flavor are features making the avocado (Persea americana)
a unique fruit, generating an attraction by consumers and
an increase of world demand (Dreher & Davenport, 2013;
Yah i a , 2012). Although avocado is mostly consumed fresh,
it is characterized by high oil content, and therefore, a sig-
nificant quantity of fruit is increasingly used for oil produc-
tion (Costagli & Betti, 2015;Wangetal.,2020). However,
the world production of avocado oil is not enough to sup-
ply the food sector, but it is opening a window to explore
the market (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., 2018).
Avocado fruit production worldwide reached 7.31 mil-
lion tons in 2019, Mexico being the main producer (31.5%),
followed by the Dominican Republic (9.1%), Peru and
Colombia (7.3% each), Indonesia (6.3%), Kenya (5%), and
Brazil (3.3%) (FAO, 2021).
Unfortunately, there are no accurate statistics on the
total production of avocado oil, but in 2006 the Inter-
national Trade Center (ITC) reported that annual world
avocado oil trade in 2005 grew on average by 13% in volume
and 8% in value, with import figures of 371,000 tons, China
(with export value of 14 million dollars) and India (with
export value of 9million dollars) being the main suppliers
to the international markets, whereas the United States,
Malaysia, and Germany were the main consumers (24%,
8%, and 7%, respectively) (FAO, 2017). In 2008–2009, it
was reported that an average of 3% of the total avocado
crop was destined for avocado oil production in New
Zealand (Wong et al., 2010). In the same season, New
Zealand exported about 217.3tons of avocado oil, of which
150,000 L were extra-virgin oil (Wong et al., 2014), whereas
Chile and México exported 54.2and 23.7tons, respectively
(SAGARPA, 2015). It has been reported that the largest
avocado oil market region in 2016 was the American con-
tinent with 600,000 tons (68.8%), followed by Asia with
432,000 tons (22.6%) and Europe with 193,000 tons (8.6%)
(Avocado Oil Market: Global Industry Analysis 2012–2016
and Opportunity Assessment 2017–2027 [https://www.
marketresearchreports.biz/food-and-beverages/13944/
avocado-oil-global-industry-analysis-market-research-
reports;https://www.statista.com/statistics/931200/
global-avocado-oil-market-share-by-region/]). Informa-
tion and data on the global avocado oil market, including
production, imports and exports, consumption, costs, and

4122 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
TABLE 1Physicochemical characteristics and phytochemical content of avocado oil and other vegetable oils
Avocado Olive Soybean Sunflower Canola Peanut Coconut
IV (g iodine/g fat) 75–83e,88–91
f,82–95
h,
83–95i,78
j,62–72
k,
83.1s,75–94
t,80
u,80–88m,80
o120–136 m,132
o,
119p
102u,79–128
d,
125–144 m
110–126c,111
u,82–106
a,
84–105 m
6.3–10.6w,7–10m
AV (mg KO H / g oil) 0.14–2.8h,0.4–1.5
j,0.4–2.2
k,0.2–0.4n0.6p1.4q0.6–4.0w
SV (mg KOH/g oil) 178–186e,168–263
h,
120–232k,
185–196 m188–195 m188–194 m185–196 m248–265w,
250–262 m
PV (meq O2/kg oil) 3.3–7.4f,0.18–0.23g,
3.7–12.7h,4.8–12.2
j,
1.2–2.6k,0.8–15
r
6.4u,0.98–2.5
v,3.4–4.5
n,
1.3–4.3o
0.96–1.8b,2.3–6.9
o4.2u2.4q8.4u,10
a
FFA (%) 0.29–0.38e,1.8–2g,0.3–1.1
r0.82u,0.1–0.3
v0.05–0.7b,0.3–1
c0.81u,0.4–1.2
c,0.72
q1.4u,0.05
a
UM (%) 1.4–1.6e1.2u,<1.4m0.3–1.6b,0.5–1.6
c,
0.5–1.5m
0.8u,0.4–1.4m0.5–1.2c,0.54
q0.9u,0.4
a,0.5–1m<1.5w,0.15–0.6m
TAG (% ) 95–99b,93–99
c94–99cp
PPL (g/kg) 1.7u,0.39
r0.04–0.14n0.003–2.5b,<4.0c0.72–0.86d<2.5c2.5–9a
Phytochemicals
Avocado Olive Soybean Sunflower Canola Peanut Coconut
Fatty acids (%)
SFA 36e,22–24
f,15–22
h,15–31
i,
25–27j,22–41
k,12–18
l,
11–27 m,10–16
r
18.7u,16–18
v,9–20m,12–16
n16b,15
c9.6u,12.6
b7b,6.5
c,6.3
p19.8u,1–13
a,20
b92w
MUFA 47e,64–67
f,62–67
h,49–69
i,
60–62j,37–61
k,69–78
l,
56–76 m,63–86
r
73u,63–75
v,64–86m,72–81
n23b,24
c70u,18.7
b65b,62
c,62.4
p55u,41–67
a,48
b6.4w
PUFA 17e,11–12
f,15–18
h,14–20
i,
12j,14–21
k,10–18
l,8–20
r
9.5u,6–14
v,5–11
n61b,c 21.6u,68.7
b28b,31.5
c,31.3
p23.7u,14–35
a,32
b1.6w
TC (mg/kg) 72–105f,0.9–3.5
r6.2u,1.1–3.4g,1.8–25
n,<10p3.1u,0.01–0.02
d2.2q1.8u
TCh (mg/kg) 1–1.4f,8–28g,11–19
r0.4–31n0.05–0.1c,0.09
q
TT (mg/kg) 40.5–60.5f,70–190
r6–14v,38–650
n0.11–0.21b,
0.7–1.2c,1.2
d
0.6–0.7d1.7–2.2c,3.3
q5.4w
TPC (mg/kg) 109–774f55–180v,1083–1610
n756q
Abbreviations: AV, acid value; FFA, free fatty acid; IV, iodine value; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acid; PPL, phospholipids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; PV, peroxide value; SFA, saturated fatty acid; SV, saponifi-
cation value; TAG, triacylglycerides; TC, total carotenoids; TCh, total chlorophylls; TPC, total phenolic compounds; TT, total tocopherols; UM, unsaponifiable matter.
Sources: aSanders (2002); bWang ( 2002); cPrzybylski and Mag (2002); dGupta (2011); eTan et al . (2018a); fKrumreich et al. (2018); gWo ng et a l. ( 2011); hMoreno et al. (2003); iYan t y et al . (2011); jSantana et al. (2015); kGalvão
et al. (2014); lWerman and Neeman (1987); mThomas et al. (2000); nGarcía-González and Aparicio (2006); oNaz et al. (2004); pEskin (2016); qTe h an d Bir ch (2013); rWo olf et al . (2009); sAzlan et al. (2010); tBoskou (2006);
uKonuskan et al. (2019); vXiang et al. (2017); wPantzaris and Basiron (2002).

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4123
prices, are still very limited; however, it is important to
highlight the growing demand in recent years. In addition,
it is crucial to consider the different avocado oil types, with
different quality characteristics, and therefore variable
prices.
Extra-virgin avocado oil is a viscous edible oil of appeal-
ing dark green color (due to chlorophylls and carotenoids
contents) and mild taste, extracted from the avocado fruit,
mostly by cold pressing, without undergoing alterations in
its nature by the addition of chemicals or subsequent pro-
cessing (Permal et al., 2020;Wangetal.,2020). This oil is
distinguished as a high-quality oil (Flores et al., 2019)with
appreciable flavor, color, and texture, as unlike other edi-
ble oils obtained from seeds, avocado oil is isolated from
mesocarp tissue surrounding the seeds (Wong et al., 2010;
Woolf et al., 2009;Tan,2019). Crude avocado oil presents
similar characteristic of viscosity to extra-virgin avocado
oil (Botha, 2004); however, its appearance is unpleasant
because it is extracted from poor-quality avocado fruit
(including the pulp with seeds and skin), where the high
pigment levels cause a yellowish green color (Flores et al.,
2019). Refined avocado oil is light in color, odorless, free of
waxes, and low in free fatty acids, obtained mainly from
crude oil, but also from extra-virgin oil, which are sub-
mitted to processes of degumming, bleaching, deodorizing,
winterizing, and neutralization (Flores et al., 2019; Msika
&Legrand,2010; Ruíz-Méndez & Dobarganes, 2011;Woolf
et al., 2009).
Avocado oil yield (crude, extra-virgin, and refined)
depends on the extraction methods and other factors (vari-
ety, ripening stage, and quality of fruit), resulting in dif-
ferences in the content of health-promoting LSBC (Flores
et al., 2019;Krist,2020;Tan,2019;Wangetal.,2020). An
update of recent data on avocado oil extraction methods,
phytochemicals content, potential applications, and their
health effects is compiled and discussed in the following
sections.
3EXTRACTION METHODS
Avocado has a single seed (drupe) and consists of pericarp
(skin), mesocarp (pulp), and endocarp (seed) (Nogueira-
de-Almeida et al., 2018). In avocado, the mesocarp of the
flesh is composed of parenchyma and idioblasts cells (Tan,
2019). The parenchyma tissue contains oil bodies as a finely
dispersed emulsion surrounded by a thin cellulose wall
(Yang et al., 2018), whereas idioblasts are specialized cells
containing large oil sacs covered by a thick cellular wall
composed by three walls: (a) cellulosic wall, (2) suberin
layer, and (3) tertiary wall (Figure 1a) (Cummings &
Schroeder, 1942; Platt & Thomson, 1992). Major oil content
is obtained from ripe avocado fruit due to increased activity
of polygalacturonase and cellulase enzymes, resulting in
the degradation of parenchyma cell walls and the release of
some oil bodies in emulsion form (Platt-Aloia et al., 1980).
However, the thick cellular wall of the idioblast remains
intact (Figure 1b) (Platt & Thomson, 1992). Therefore, the
implementation of thermal, enzymatic, and mechanical
treatments, as well as the use of solvents, is needed to facili-
tate the release of the oil bodies and to obtain a higher yield
(Figure 1c).
Traditionally, avocado oil was extracted from dried fruit
tissue by means of organic solvents. However, mechanical
methods are also used due to the lack of solvents and tech-
nology for drying fruit (Costagli & Betti, 2015). Advances in
new technologies for avocado oil extraction have increased
considerably, giving rise to different available methods.
Currently, the most commonly used methods for oil extrac-
tion include the extraction with solvents, aqueous extrac-
tion and centrifugation, and mechanical extraction by cold
pressing (Permal et al., 2020; Qin & Zhong, 2016).
3.1Extraction with solvents
Extraction with solvents is the most widespread process
used for vegetable oil production (Moreno et al., 2003;
Mostert et al., 2007). This method is most common for oil
extraction from seeds, and also used to extract oil from avo-
cado fruit. It involves the use of an organic solvent (mostly
hexane) as extraction agent to separate the oil from the
fruit material (Rosenthal et al., 1996), although other sol-
vents such as acetone, petroleum ether, ethyl ether, chlo-
roform, and benzene have also been employed (Costagli
&Betti,2015;Lewisetal.,1978;Woolfetal.,2009). Cur-
rently, the extraction of avocado oil with solvents using the
Soxhlet method is used as a reference with other extrac-
tion methods to compare factors such as yield and qual-
ity characteristics of the oil according to the American Oil
Chemists Society and/or Codex Alimentarius (fatty acids
composition, peroxide, iodine and saponification values,
and specific gravity) (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al., 2018),
and others such as refraction index, electrical conductiv-
ity, content of LSBC (Flores et al., 2019), odor, color, taste,
stability, smoke point, and moisture are also considered as
quality parameters (Satriana et al., 2019)(Table2).
The general process to extract avocado oil using solvents
(Figure 2a) starts with removing the moisture from fruit
tissue (pieces or slices of avocado) in a dryer by passing
through a hot air current (Rosenthal et al., 1996). Then,
the plant tissues interact with the hexane in an extrac-
tor, which usually flow in an opposite direction in order
to extract the oil from the cellular material (a stirring pro-
cess is occasionally applied for a more efficient oil extrac-
tion) (Costagli & Betti, 2015; Qin & Zhong, 2016). The

4124 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
TABLE 2Overview of extraction methods used in the last 20 years, evaluating process conditions, and avocado oil yield
Method and oil type extracted Avocado variety and conditions of the process Oil yield (DW) and conclusions Reference
Extraction with solvents (liquid)
Extraction with hexane by Goldfisch fat
extraction apparatus
CAO
Hass varieties and Mexican creole avocado from
municipalities of Michoacan and Guanajuato
Avocado pulp died by freeze-dried and oven (40◦C/48
hr) submitted to extraction (hexane during 6hr)
Oil yield in Hass var.
from Uruapan (18.3%)
from Mexican export (18.3)
Oil yield in Mexican creole var.
from Tancitaro (21%–27%)
from Irapuato (20.9%)
from Uruapan (19%–20%)
from Tacambaro (25.2%)
Espinosa-Alonso et al. (2017)
Extraction with hexane and ethanol by
Soxhlet
CAO
“Philippine 240” variety
Freeze-dried avocado pulp submitted to extraction by
Soxhlet at 100◦C (hexane during 1–2hr and ethanol
during 4–8hr)
Oil yield with hexane (40%)
Oil yield with ethanol (74%)
Oil obtained with ethanol showed the highest quality.
Gatbonton et al. (2013)
Extraction with petroleum ether and
hexane by Soxhlet
CAO
“Hass” variety
Avocado puree samples dried by MW and oven
Extraction time with hexane: 6hr
Oil yield (17.1%)
Using oven-dry (76%–80%)
Using MW (82%–88%)
Avocado oil obtained by MW presented the best
quality.
Jiménez et al. (2001)
Extraction with petroleum ether by
Soxhlet
CAO
“Fuerte” and “Hass” varieties
Avocado pieces dried at 70◦Cinastove
Oil yield by Soxhlet (11%–20% FW) Ozdemir and Topuz (2004)
Extraction with hexane and
hexane/acetone (1:1) by Soxhlet
CAO and RAO
“Margarida” variety
Avocado pulp dried in o ven at 50◦C
Combination hexane/acetone presented the best
results in yields and general characteristics of the
oil.
Salgado et al. (2008)
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet
CAO
“Hass” avocado dried at 70◦C in a stove Oil yield by Soxhlet (18%–20% FW) Villa-Rodríguez et al. (2011)
(Continues)

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4125
TABLE 2(Continued)
Method and oil type extracted Avocado variety and conditions of the process Oil yield (DW) and conclusions Reference
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet
CAO
“Hass” and “Malaysian” varieties
Mesocarp pieces dried in a tray type dryer for 24 hr at
60◦CExtraction with petroleum ether by Soxhlet
(40–60◦C)
Oil yield for “Hass” variety (55%)
Oil yield for “Malaysian” cultivars (30%–33%)
The oil from “Hass” variety had a higher degree of
unsaturation in its fatty acid and TAG
compositions than that from “Malaysian” cultivars.
Yan t y et al. ( 2011)
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet and
homogenization
CAO
“Hass” variety
Freeze-dried avocado mesocarp submitted to
homogenization with hexane (60 ml) and
Ultra-Turrax
Freeze-dried avocado mesocarp submitted to
extraction by Soxhlet (70◦C/1hr)
Oil yield by Soxhlet (61%)
Oil yield by homogenization (54%)
Average oil yield using Soxhlet was higher than that
obtained by homogenization with hexane.
Meyer and Terry (2008)
Extraction with hexane by
homogenization
CAO
“Hass” variety
Freeze-dried avocado mesocarp submitted to
homogenization with hexane (60 ml) and
Ultra-Turrax
Oil yield by homogenization (57%–59%) Meyer and Terry (2010)
Extraction with hexane and acetone by
Soxhlet and by MW–S
CAO
Unknown variety
Avocado pulp dried by MW and oil extracted by
squeezing
Avocado pulp dried by o ven (70◦C) and oil extracted
with hexane during 4hr
Avocado pulp dried by MW and oil extracted with
hexane during 4hr
Avocado particles and oil extracted with acetone (25
and 55◦C)
Oil yield with hexane (54%)
Oil yield with acetone (12%)
Oil yield using MW–S (65%)
Oil yield using MW–hexane (97%)
Extraction methods modify the avocado
physical–chemical characteristics.
The MW–S method caused the lowest change to the
oil.
Moreno et al. (2003)
Extraction with hexane and acetone by
Soxhlet and by MW–pressing
CAO
“Hass” variety
Avocado pulp dried in MW (95◦C) and oil obtained
through a cloth mesh by pressing the pulp
Extraction with hexane according AOCS and with
acetone according to the U.S. Patent 4560568.
Oil yield with hexane (59%)
Oil yield with acetone (12%)
Oil yield using MW–S (67%).
MW–S conserved the cell shape and oil quality
Idioblasts presented irregular and rough shape
caused by hexane.
Acetone was unable to fully extract the oil from
inside the cell wall, which was deformed.
Ortiz et al. (2004)
(Continues)

4126 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. ..
TABLE 2(Continued)
Method and oil type extracted Avocado variety and conditions of the process Oil yield (DW) and conclusions Reference
Extraction with solvents (supercritical fluids)
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet and
by SFE-CO2and compressed LPG
CAO
“Fortuna” variety
Avocado pulp dehydrated by oven during 24 hr
Extraction with hexane: 2.5hr
Extraction with SFE-CO2:2.5h,313K/25MPaat
4g/min
Extraction with LPG: 10 min, 293 K/2.5MPa at
4g/min
Oil yield with hexane (58%)
Oil yield using SFE-CO2(10%–40%)
Oil yield using compressed LPG (56%–60%)
Compressed LPG caused an oil yield three times
higher than SFE-CO2.
Abaide et al., 2017
Extraction by SFE-CO2
CAO
“Hass” variety
Freeze-dried avocado.
Extraction with SFE-CO2at 50◦C and 400 bar
Oil yield (68% DW and 22% FW) Barros et al., 2016
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet and
by SFE-CO2
CAO
“Fuerte” variety
Avocado slices unpeeled dried by oven at 80◦Cfor24
hr
Extraction with hexane during 8hr
Extraction by SFE-CO2at 4.5ml/min and pressure of
350 and 532 atm during 2hr
SFE-CO2presented better results in the AO
extraction than hexane
Use of organic solvents was unnecessary by using
SFE-CO2,which,inturn,reducedextractiontime
Botha, 2004
Extraction with hexane Soxhlet and by
SFE-CO2and SFE-CO2/ethanol
CAO
Unknown variety
Freeze-dried avocado pulp submitted to SFE-CO2and
SFE-CO2/ethanol (93:7)at40,60, and 80◦C and
pressures of 200,300, and 400 bar
Oil yield with hexane (65%)
Oil yield by SFE-CO2plus
SFE-CO2/ethanol (26%–65%)
The AO yield was higher due to it was more feasible
at higher pressure (400 bar) during SFE-CO2.
Corzzini et al., 2017
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet and
SFE-CO2
CAO
“Fuerte” variety
Avocado fruit pieces freeze-dried or oven-dried
(80◦C/24 hr).
Extraction with hexane (70◦C/8hr)
SFE-CO2at 1.7ML/min (temp of 37◦C and pressure
of 350 atm).
Oil yield with hexane (63%–72%)
Oil yield using SFE-CO2(52%–65%)
Freeze-dried avocado showed greater oil
extractability than oven-dried avocado
Hexane showed higher oil yields than SFE-CO2,due
to a less selectivity during extraction.
Mostert et al., 2007
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet,
Ultrasound, Ultra-Turrax, SFE-CO2
“Fuerte” and “Hass” varieties
Avocados dried in an oven at 45◦C and by MW
(11 min)
Ultrasound at 60◦C/1hr
Extraction by Soxhlet (69–75◦C/24 hr)
SFE-CO2at flow rate of 2.8−3.5ml/min during 2hr
Oil yield with hexane (64%–65%)
Oil yield by ultrasound (55%–59%)
Oil yield by Ultra-Turrax (63%–64%)
Oil yield by MW (61%–70%)
Oil yield by SFE-CO2(60%–63%)
Reddy et al., 2012
(Continues)

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4127
TABLE 2(Continued)
Method and oil type extracted Avocado variety and conditions of the process Oil yield (DW) and conclusions Reference
Aqueous extraction and centrifugation
Aqueous extraction (hot water) and
Extraction with hexane by Soxhlet
CAO
Unknown variety
Extraction with hexane and with boiling water for
15–20 min plus 10 additional min
Oil yield in FW (10%–12%)
Avocado treated with hot water resulted in a higher
oil yield than the obtained by traditional soft
treatment in palm.
Kameni & Tchamo, 2003
Extraction by pressing Adding enzymes
and centrifuging. Extraction with
petroleum ether by Soxhlet
CAO
“Fuerte” variety
Avocado triturate added with enzyme (pectinex,
olivex, and pectinex/olivex) at 40◦C, pressed (100
kg/cm), and centrifugated (4750 rpm)
Oil yield with pectinex (66%–79%)
Oil yield with olivex (67%–71%)
Oil yield with pectinex/olivex (68%–82%)
Extraction with pectinex and pectinex/olivex
treatments showed the best oil yields.
High enzyme concentration is related to a higher oil
yield.
Schwartz et al., 2007
Mechanical extraction by cold pressing
Extraction by cold pressing, Soxhlet
(hexane), and SFE-CO2
CAO
“Hass” variety
Avocado was dried in stove and solar dryer at 45◦C,
and lyophilized.
Oil yield by Soxhlet (17.1% FW)
Oil yield by cold pressing (16.5% FW)
Oil yield by SFE-CO2(18.9% FW)
Extraction by SFE-CO2presented the best results in
quality (iodine index, acidity index, oxidation of
MUFA and PUFA) and yields of oil.
Duque et al., 2012
Extraction by cold pressing and by
Soxhlet with petroleum ether
CAO
“Fortune” variety
Avocado pulp dried by l yo philization and in an oven
with air circulation at 40 and 70◦C
Extraction by cold pressing (9tons pressure at room
temperature)
Extraction by Soxhlet during 5hr
Oil yield by Soxhlet (45%–57%)
Oil yield by cold pressing (25%–33%)
The best oil yield resulted by Soxhlet and
Lyophilization methods; however, cold pressing
and lyophilization exhibited better bioactive
content than the other methods.
dos Santos et al., 2014
Extraction by cold pressing and Soxhlet
(petroleum ether)
CAO
“Breda” variety
Avocado portions dried by oven with air ventilation
at 40◦C, oven drying at 60◦C, and vacuum oven at
60◦C
Extraction by cold pressing (9tons pressure at room
temperature).
Extraction by Soxhlet during 6hr
Oil yield by Soxhlet (43%–55%)
Oil yield by cold pressing (25%–43%)
The best AO yields with high-quality parameters and
bioactive properties were obtained by mechanical
pressing, drying the pulp in a vacuum oven at 60◦C.
Krumreich et al., 2018
(Continues)

4128 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. ..
TABLE 2(Continued)
Method and oil type extracted Avocado variety and conditions of the process Oil yield (DW) and conclusions Reference
Extraction by cold pressing (malaxation
and centrifugation at 5020 ×g)
CAO
“Hass” variety
Avocado puree treated with ultrasound at low
(18 +40 kHz) and high (2MHz) frequencies and
time of sonication (2.5−10 min), not including
malaxation
Megasonic post-malaxation (15,30, and 60 min)
Oil yield (3%–17.5%)
Oil yield without malaxation (50%)
Oil yield with malaxation during 15 min (70%–75%),
30 min (85%–88%), and 60 min (91%–95%)
Martínez-Padilla et al., 2018
Extraction by cold pressing
Edible avocado oil (VAO)
Unknown variety
Oil crushed by blender
Malaxing during 90 min at 60◦C. Oil extraction by
centrifugation at 7000 rpm during 15 min at 40◦C
Oil yield in FW (6.3%)
The low oil yield was attributed to speed used below
ideal speed (12000 rpm)
The low temperatures maintained the nutrients,
flavor, and richness, retaining healthy properties of
avocado oil.
Nwaokobia et al., 2018
Extraction by cold pressing
VAO
“Hass” variety
Mature avocado pulp homogenized with a domestic
roller. Malaxing (90 rpm) during 0,20,30,40,60,
120, and 180 min at 40 and 50◦C
Malaxation for 120 min at 40 and 50◦Cpresentedthe
best oil yield (83% and 80%, respectively)
Ramírez-Anaya et al., 2018
Extraction by cold pressing and Soxhlet
(petroleum ether or ethanol)
CAO
Unknown variety
Avocado pulp dried by M Ws (80% power level) or
oven with forced air (45–60◦C/5hr) and treated
with pectinase enzyme (0.05%)
Extraction with petroleum ether or ethanol in a water
bath (45 and 60◦C, respectively)
Extraction by pressing at 22◦C
Oil yield with petroleum ether (44%–56%)
Oil yield with ethanol (44%)
Oil yield by MW–pressing (56%)
Oil yield by oven drying–pressing (50%–61%)
Drying at 60◦C and pressing resulted in the highest
oil yield.
Oils extracted with solvent had residual moisture,
suggesting a refining step.
Santana et al., 2015
Extraction by cold pressing
CAO
“Hass” variety
Avocado pieces lyophilized during 24 hrExtraction by
cold pressing at 2000 and 2500 psi during 30 min
Oil yield at 2000 psi (26%–33%)
Oil yield at 2500 psi (45%–56%)
The best oil yields were obtained freezing the avocado
pulp during 6hr and extracting at 2500 psi during
30 min
Serpa et al., 2014
(Continues)

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4129
TABLE 2(Continued)
Method and oil type extracted Avocado variety and conditions of the process Oil yield (DW) and conclusions Reference
UAA–pressing–centrifugation, Soxhlet
(hexane), and SFE-CO2
VAO
Unknown avocado variety
Pulp dried during 3days at 35◦Cwithadryer
Extraction by UAA–pressing (30 min of sonication at
35◦C) and centrifugation at 8000 rpm
Extraction with hexane (70◦C/8hr)
Extraction by SFE-CO2(68 bar)
Oil yield with hexane (21%)
Oil yield using SFE-CO2(17%)
Oil yield using UAA–pressing (15%)
SFE-CO2- and UAA-extracted oils were lighter in
color and contained higher levels of unsaturated
fatty acids than solvent-extracted oil.
Tan et al., 2017
UAA–pressing–centrifugation, Soxhlet
(hexane), and SFE-CO2
VAO
Unknown avocado variety
Pulp dried during 3days at 35◦Cwithadryer
Extraction by UAA–pressing (30 min of sonication at
35◦C) and centrifugation at 8000 rpm
Extraction with hexane (70◦C/8hr)
Extraction by SFE-CO2(68 bar)
Oil yield with hexane (21%)
Oil yield using SFE-CO2(17%)
Oil yield using UAA–pressing (15%)
SFE-CO2- and UAA-extracted oils were lighter in
color and contained higher levels of unsaturated
fatty acids than solvent-extracted oil
Tan et al., 2018b
Abbreviations: AO, avocado oil; CAO, crude avocado oil; LPG, liquefied petroleum gas; MW, microwave; RAO, refined avocado oil; S, squeezing; SFE-CO2,supercriticalfluidextractionwithcarbondioxide;UAA,
ultrasound-assisted aqueous; VAO, virgin avocado oil.

4130 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
FIGURE 1(a) Representative scheme of the mesocarp structure of avocado composed by parenchyma and idioblasts cells containing
large oil sacs. (b) Parenchyma and the release of oil during avocado ripening (degradation of primary wall of parenchyma cells by
polygalacturonase, but cork tissue wall of idioblastic cells remains intact). (c) Mesocarp after thermal, mechanical enzymes treatments and
addition of solvents: increase in the release of oil bodies from the emulsion and idioblastics. IO, idioblastic oil sacs; OD, oil droplet emulsioned
inside; P, parenchyma; PG, polygalacturonase; PP,=protoplasm; TWI, thick wall of idioblasts
solvent is separated from the oil by distillation in a collec-
tor, and recovered to be re-used. Finally, solvent residues
are removed in an evaporator and the solids are retained
using a filter, thus obtaining the crude oil (Rosenthal et al.,
1996). This crude oil can be submitted to a refining pro-
cess, which involves degumming, neutralization, bleach-
ing, and deodorizing steps to obtain refined avocado oil.
Due to the high moisture content in the avocado pulp
(approximately 80%), there are differences in the cellular
contents that significantly affect the oil yield. Thus, drying
pretreatments of avocado pulp and slices are used in
order to diminish the water interference (Qin & Zhong,
2016). The conventional strategies involve oven-drying
and sun-drying, which are time-consuming and present
a fairly high risk of poor oil quality (Santana et al., 2015).
On the other hand, new treatments that involve the use of
freeze-drying (dos Santos et al., 2014; Mostert et al., 2007)
and microwaves (Jiménez et al., 2001; López et al., 2004;

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4131
FIGURE 2General diagram of the most common methods for the extraction of avocado oil. (a) Chemical extraction by solvents; (b)
extraction by centrifugation and hot water; (c) cold-pressing extraction; and (d) refining process (R)
Moreno et al., 2003)achievedsuccessfuldehydration
of avocado pulp with very slight oil quality changes in
comparison with conventional processes. dos Santos et al.
(2014) demonstrated that oil yield was higher when avo-
cado pulp was dried by lyophilization and petroleum ether
was used for the extraction (45%–57%), in comparison to
pulp treated with circulating air at 40 or 70◦C (25%–33%).
Similar results were previously reported by Mostert et al.
(2007) who achieved higher oil yield extracted from
pieces of ripe and unripe avocados dried by freeze-drying
(68%–72%) than those treated by oven-drying (63%–70%).
On the other hand, Moreno et al. (2003) reported that the
combination of microwave–hexane was the most efficient
method for avocado oil extraction (almost 70% yield)
in comparison with microwave–squeezing, microwave–
acetone, and vacuum oven–hexane. However, in a later
study (Ortiz et al., 2004), the same authors observed that
the microwave–squeezing method was more efficient
(yield of 67%) than the extraction with hexane (59%)
and acetone (12%). Santana et al. (2015) observed that
oil from avocado pulp dried with microwave achieved
similar oil yield (56%), but better-quality features (acid
and peroxide values) compared with oil from avocado
pulp dried by oven with forced air. These quality prop-
erties are probably related to the damage caused by
the different pretreatments, because it has been shown
that microwave causes only slight modifications in the
idioblastic cells shape, whereas other pretreatments pro-
duce irregularity and roughness in the cells (Ortiz et al.,
2004).
Recently, new supplementary technologies have been
implemented with the purpose of decreasing the pollution
and improving the yield and the quality of the extracted
avocado oil. These technologies include ultrasound-
assisted extraction (Martínez-Padilla et al., 2018;Tan,etal.,
2017,2018a,2018b,2018c,2018d), supercritical fluid extrac-
tion (Abaide et al., 2017; Barros et al., 2016; Corzzini et al.,
2017;Tan,2019;Tanetal.,2018a), and pressurized fluids
(Abaide et al., 2017). Operational conditions and results
regarding these technologies for the extraction of avocado
oil are compiled in Table 2.
The emission of organic volatile compounds, fire and
explosion hazards, and possible toxicity due to toxic
residues are the main disadvantages of the use of sol-
vent extraction methods. However, the low exposition of
plant material to mechanical stress, the high oil yields, and
the development of continuous solvent-extraction systems
stand out as advantages of these methods (Rosenthal et al.,
1996). However, tissue water content, solvent quantity, and
temperature and time of extraction are important factors to
consider for higher oil yield (Costagli & Betti, 2015;Qin&
Zhong, 2016).

4132 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
3.2Aqueous extraction and
centrifugation
The centrifugation-assisted aqueous extraction method
has been developed to reduce energy costs and air pollu-
tion by solvents (Eyres et al., 2001). This extraction method
is based on the diffusion of oil-medium compounds in
water, resulting in the release of oil previously embedded
in the original structure (Rosenthal et al., 1996). The pro-
cess to obtain avocado oil by aqueous extraction and cen-
trifugation is shown in Figure 2b. In general, this method
involves the peeling and destoning of the fruit, followed by
mashing. Then, the paste is treated in a reactor with hot
water, enzymes, and salts (NaOH, CaCO3,CaSO
4, chalk,
etc.) to promote the oil release (Bizimana et al., 1993; Buen-
rostro & López-Munguia, 1986). Once the pulp slurry is
formed and oil is released from the tissue, the oil recov-
ery from the emulsion is performed by gravity (in this case
by centrifugation) (Costagli & Betti, 2015;Werman&Nee-
man, 1987). Wastewater can be re-centrifuged to separate
the solids.
Thermal, mechanical, and enzymatic processes destroy
cells, and the oil from the resultant oil–water emulsion
is recovered (Werman & Neeman, 1987). The addition of
hot water to the tissue (avocado mash) to dissolve the
oil-medium compounds facilitates the release of oil and
inhibits the lipolytic enzyme activity, which hydrolyzes
and oxidizes nutritional components of the oil thereby
decreasing the quality of the product (Qin & Zhong, 2016;
Werman & Neeman, 1987). On the other hand, the use of
enzymes (mostly hydrolytic) such as proteases, pectinases,
cellulases, and hemicellulases to break the cell wall struc-
ture and promote the release of oil bodies is commonly
employed to obtain higher oil yields (Domínguez et al.,
1994; Rosenthal et al., 1996). Additionally, changes of spe-
cific conditions such as extraction pH and temperature are
also needed to some extent due to the variation in physic-
ochemical characteristics of the avocado tissues (Rosen-
thal et al., 1996). However, factors such as the concentra-
tion and type of enzyme, temperature and time of reaction,
and dilution ratio (plant material:water) are of great impor-
tance to improve the oil yield (Qin & Zhong, 2016).
Currently, centrifugation has replaced gravity separa-
tion due to the higher oil yields obtained (Qin & Zhong,
2016; Rosenthal et al., 1996). Buenrostro and López-
Munguía (1986) used centrifugation at 12,300 ×gfor avo-
cado oil recovery, obtaining the highest yield (up to 70%)
using α-amylase. These results were also dependent on
temperature and dilution ratio (optimal conditions at 65◦C
and 1:5, respectively). Bizimana et al. (1993) demonstrated
that the same centrifugal force (12,300 ×g) yielded 78%,
more than the lower velocity (6000 ×g). In contrast, Wer-
man and Neeman (1987) previously demonstrated that cen-
trifugation at 6000 ×gproduced a good oil extraction (up
to 65%) from fresh avocado flesh blended with water con-
taining 5% NaCl, at 75◦C. In addition to the lower risk of
fire and explosion in the process, its main advantages are
the high-quality product with high purity and the sensi-
tivity to the environment that make this method ideal for
the extraction of avocado oil (Qin & Zhong, 2016; Rosen-
thal et al., 1996). On the other hand, low yield, high energy
and enzyme costs, and high effluent levels are the main dis-
advantages. Undoubtedly, the oil extraction assisted with
enzymes, centrifugation, and salts significantly enhances
the avocado oil yields, but such yields have shown a great
variability mainly due to the centrifugal force, concentra-
tion and type of enzymes, water temperature and time of
reaction, and dilution ratio. Improvements in the processes
continue to establish optimal yields of avocado oil in the
avocado oil industry.
3.3Mechanical extraction by cold
pressing
The extraction of avocado virgin oil with the cold press-
ing method is similar to that for the extraction of olive
oil (Permal et al., 2020). This method was first developed
in New Zealand for applications in the culinary indus-
try, mainly as cooking oil or in salads (Eyres et al., 2001).
Pressing involves a compression step to release the liquid
from the plant porous matrix. To carry out this process,
screws or hydraulic/mechanic presses can be used (Qin &
Zhong, 2016; Schwartzberg, 1997). In the case of cold press-
ing, the avocado tissue is squeezed by mechanical screw
presses at temperatures below 50◦C to prevent alterations
in the oil (Rydlewski et al., 2020), maintaining the qual-
ity and sensory and composition characteristics of the vir-
gin oil (Permal et al., 2020;Tan,2019; Wong et al., 2014).
In general, the cold-pressing method includes the peeling
and destoning of the fruit followed by mashing, oil extrac-
tion by horizontal decanter centrifuge, and oil purification
and recovery by vertical centrifuges (Figure 2c) (Costagli &
Betti, 2015; Permal et al., 2020; Qin & Zhong, 2016;Wong
et al., 2014). Thermal and mechanical pretreatments are
used before squeezing to enhance the extraction of the oil
(Savoire et al., 2013).
Avocado fruit that does not meet requirements for fresh
market, especially for export, is commonly treated with
ethylene for uniform fruit ripening and to extract high-
quality virgin oil (Tan, 2019; Wong et al., 2014). After
removing dirt, dust, and residues from the surface of
the fruit by washing, avocados are peeled and pitted on
a destoner by rotary paddles smashing the fruit against

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4133
internal wall of stainless-steel screen, resulting in a fine
pulp for an efficient mashing process (Costagli & Betti,
2015;Tan,2019; Wong et al., 2014). The skin separation
determines the oil quality due to the effect of different
pigment contents in the pulp. The pulp is characterized
by the presence of chlorophylls and carotenoids, whereas
the skin is abundant in chlorophylls and anthocyanins,
which confer green to dark coloration (Ashton et al.,
2006). Krumreich et al. (2018) observed that avocado oil
extracted by the cold-pressing method exhibited a higher
content of carotenoids (104–105 mg/kg), chlorophylls (1.3–
1.4mg/kg), phenolic compounds (721–774 mg/kg), and α-
tocopherol (58–65 mg/kg) in comparison to oil extracted
with petroleum ether.Wong et al. (2011) demonstrated that
the content of carotenoids and chlorophylls increased from
1.1to 3.2µg/g and from 7to 28 µg/g, respectively, due to
increasing the skin proportion from 0% to 100%. The high
content of carotenoids and chlorophylls in cold-pressed
avocado oil may be indicative of an oil of health-related
benefits, in comparison to avocado oil obtained by other
methods (Ashton et al., 2006; Santos & Fernandes, 2020).
The high concentrations of pigments may also affect the oil
stability during storage (Wong et al., 2014).
The fine pulp obtained in the destoner is transported to
the malaxer where it is processed by mashing to release
the oil from the flesh. Mashing is carried out by slowly
turning the paste inside a D-shaped tank covered by a hot
water jacket, which maintains the extraction temperature
between 45 and 50◦C (Wong et al., 2010). This temperature
favors a decrease in pulp viscosity where tissue cells allow
the release of small oil droplets coalescing to form larger
droplets (Costagli & Betti, 2015; Wong et al., 2014). The
finely dispersed emulsion inside the cells of avocado pulp
reduces the oil extraction, and therefore, malaxing time is
decisive to achieve the rupture of cell walls and disruption
of the emulsion structure (Lewis et al., 1978). Martínez-
Padilla et al. (2018) observed a significant effect of the
malaxing time on the avocado oil yield, because malaxa-
tion for 60 min exhibited oil yield of 10.6%, whereas malax-
ation for 0,15, and 30 min resulted in oil yields of 5.7%,
8.0%, and 9.7%, respectively. This fact became more evident
when Yang et al. (2018) observed that malaxation time of
30,60,90, and 120 min exhibited oil yields of 0.8%, 5.7%,
10%, and 12% in fresh weight, respectively, indicating a
strong effect of malaxation time. Longer malaxation times
could result in a more effective natural and mechanical
enzymatic action inhibiting the interference of lipoproteic
or lipophilic particles of the paste that absorb the oil itself
(Domínguez et al., 1994). The additional application of
treatments such as ultrasound may improve the oil separa-
tion and the extractability, suggesting a decreased malaxa-
tion time in industrial processes without affecting its qual-
ity (Martínez-Padilla et al., 2018). The addition of water
and enzymes during malaxing reduces the pulp–water–oil
paste viscosity and breakdown cell walls releasing oil from
the idioblast cells (Wong et al., 2010,2014). Although it
has been indicated that industrially it is common to add
water and exogenous enzymes during oil extraction by cold
pressing (Costagli & Betti, 2015; Permal et al., 2020), there
are very few studies that report this effect on the extraction
of oil, specifically on avocado using cold pressing. Buen-
rostro and López-Munguia (1986)appliedwater(1:4ratio)
and different enzymes (pectinase, α-amylase, protease, and
cellulase) to increase the avocado oil yield and to replace
the pressing. Schwartz et al. (2007)addedpectinolyticand
hemicellulitic enzymes, individually and mixed at differ-
ent concentrations during avocado oil extraction by press-
ing, and concluded that the mixture of enzymes in concen-
tration of 1:1achieved the highest oil yield (80%). Signifi-
cant increases in the yield of other oils by the addition of
water and exogenous enzymes during cold pressing have
also been reported (Concha, et al., 2004;Sotoetal.,2007;
Zuñiga et al., 2003).
Once the oil is released from the avocado matrix (in
the form of oil-in-water emulsion), the separation of oil
from the solid and aqueous phases is achieved by centrifu-
gation in a horizontal decanter (Tan, 2019; Wong et al.,
2014), which separates the lighter phase (oil) from the
heavy phases (aqueous and solids) due to the difference
in density and miscibility (Bizimana et al., 1993). The
heavy phase corresponding to the pomace is discarded.
The remaining oil phase, still containing considerable lev-
els of water, is vertically centrifuged at 45–50◦C. This pro-
cess produces oil with moisture levels below 0.2%, which is
sparged by nitrogen gas to remove oxygen, and filtered to
remove protein and solid residues (Wong et al., 2014). The
resulting water during the purification step, which usu-
ally contains a small quantity of residual oil, is recovered
through a second purification step in a vertical centrifuge
(Costagli & Betti, 2015). Some of the inconveniencies of
this method include low production capacity, high con-
sumption of energy (horsepower per ton of oil extracted),
and low extraction yield, and the main advantages are that
cold-pressing method is considered as a clean technology
due to its limited impact on the environment (mainly due
to the absence of solvents), production of oil with culinary
applications, and high health benefits (Permal et al., 2020;
Wong et al., 2011,2014).
Alternative methods for avocado oil extraction have
lately been proposed in order to enhance the yield
and maintain desirable characteristics of the oil. These
methods mainly include the use of liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG), supercritical fluid with carbon dioxide (SFE-
CO2), and ultrasound-assisted aqueous extraction (UAA),
which have sometimes shown better results, mainly
in oil yield (Abaide et al., 2017; Barros et al., 2016;

4134 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
Botha, 2004; Corzzini et al., 2017; Duque et al., 2012;
Mostert et al., 2007; Reddy et al., 2012;Tanetal.,2017,
2018a). These results and conclusions in comparison with
those of traditional extraction methods are shown in
Table 2.
4REFINING PROCESS OF AVOCADO
OIL
For culinary uses, avocado oil is bottled without under-
going the refining process to maintain most of its natu-
ral attributes, retaining its characteristic green color, taste,
flavors, and aromas (Woolf, et al., 2009). On the other
hand, the use of avocado oil in the pharmaceutical indus-
try forces the refining process to be carried out. This refin-
ing process focuses on the removal of undesirable com-
ponents such as pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids),
pungent odors, phospholipids, and metals, and to mini-
mize the loss of desirable components. However, such pro-
cess involves also factors as stability of the oil, the conver-
sion process, and consumer preferences for taste and color
(Satriana et al., 2019).
The refining process includes several operations such
as degumming, neutralization, bleaching, winterizing, and
deodorizing (Figure 2d) (Msika & Legrand, 2010;Rosen-
thal et al., 1996;Ruíz-Méndez&Dobarganes,2011;Woolf
et al., 2009). Degumming stage removes gums and phos-
phatides, which are insoluble in the oil due to hydra-
tion (Ruíz-Méndez & Dobarganes, 2011). This step involves
treatments with weak (phosphoric or citric) or strong (sul-
furic or hydrochloric) acids and stirring at 50–60◦C (Msika
&Legrand,2010). In the neutralization step, free fatty
acids, color bodies, and metallic pro-oxidants are usu-
ally removed with basic agents such as sodium hydrox-
ide, potassium carbonate, or a tertiary amine at 80◦C
during approximately 30 min (Ruíz-Méndez & Dobar-
ganes, 2011). Subsequently, bleaching removes pigments
and residual soaps at high temperatures (150–210◦C) using
acidified activated earth (calcium and magnesium alumi-
nosilicates) or charcoal (obtained from peat, wood, lignite,
coal, or coconut husks), although a pungent odor in oil is
noted during this step (Human, 1987; Msika & Legrand,
2010). During winterizing, generally oxystearin is added to
promote the crystallization of the high-molecular-weight
stearins, which precipitate and are removed by decanting
and filtration (Human, 1987). The pungent odor caused
by malodorous molecules and volatiles compounds dur-
ing bleaching is finally eliminated in a deodorizing step
under steam jets sparging at high vacuum and elevated
temperatures (180◦C) (Human, 1987;Msika&Legrand,
2010).
5SOME LSBC PRESENT IN AVOCADO
OIL
Research on bioactive compounds in the diet has increased
considerably in recent years due to their potential contri-
bution to human health. Avocado oil comprises high lev-
els of different types of important LSBC (Flores et al., 2019;
Yah i a , 2012), attracting great interest to explore their health
benefits (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al., 2014a; Del Toro-Equihua
et al., 2016;Dreher&Davenport,2013; Kopec et al., 2014;
Unlu et al., 2005). However, different factors such as meth-
ods and conditions of extraction, harvest season, variety,
and fruit ripening stage can influence the content of LSBC
in the fruit as well as in the oil (Table 3). In this section,
we discuss several classes of LSBC in avocado oil and the
different factors that affect them.
5.1Fatty acids
On average, MUFA comprise 37%−86% of the total fatty
acids content of avocado oil (Table 1), and oleic acid is
the most abundant of these (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al.,
2018). The lowest oleic acid levels in oil from avocado
pulp extracted by Soxhlet using petroleum ether have been
reported in “Ijo Panjang” cultivar (21.7%), compared to
other local (Ijo bundar =35.9% and Merah bundar =43.4%)
and commercial (Fuerte =55.6% and Shepard =33.3%)
cultivars (Manaf et al., 2018) (Table 3). Green and Wang
(2020) reported lower oleic acid levels than those men-
tioned earlier, but these values were from commercial avo-
cado oil (extra virgin =19.7% and unspecified =21%).
Galvão et al. (2014) also reported low oleic acid levels in
oil from “Barker” avocados (32.7%), compared to “For-
tuna” and “Collinson” avocados (51.4% and 51.3%, respec-
tively), using Soxhlet (hexane) as extraction method. On
the other hand, low oleic acid levels in avocado oil (40.2%)
were also reported by Carvalho et al. (2015), who compared
oil extracted from “Hass” avocado from several locations
at different ripening stages (13%–33% of dry matter con-
tent). On the contrary, Schwartz et al. (2007) obtained the
highest oleic acid content (75%) in avocado oil from the
same variety. Differences in the content of oleic acid are
also observed comparing avocado oil from different vari-
eties but using the same extraction method. For exam-
ple, by using Soxhlet method, similar percentages of oleic
acid were obtained in oil from “Hass” avocados (57%–
59%) (Meyer & Terry, 2008;Reddyetal.,2012)(Table3).
However, in oil from “Philippine 240” (Gatbonton et al.,
2013)and“Fuerte”(Reddyetal.,2012;Tanetal.,2017,
2018a) avocados, the oleic acid content was lower (42%–
45%, 49% and 41%, respectively). The same behavior was

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4135
TABLE 3Content ranges of lipid-soluble bioactive compounds (LSBC) in avocado oil affected by different factors as variety, ripening stage, harvest season,andextractionmethod
Fatty acids (%)
Factor involved MyristicC14:0PalmiticC16:0StearicC18:0PalmitoleicC16:1OleicC18:1LinoleicC18:2LinolenicC18:3Reference
AO from Fortuna variety
extracted by SFE-CO2and LPG
at different conditions
26–29 55–60 11.9–13.0Abaide et al.,
2017
Commercial AO subjected to
heat (0.3, and 9hr)
0.06 18.7–19.2 0.51–0.55 7.9 54.4–54.70.5–0.6Berasategi et al.,
2012
AO from Hass variety from
different geographic area and
ripening stage
0.2–0.6 17–24 0.94–2.7 6.2–17.1 42–59 8.7–18.3 0.2–1.6Carvalho et al.,
2015
AO from different varieties and
issue
0.05–0.513–36 0.5–2.74.3–9.211–51 13–29 0.7–18.3Carvajal-
Zarrabal et al.,
2014a,2014b
AO from Philippine 240 variety
extracted by Soxhlet method
using Hex or Et
24–27 9.6–12.6 42–45 16.6–19.1 1.5–2.2Gatbonton et al.,
2013
Different commercial avocado
oils
0.110–18 0.5–4.0 0.1–8.619–69 10–55 0.1–0.4Green & Wang,
2020
AO from Brenda variety extracted
at different methods and
conditions
19–21 2.7–7.0 57–65 10.5–11.0 0.4–0.6Krumreich
et al., 2018
AO from different local and
imported varieties
22–36 0.6–1.0 6–19 22–56 14–21 1.1–2.2Manaf et al.,
2018
(Continues)

4136 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
TABLE 3(Continued)
Fatty acids (%)
Factor involved MyristicC14:0PalmiticC16:0StearicC18:0PalmitoleicC16:1OleicC18:1LinoleicC18:2LinolenicC18:3Reference
AO from Hass variety extracted
by Soxhlet and UTH
19.9 8.8 57.7 12.4 1.12 Meyer & Terry,
2008
AO from unknown variety
extracted by different methods
15–21 0.48–0.72 5.9–8.952–60 13.7–15.31.4–2.07 Moreno et al.,
2003
AO from Fuerte and Hass
varieties at different harvest
season and ripening
12–23 0.07–0.4 4–11 47–73 9–16 0.02–0.4Ozdemir &
Top uz, 2004
AO from Fuerte and Hass
varieties by different extraction
methods
0.3–1.616–25 12.8 4.9–17.942–60 Reddy et al.,
2012
AO from different varieties 0.02–0.13 20–23 0.5–1.1 3.9–5.6 56–67 7.1–15 0.37–1.03 Salgado et al.,
2008
AO from Hass variety extracted
by different method
24–26 0.36–0.45 12–14 46–49 10.9–11.70.57–0.64 Santana et al.,
2015
AO from Fuerte variety 0.03 8.61 0.70 8.61 75.1 8.76 0.74 Schwartz et al.,
2007
AO from unknown variety by
UAA and Soxhlet methods
28–35 0.2–1.16.6–8.541–43 15–19 1.5–2.2Tan e t al. , 2017,
2018a
AO from Hass variety at different
ripening stage
0.01–0.02 7–11 0.03–0.8 2.4–3.9 70–74 11–13 2.1–4.1Villa-Rodríguez
et al., 2011
AO from different varieties 15–30 0.3–1.64.4–7.444–64 13–18 1.09–2.03 Yanty et al.
(2011)
(Continues)

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4137
TABLE 3(Continued)
Carotenoids and chlorophylls pigments (µg/g oil/g fruit)
Factor involved Lutein Neoxanthin Violaxanthin β-carotene Total carotenoids Chlorophylls Reference
AO from Hass variety extracted
by different solvents, tissues,
and ripening stage
0.5–150 0–8 0–3n.d. 0–230 2–210 Ashton et al., 2006
Different commercial avocado oil n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 7–100 Green & Wang, 2020
AO from Brenda variety extracted
at different conditions
n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 72–105 1.0–1.4Krumreich et al., 2018
Hass avocado from different
geographic area and harvest
season
3–80.5–12 0.4–4.8 0.1–16–31 n.d. Lu et al., 2009
Hass avocado at different
postharvest ripening stages
53–74 n.d. n.d. n.d. 53–74 436–586 Pedreschi et al., 2014
Hass avocado at different
postharvest ripening stages
3–6n.d. n.d. 0.3–0.94–7Villa-Rodríguez et al., 2020
AO from Hass variety extracted
by cold pressing and adding
skin at different proportions
1–3 0.3–0.9 8–28 Wong et al., 2011
Toc ophe rols ( µg/g oil)
Factor involved α-Tocopherol β-Tocopherol γ-Tocopherol δ-Tocopherol Total tocopherols Reference
Different commercial avocado oil 0.03–0.39 n.d.−0.581* n.d.−0.23 0.03–0.91 Green & Wang, 2020
AO from Brenda variety extracted
at different conditions
40.5–65.3 40.5–65.3Krumreich et al., 2018
AO from different local and
imported varieties
32.4–45.0n.d.–2.0 0.3–4.2n.d.–0.08 32.8–50.2Manaf et al., 2018
Hass avocado at different
postharvest ripening stages
171–213 34–42 1.5–2.70.91–1.06 115–256 Pedreschi et al., 2014
AO from unknown variety by
UAA and Soxhlet methods
69–227 14–30 83–256 Tan et al., 2018b
Hass avocado at different
postharvest ripening stages
85–125 5–9.5n.d.−80 90–183 Villa-Rodríguez et al., 2020
Note: For more detailed information, review the Supporting Information.
Abbreviations: AO, avocado oil; Et, ethanol; Hex, hexane; LPG, liquefied petroleum gas; n.d., not detected; SFE-CO2, supercritical fluid extraction with carbon dioxide; UAA, ultrasound-assisted aqueous; UTH, Ultra-
Turrax homogenization; *β-tocopherol +γ-tocopherol.

4138 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
observed for palmitoleic acid with 13% in oil from “Hass”
avocado and 7% in oil from unknown varieties. On the
other hand, palmitic acid levels, the most abundant sat-
urated fatty acids (SFA), were higher in avocado oil from
“Philippine 240” (27%), “Fuerte” (24%), and “Ijo Panjang”
(36%) avocados than in oil from “Hass” avocado (18%)
(Gatbonton et al., 2013;Manafetal.,2018;Reddyetal.,
2012;Tanetal.,2017,2018a). When ripening stages were
compared, changes in SFA, MUFA, and polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFA) had no clear tendency, because indi-
vidual fatty acids increase in intermediate ripening stages
but decrease during advanced ripening stages, depend-
ing on the avocado fruit variety (Ozdemir & Topuz, 2004;
Villa-Rodríguez et al., 2011). As with regard to the har-
vest season, a clear effect is observed for SFA, where the
content of palmitic and stearic acids tends to decrease,
whereas oleic acid increases in avocado oil from fruit har-
vested in later seasons (Ozdemir & Topuz, 2004). Because
structural lipids (phospholipids and glycolipids) are part
of the cell membranes, and idioblasts contain mainly stor-
age lipids (triglycerides) (Requejo-Tapia, 1999), their com-
position during fruit ripening and storage has been related
to fruit postharvest changes and deterioration, and the
increase of lipid components during ripening is attributed
to the partial cell wall breakdown, increasing lipid recov-
ery (Meyer & Terry, 2008; Mostert et al., 2007). It has been
suggested that fatty acids profile is dependent on environ-
ment adaptation (Blakey, 2011), implying a potential use as
biomarkers in the avocado fruit growing areas (Donetti &
Ter ry, 2014).
Apparently, avocado fruit variety is one of the most
important factors affecting the LSBC content. For example,
the content of fatty acids in avocado oil from different vari-
eties shows a great variability, most evident being the effect
on oleic acid (Table 3). The second most influential factor
on fatty acids content seems to be the extraction method,
which favors the content of oleic acid, but decreases the
content of SFA when oven drying and extraction by hex-
ane are employed. Also, although the pressing method pro-
duces less oil than the solvent method, the product has the
highest percentages of oleic acid, indicating a lesser effect
on the MUFA degradation. The effect of other factors, such
as harvest season, on the content of individual fatty acids
is not yet fully understood and needs to be investigated fur-
ther.
5.2Carotenoids
Avocado fruit contains considerable quantities of pigments
including chlorophylls and carotenoids, which confer a
dark green appearance on avocado oil (Ashton et al.,
2006;Woolfetal.,2009). Total carotenoids content is com-
monly evaluated in commercial avocado oil, but individual
carotenoid compounds are scarcely reported. Carotenoids
are lipid-soluble pigments, and therefore their quantifica-
tion in avocado fruit involves the extraction of oil with
different methods, mainly by the Soxhlet method. Thus,
in this section, we consider carotenoid content data in
avocado tissue and oil. The most abundant carotenoid
in avocado oil is lutein, followed by neoxanthin, vio-
laxanthin, and β-carotene, although in most cases these
last carotenoids are not reported (Table 3). The pres-
ence of these carotenoids in avocado oil is because oil
is mainly extracted from the flesh, and these carotenoids
are most common in this tissue. Although the content
of these carotenoids follows this tendency, Ashton et al.
(2006) reported that oil from fruit skin exhibited higher
carotenoids levels than that present in dark, pale, and yel-
low flesh. Such behavior was unexpected because antho-
cyanins are abundant in the skin. The content of chloro-
phylls and carotenoids in the skin of green fruit decreases
as fruit ripening advances (Ashton et al., 2006). The same
tendency was observed by Wong et al. (2011), who reported
higher carotenoids concentrations in oil with added avo-
cado peel during extraction, compared to oil without added
avocado peel. On the other hand, although it is well known
that carotenoids are thermolabile molecules, Krumre-
ich et al. (2018) demonstrated that avocado oil extracted
by pressing and solvent at 60◦C contained higher total
carotenoids (103–105 and 85–89 µg/g oil/g fruit, respec-
tively) than oils extracted at 40◦C(75and72µg/g oil/g
fruit, respectively). During oil extraction, the pigments
are not completely extracted due to their solubility dif-
ferences (Ashton et al., 2006); therefore, temperature of
60◦C was not enough to degrade the pigments but favored
their release from idioblast cells and their solubility in the
oil resulting in higher concentrations (Ashton et al., 2006;
Wong et al., 2014). The effect of extraction method was also
evident in the collection of these data (Table 3). Regard-
ing fruit ripening, apparently carotenoids are synthesized
during the first 8days after fruit harvest, resulting in high
total carotenoids levels (mainly lutein) in the oil, but the
content of these pigments tends to decrease in subsequent
days, although these changes are not usually significant
(Ashton et al., 2006). Also, carotenoids levels increase in
oil from fruit harvested in late seasons in comparison to
oil from fruit harvested in early seasons (Lu et al., 2009).
5.3Chlorophylls
Chlorophylls are pigments present in green plants and
are responsible for the absorption and conversion of solar
energy into chemical energy during the process of photo-
synthesis (Ashton et al., 2006). Virgin avocado oil contains

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4139
high levels of chlorophyll (Table 3), which is why the oil
has an emerald-green color (Tan, 2019). In contrast, the
level of chlorophylls of virgin olive oil is low (Rodríguez-
Carpena et al., 2012). Although chlorophyll can have a neg-
ative effect on the oxidative stability of the oil through the
photooxidation of the oil when exposed to light (Guillén-
Sanchez & Paucar-Menchado, 2020), consumers consider
its distinctive green color as a beneficial attribute and com-
mercial advantage (Woolf et al., 2009). Exposure to light
and oxygen should be avoided to reduce the oxidative insta-
bility of virgin avocado oil and to increase its shelf life by
storing in dark bottles, as well as flushing with nitrogen in
the storage tanks and during the bottling process.
In general, the chlorophyll level in avocado oil is rela-
tively high and similar to that of the carotenoids (up to
586 µg/g oil) (Pedreschi et al., 2014), it varies according
to the type of avocado fruit tissue from which the oil is
extracted, most abundant being in the skin (peel) than in
the flesh (Ashton et al., 2006). For this reason, avocado
peel is sometimes added during the oil extraction process
(Wong et al., 2011). Similarly, virgin avocado oil is abundant
in chlorophylls in comparison to refined avocado oil (Tan,
2019). This is evidenced by Green and Wang (2020)who
compared 22 avocado oils sold in the United States and
observed that virgin avocado oils contained considerably
higher chlorophyll content (11–100 µg/g oil) than refined
oils (not reported). Similar to carotenoids, the method of oil
extraction has a significant effect on chlorophyll content,
the cold-pressing method being the most efficient com-
pared to the use of solvents. In addition, the application
of moderate temperatures (60◦C) during the oil extraction
enhances the release of chlorophylls from cell tissues, but
not on their degradation (Krumreich et al., 2018).
5.4Tocopherols
The α-tocopherol form is the most important active form
of vitamin E. Tocopherols have been found in avocado oil
with a high variability in concentration (from 0.034 up to
256 µg/g oil), and the consumption of these compounds has
been associated with a reduction in the incidence of CVD
(Table 3).
Industrial processing of fruit products can result in the
loss of vitamin E. The α-tocopherol is unstable being oxi-
dized during processing and storage, but this behavior is
not observed in virgin and refined avocado oils, because
total tocopherol content does not show a clear trend when
comparing such samples. On the contrary, the use of mod-
erate temperatures (60◦C) during oil extraction has a pos-
itive effect, leading to higher tocopherols levels than in
oils extracted without temperature application. Similar to
carotenoids and chlorophylls, the cold-pressing method
enhances the extraction of tocopherols compared to the
use of solvents (Krumreich et al., 2018). In the same way,
SFE-CO2generated a product containing greater toco-
pherols content in avocado oil (Tan et al., 2018b). Another
factor with a significant influence on the content of toco-
pherols in avocado oil is the avocado fruit variety. Manaf
et al. (2018) observed that avocado oil extracted from fruit
of Indonesian varieties (Merah bundar, Ijo bundar, and
Ijo Panjang) had higher tocopherol content (50,46, and
50 µg/g oil, respectively) compared to commercial vari-
eties (Fuerte =37 µg/g oil and Shepard =33 µg/g oil).
The impact of the stage of fruit ripening on the tocopherol
content is not very clear. For instance, Villa-Rodríguez
et al. (2020) observed that tocopherol levels in avocado
oil increased during fruit ripening from 90 µg/g oil (in
fruit at first day of storage) to 183 µg/g oil (after 8days
of storage), and then tended to decrease. A similar behav-
ior was observed by Pedreschi et al. (2014)whoreported
an increase of tocopherols in oil from slightly soft avo-
cado fruit (advanced ripening) compared to oil from a firm
fruit (less ripened), and the tocopherols content tended to
decrease with the softening of avocado fruit. These results
suggest that avocado oil from fruit at intermediate ripen-
ing stages contains the highest tocopherol levels and may
have better health impact. However, other factors should
also be considered, such as time of harvest, fruit ripening
stage, growing region, extraction methods, avocado vari-
eties, and the LSBC profile. These data are likely to provide
novel insights to consider the possible nutrient–nutrient
interactions involved in the research outcome.
6EFFECTS OF AVOCADO OIL ON
HUMAN HEALTH
There is a high correlation between the consumption of
foods of plant origin and the prevention of CVD, diabetes,
cancer, and age-related macular degeneration (Dreher &
Davenport, 2013; Yahia et al., 2018). Although there is a cor-
relation between consumption of high-fat diet and some
chronic diseases, foods with high fat content such as veg-
etable oils, olives, nuts, and seeds, among some others,
with high content of MUFA and PUFA and low SFA, are
considered as “healthy” foods (Pham et al., 2020;Wang&
Hu, 2017). Besides its high content of MUFA, avocado (oil
and fruit) is characterized by high phytochemicals content,
rendering it as a potential healthy food for the prevention
of several diseases (Yahia, 2012;Yahia&Woolf,2011).
Avocado contains considerable levels of phytochemicals
including phenolic compounds, carotenoids, tocopherols,
and chlorophylls, which have beneficial effects on health.
In addition, it has been established that LSBC of avocado
oil (fatty acids, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols)

4140 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
confer antioxidant properties (Lu et al., 2005,2009;Meyer
&Terry,2008,2010;Phametal.,2020). Studies in animals
and humans (Table 4) show that avocados (fruit and oil)
help control weight, reduce the probability of diabetes (Del
Toro-Equihua et al., 2016), regulate blood cholesterol lev-
els implicated in liver metabolism (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al.,
2014a), and help in skin care (Kopec et al., 2014;Unluetal.,
2005). In addition, unsaponifiable components containing
antioxidants regulate anti-inflammatory processes impli-
cated in cancer (Stücker et al., 2001).
6.1Antioxidant activity
Avocado is one of the fruits of lipophilic nature with high
antioxidant capacity, mainly attributed to their high con-
tent of LSBC, which are correlated with the prevention of
vascular health and anticancer activities, diabetes, and so
forth (Espinosa-Alonso et al., 2017). Ortiz-Avila, Esquivel-
Martínez, et al. (2015) and Ortiz-Avila, Gallegos-Corona,
et al. (2015) demonstrated that avocado oil consumption
prevented the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
in diabetic rats, delaying the onset of diabetic encephalopa-
thy. The antioxidant potential was attributed to a less sus-
ceptibility of oleic acid than PUFA to damage by ROS. Also,
a direct action to accumulate LSBC in mitochondria (vita-
mins, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols) reduc-
ing ROS levels could be involved. Other mechanism proba-
bly implicated is the synthesis of new mitochondria-target
antioxidants decreasing lipid peroxidation and maintain-
ing optimal levels of the mitochondrial redox state. In
apreviousstudy,Ortiz-Avilaetal.(2013)alsosuggested
that antioxidant activity of avocado oil in diabetic rats was
attributed to attenuating the alterations-induced oxidative
stress in the electron transport chain.
Hydrophilic bioactive compounds such as pheno-
lic compounds may act through radical scavenging by
donation of hydrogen atom and chelation of transi-
tion metals such as iron and copper (Rodríguez-Carpena
et al., 2011). Another possibility is that antioxidant
enzymes (glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase,
hemeoxygenase-1, and catalase) are enhanced, inactivat-
ing the intracellular ROS in the endothelium (Yamagata,
2017). Such mechanisms have also been proposed for LSBC
carotenoids.
Most studies estimated the antioxidant activity of
avocado oil using in vitro analyses, including the trolox
equivalent antioxidant capacity, the ferric reducing antiox-
idant power, the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, and the
2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)
radical scavenging activity assays, which have been highly
correlated to tocopherols, phytosterols, and carotenoids
(Tan et al., 2018a). Future research including in vivo and
ex vivo techniques are needed to confirm and further
describe the antioxidant potential of avocado oil.
6.2Cardiovascular diseases
Oxidative stress contributes to endothelial dysfunction and
the atherosclerotic process (Li et al., 2013). However, it
has been shown that diets containing avocado oil reduce
triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) in plasma, indicating a pos-
itive effect for decreasing cardiovascular risks (Rosales
et al., 2005). These beneficial effects are attributed mainly
to fatty acid composition and other phytochemicals in avo-
cado fruit and oil (Yahia, 2012;Yahia&Woolf,2011;Yahia
et al., 2018), which can exercise their biological activities
through different mechanisms.
Oleic acid is the major MUFA in avocado oil and prob-
ably one of the main components responsible for the ben-
eficial effects attributed to avocado oil consumption. Oleic
acid can decrease LDL by increasing acyltransferase activ-
ity to increase the synthesis of cholesterol esters, which
stimulate the action of LDL receptors, favoring the LDL
uptake and reducing its presence in plasma (Silva-Caldas
et al., 2017). In addition, a decrease of TG in plasma and
an increase of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL)
may increase the hydrolysis of long-chain fatty acids in
TG by lipoprotein lipase, which are incorporated into HDL
particles (Perona et al., 2010;Rashidetal.,2003). On the
other hand, oleic acid induces lower endogenous TC syn-
thesis (Silva-Caldas et al., 2017), and therefore, avocado
oil (rich in oleic acid) may also decrease TC and LDL.
Other mechanisms possibly involved in the prevention of
CVD by oleic acid include its anti-inflammatory and vas-
culature protective activities by decreasing the expression
of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)andinterleukin-6
(IL-6) gene (Baer et al., 2004;Scodittietal.,2015). Wer-
man et al. (1989) observed an increase of hepatic lipids
and a decrease of TG in blood of rats fed with unre-
fined avocado oil and avocado seed oil. Avocado seed oil
was also reported to decrease the levels of LDL and HDL
in rats (Werman et al., 1991). Kritchevsky et al. (2003)
demonstrated that avocado oil exhibited a similar behav-
ior to olive and corn oils on the atherogenicity in rabbits.
They suggested that MUFA have a greater influence at the
beginning of the atherogenesis process (during LDL oxi-
dation and inflammatory processes), whereas PUFA are
more effective in the later stages. Low levels of choles-
terol (45.8mg/dl) and LDL (26.5mg/dl) were also reported
in rats fed with avocado oil (de la Torre-Carbot et al.,
2015). However, in comparison to rats fed with canola,
safflower, soybean, grape seeds, and partially hydro-
genated oils, this was mainly attributed to the fatty acids

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4141
TABLE 4Studies on the effects of avocado oil on different diseases during the last 15 years
Experimental conditions
Bioactive
compounds
involved Results Conclusions and drawbacks Reference
Study model: animal (male Sprague–Dawley
weaned rats)
Fed with basal diet +sucrose (30%) +
olive/avocado oil (7.5%). Glucose, LD, TC,
TG, phospholipids, LDL, HDL, VLDL,
creatine kinase, and hs-CRP concentration
were analyzed as cardiovascular risk profile
markers
Oleic and linoleic
acids.
Polyphenols, proan-
thocyanidins,
tocopherols, and
carotenoids
An important effect in the decreasing of TG,
VLDL, and LDL levels and hs-CRP was
evidenced by the two avocado oil type,
indicating a partial reversal in the
inflammatory processes.
Avocado oil and its antioxidant content
suggest a positive effect on health, because it
generates important changes in the
biochemical indicators related to the
development of metabolic syndrome,
reducing inflammatory events.
Studies that establish the optimal time for AO
supplementation with metabolic changes
are necessary to elucidate the effects on
inflammatory markers and the
cardiovascular risk profile.
Carvajal-
Zarrabal et al.,
2014a
Study model: animal (male Sprague–Dawley
weaned rats)
Rats fed with basal diet +sucrose (30%) +
olive/avocado oil (7.5%). Serum glucose, TG,
TC, phospholipid, globulin, albumin, total
protein, direct bilirubin, SGOT, GP-T,
cholinesterase, alkaline phosphatase, and
α-amylase levels were determined levels as
biochemical markers of liver function
Oleic and linoleic
acids.
Polyphenols, proan-
thocyanidins,
tocopherols, and
carotenoids
Bilirubin and total protein levels were
modified by sucrose intake, indicating an
affectation in liver, but avocado oil
administration showed a regeneration of
liver function. However, avocado oil did not
show changes in α-amylase levels,
suggesting that abnormalities in pancreatic
function were not prevented.
A similarity was observed between the
biochemical markers for both AO extraction
methods. The effects of AO were also similar
to those of olive oil.
The similarity of the effects on the biochemical
markers of liver function between AO and
olive oil suggests that AO consumption
could be beneficial in the control of diseases
with an altered metabolic profile.
Carvajal-
Zarrabal et al.,
2014b
Study model: animal (Wistar rats)
Addition of soybean, avocado, safflower,
canola, grape seed, and partially
hydrogenated oils at two different
concentrations (14.4% and 25.6%) to the diet
of Wistar rats and evaluated its tolerance
and lipid profile for 5weeks
MUFA, PUFA,
sterols, and
tocopherols
Rats fed with soybean oil and AO showed
lower LDL (29 ±9and 27 ±11 mg/dl,
respectively) and TC values (48 ±11 and
46 ±6mg/dl, respectively) than rats fed
with hydrogenated oil (49 ±28 and
70 ±31 mg/dl, respectively). This effect was
attributed to bioactive components such as
MUFA, PUFA, sterols, and vitamin E.
Avocado and soybean oils offered the best
results in comparison to partially
hydrogenated oil that had a
hypercholesterolemic effect on rats.
It was difficult to find significant differences in
all the variables.
De la
Torre-Carbot
et al., 2015
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats)
Fed with standard diet +sucrose and AO at
5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% for 8weeks. After
that time, an IPGTT was performed. After 1
week, an IPITT was performed to determine
insulin resistance.
MUFA and PUFA Rats fed with 20% and 10% AO exhibited lower
insulin resistance, whereas control
treatment and 30% AO showed similar
insulin resistance responses. Consumption
of AO reduced body weight gain in Wistar
rats caused by the high sucrose diet.
The dietary addition of OC could reduce
insulin resistance and glucose tolerance;
however, this effect is dependent on the oil
concentration.
Del
Toro-E q uihu a
et al., 2016
(Continues)

4142 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. ..
TABLE 4(Continued)
Experimental conditions
Bioactive
compounds
involved Results Conclusions and drawbacks Reference
Study model: healthy humans
Healthy volunteers (13) consumed a CM (eggs,
butter, bacon, potatoes wheat bread, and
iced sugar) or a TM (butter replaced by AO).
Biomarkers in blood (insulin, TC, LDL,
HDL, TG, CRP, IL-6, LBP, CD14, and the gut
hormone GLP-1) were determined during
240 min.
Unsaturated fatty
acids (oleic acid)
and phytosterols
The consumption of CM or TM showed similar
response of HDL and GLP-1; however, TC,
LDL, CRP, IL-6, glycemia, and postprandial
profiles of insulin were improved by TM.
AO consumed by healthy volunteers regulates
the negative physiological impact related to
high calorie and hyperlipidic meals. This
assumption is evidenced because the results
exhibited affinity to improve endotoxemia,
protection against inflammation, and
reduction of atherosclerosis risk factors.
The effect of AO in reducing endotoxemia
opens the possibility for further research.
Furlan et al.,
2017
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats)
Hypertensive rats supplemented with losartan
or AO for 45 days were studied by vascular
responses in perfused kidney. In addition,
ROS, membrane potential, and GSH were
examined in kidney mitochondria.
Oleic acid,
carotenoids, and
sterols
AO decreased diastolic (21%) and systolic (16%)
blood pressures and alleviated impaired
renal vasodilation in hypertensive rats.
Decrease of membrane potential (84%),
increase of ROS levels (51%) in
mitochondria, and the increase of levels of
oxidized GSH (48%), caused by
hypertension, were normalized by avocado
oil at a comparable degree than losartan.
Avocado oil has a similar behavior to losartan
decreasing systemic blood pressure and
renal vasodilation in hypertensive rats in
association with improved kidney
mitochondrial function and decreasing ROS
trough diminution of GSSG levels in the
complex I, which was related to a blocking
of Ang-II actions. Thus, AO could be
proposed as nutritional product to mitigate
the adverse effects on kidney hypertension.
Márquez-
Ramírez et al.,
2018
Study model: animal (male and female Wistar
rats)
Injured rats (excisional wound model) were
treated by applying 50% semisolid
formulation of AO (SSFAO) and in natura
avocado oil for 14 consecutive days.
PUFA and MUFA,
mainly oleic acid
An increase in percentage wound contraction,
reepithelialization, density of collagen,
tensile strength, and anti-inflammatory
activity was observed in rats with SSFAO or
AO compared to negative control.
AO, rich in oleic acid and essential fatty acids,
which attenuate inflammatory cells and
increase collagen synthesis, could be
considered as an alternative in
pharmaceutical formulations for treating
skin wounds.
de Oliveira
et al., 2013
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats)
Diabetic rats fed with traditional diet +1mlof
AO for 90 days. Kidney mitochondria were
isolated, and lipid peroxidation, activity of
the ETC complexes, cytochromes c+c1and
b,andROSproductionweremeasured.
Oleic acid and
carotenoids
AO improved the activities of complexes II and
III and the protection against damage by
Fe2+induced by oxidative stress and
diabetes. It also decreased ROS in
Fe2+-damaged mitochondria.
This research help to confirm that AO
attenuates the kidney disease during
diabetes by modulating signaling by ROS
and improving the mitochondrial function
induced.
Benefits of AO in mitochondria showed no
relationship with lipid peroxidation;
however, they could be related to
carotenoids, which are also present in AO.
Ortiz-Avila
et al., 2013
(Continues)

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4143
TABLE 4(Continued)
Experimental conditions
Bioactive
compounds
involved Results Conclusions and drawbacks Reference
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats)
Diabetic rats fed with rodent diet +1mlofAO
for 90 days. After that time, the effects of AO
in oxidative status and mitochondrial
function of brain were evaluated.
Carotenoids,
tocopherols,
chlorophylls,
vitamins, and
oleic acid
The low deterioration of mitochondrial
membrane potential (∆Ψ𝑚), mitochondrial
respiration, increase of complex III activity,
decreasing ROS concentrations, lipid
peroxidation, and the improved GSH/GSSG
ratio suggest that AO improves the
mitochondrial function of brain in diabetic
rats.
Mitochondrial dysfunction of the brain caused
by oxidative stress during diabetes is
prevented by the consumption of AO. These
effects result in a decrease in diabetic
encephalopathy; however, more research is
needed.
Ortiz-Avila,
Esquivel-
Martínez,
et al., 2015
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats)
Diabetic rats fed with a standard rodent diet +
1mlofAOfor90days. After that, the effect
of AO in liver mitochondrial by decreasing
unsaturation of acyl chains of membrane
lipids and/or by improving ETC
functionality and decreasing ROS was
evaluated.
Oleic acid and other
antioxidants
Mitochondrial respiration and activity of
complex I were reduced in diabetic rats with
an increase of ROS using a complex I
substrate. This was related with an oxidized
state of GSH. All these alterations were
prevented by AO except by the changes in
mitochondrial fatty acid composition.
AO did not prevent polyphagia and
hyperglycemia but did normalized
hyperlipidemia.
Results imply that AO improves mitochondrial
ETC function by attenuating the deleterious
of oxidative stress in diabetic rats’ liver by
modifying the fatty acid conformation of
mitochondrial membranes. These findings
might have also significant implications in
the progression of NAFLD in experimental
models of steatosis.
Ortiz-Avila,
Gallegos-
Corona, et al.,
2015
Study model: animal (male Goto–Kakizaki
rats)
Diabetic rats were fed with a standard rodent
diet plus oral daily dose of 1ml AO for 3,6,
and 12 months. The effects of avocado oil on
glycemia, ROS levels, lipid peroxidation, and
glutathione status in kidney mitochondria
from type 2diabetic Goto–Kakizaki rats
were evaluate for 1year.
Oleic acid and
sterols
Avocado oil decreased hyperglycemia at
intermediate levels between control and
diabetic rats. Diabetic individuals displayed
augmented lipid peroxidation and depletion
of reduced GSH throughout the study,
whereas ROS increased at the 3rd and 12th
months and total glutathione content
diminished at the 6th and 12th months. AO
improved all these defects and augmented
the mitochondrial content of oleic acid.
AO counteracts increased ROS levels and
impaired peroxidation of lipids in
mitochondria from type 2diabetic rats. This
effect could be attributed to an increase in
total glutathione pool in mitochondrial
membranes or to the hypoglycemic effect of
the oil.
Ortiz-Avila
et al., 2017
Study model: animal (male murine mice)
Rats fed with hypercholesterolemic diet plus
2.5% or 5.0% of commercial and IPN
Mexican oils (CMO and IPNO, respectively)
and New Zealand oil (NZO). The serum
concentrations of TC, LDH, HDL, and TG
were determined.
MUFA,
carotenoids, and
phytosterols
The results showed a positive trend of HDL,
and an increase in LDL and total
cholesterol, due to the high combination of
fats and oils provided in the diet. The IPNO
generated the least increase in the
concentrations of total cholesterol and LDL,
in addition to presenting the least
atherogenic damage in a hypercaloric diet.
This suggests that an atherogenic effect could
be generated when modulating the lipid
intake.
Ortiz-Moreno
et al., 2007
(Continues)

4144 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. ..
TABLE 4(Continued)
Experimental conditions
Bioactive
compounds
involved Results Conclusions and drawbacks Reference
Study model: animal (male Wistar rats)
Rats fed with control diet and 10% of AO for a
2-week period. The effect of AO on the blood
pressure response to the fatty acid
composition and AngII of renal and cardiac
membranes on male Wistar rats was
evaluated.
Oleic acid and
other bioactive
compounds
Rats fed with diet rich in AO showed a slightly
higher AngII-induced blood pressure
response than control rats.
AO induced a rise in oleic acid content (from
13.2% to 15.5%) in cardiac microsomes. In
renal microsomes, α-linolenic acid content
was decreased from 0.34% to 0.16%, whereas
the arachidonic acid increased from 24% to
26%, compared to control.
AO modifies the fatty acid content in cardiac
and renal membranes depending on tissue.
Renal arachidonic acid is suggested as a key
factor in vascular responses.
Salazar et al.,
2005
Study model: animal (male Sprague–Dawley
rats)
Hypercholesterolemic rats orally
supplemented with VAO (450 and
900 mg/kg) and simvastatin (10 mg/kg) for
4weeks. Changes in lipid profile,
anthropometric, liver biomarkers, and liver
histology by VAO administration were
determined.
MUFA (oleic acid)
Phytosterols
(β-sitosterol,
campesterol,
stigmasterol, and
∆5-avenasterol)
The serum LDL and TG levels were
significantly reduced, whereas the HDL
level was significantly increased using
900 mg/kg of VAO and simvastatin-treated
rats when compared with their respective
baseline values.
Oral administration of VAO has comparable
effect as simvastatin on decreasing the LDL
and TG levels, whereas HDL levels
improved. The liver damage was markedly
reduced following the treatment. Current
findings suggest potential
hypocholesterolemic and hepatoprotective
benefits of VAO, and it could be a strategy
for the prevention and treatment of chronic
diseases.
Tan et al., 2018c
Study model: animal (male Sprague–Dawley
rats)
Hypercholesterolemic rats orally
supplemented with VAO (450 and
900 mg/kg) and simvastatin (10 mg/kg) for
4weeks. LDL, HDL, TC, and TG profiles
were determined, and urinary metabolomics
using NMR was measured.
Phytosterols,
unsaturated fatty
acids,
tocopherols,
carotenoids, and
polyphenols
Daily consumption of VAO (450 and
900 mg/kg) and simvastatin (10 mg/kg)
exhibited significant reduction of total
cholesterol, LDL and TG levels, and
significant increment of HDL level.
Assessment revealed that VAO treatment
could partially recover the metabolism
dysfunction induced by
hypercholesterolemia through gut
microbiota metabolism, lipid, energy, and
amino acid.
Tan et al., 2018d
Abbreviations: AngII, angiotensin II; CD14, cluster of differentiation 14; CM, control meal; CRP, C-reactive protein; ETC, electron transport chain; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; GP-T, glutamic pyruvic transaminase;
GSH, glutathione; GSSG, glutathione disulfide; hs-CRP, high-sensitivity C-reactiveprotein; IL-6, interleukin-6; IPGTT, intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test; IPITT, intraperitonealinsulin tolerance test; LBP, lipopolysac-
charide binding protein; LD, lactic dehydrogenase; LDL, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SGOT, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase; TC, total
cholesterol; TM, test meal; VAO, virgin avocado oil.

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4145
composition, sterols, and vitamin E; however, the correla-
tion between levels of these compounds and their effect
on TC and LDL was not considered (de la Torre-Carbot
et al., 2015). In a more detailed study, Carvajal-Zarrabal
et al. (2014b) demonstrated that avocado oil administration
to rats reduced the TG, LDL, and very low-density lipopro-
tein (VLDL) levels, and partially reverted the inflammatory
processes through the decrease of the high-sensitivity C-
reactive protein (hs-CRP) that may have resulted from the
inhibition of IL-6expression. The effect of avocado oil on
the CVD prevention is well established, but further studies
are needed to elucidate if the different types of avocado oil
act differently on cardiovascular risk, and to identify which
of the different lipophilic phytochemicals is mostly related
to the CVD prevention, as well as specifically identify the
markers involved in the inflammatory processes.
There is evidence that phytochemicals present in fruits
and vegetables reduce the inflammation and oxidative
stress, and therefore the CVD risk (Pagliaro et al., 2015;Vas-
anthi et al., 2012). Studies addressing the effect of the avo-
cado oil phytochemicals on CVD are scarce, but it is to be
expected that avocado oil may exert cardioprotective func-
tion due to its high phytochemicals content.
The antioxidant action of several carotenoids is sug-
gested to be one mechanism by which they exert their ben-
eficial effects (Ciccone et al., 2013), although other mech-
anisms such as modulating gene expression, cell growth
regulation, and gap junction communication may also be
involved in their biological actions (Rao & Rao, 2007). Mar-
tin et al. (2000) proposed that carotenoids might modulate
atherogenic processes in the vascular endothelium. It has
also been established that xanthophylls, mainly lutein, are
highly protective against progression of early atherosclero-
sis in humans and animals through lowering of VLDL and
intermediate-density lipoprotein and by reducing inflam-
mation and oxidative stress in the artery wall (Ciccone
et al., 2013; Dreher & Davenport, 2013; Dwyer et al.,
2001; Hozawa et al., 2007). Márquez-Ramírez et al. (2018)
observed an improvement of mitochondrial function and
endothelium vasodilation and renal function in hyperten-
sive rats fed diets with avocado oil. They attributed this
action to the cytosolic accumulation of carotenoids from
avocado oil, which prevented the transformation to perox-
ynitrite (ONOO–) from nitric oxide (NO), the main induc-
tor of oxidative damage. This biologic action is highly
dependent on carotenoids absorption, which is favored
by dietary fat solubilizing and releasing carotenoids for
transfer into the micelles and subsequently in the circula-
tory system (Cervantes-Paz et al., 2016). Avocado fruit pos-
sesses lipid and water characteristics that make it a distinc-
tive food matrix that favors the absorption of carotenoids
(Kopec et al., 2014;Unluetal.,2005). In this regard, stud-
ies involving the effect of lipid composition from avocado
oil on the absorption of carotenoids from the same matrix,
and the contribution of such absorption to the CVD pre-
vention, are needed.
Tocopherols (vitamin E) are characterized with potent
lipoperoxyl radical-scavenging activity due to their abil-
ity to donate hydrogen ions from their phenol group
on the chromanol ring (Mathur et al., 2015). The main
mechanisms involved in the cardiovascular risk preven-
tion include the inhibition of monocyte superoxide pro-
duction mediated by protein kinase C, and the increase
of NO production, a factor required for the normal vas-
cular function (Mathur et al., 2015). Furthermore, toco-
pherols can be ω-hydroxylated and β-oxidized in the liver
to produce 13′-hydroxychromanols/carboxychromanols,
which inhibit eicosanoids catalyzed by 5-lipoxygenase (5-
LOX) and cyclooxygenase-2(COX-2) and suppress nuclear
factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and STAT3/6signaling pathways,
resulting in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects
(Jiang, 2014). Li et al. (2013) found inactivation of NF-
κB inflammatory route and IL-6in postprandial serum
of healthy volunteers after consumption of hamburger
with avocado. On the other hand, low levels of cholesterol
(45.8mg/dl) and LDL (26.5mg/dl) were observed in rats fed
diets with avocado oil, but not in rats fed diets with other
vegetable and partially hydrogenated oils, attributing such
behavior to the high levels of tocopherols and fatty acids
(de la Torre-Carbot et al., 2015).
Although avocado is characterized by the presence
of moderate amounts of phenolic compounds, it has
been reported that polyphenols are one of the most
abundant of the phenolic classes in this fruit (Dreher &
Davenport, 2013). Polyphenols may promote vasodilator
activity as a consequence of their antioxidant activity by
neutralizing the ROS and improving the NO availability,
anti-inflammation by the inhibition of COX and LOX
enzymes and NF-κBrepression,andanti-atherogenic
effect through attenuation of the onset and development
of lipid accumulation in the arterial wall due to their
ability to limit LDL oxidation (Quiñones et al., 2013).
Wang et al. (2010)demonstratedthatthephenolicand
procyanidins contents in avocado fruit were highly corre-
lated to the antioxidant activity. However, in a study with
oils from different avocado varieties (Mexican creoles and
Hass), the phenolic content exhibited a low to moderate
correlation to the antioxidant activity, but was associated
to strong inhibitory effect on COX-1and COX-2activity of
avocado oils, even higher than naproxen and ibuprofen,
but dependent on a specific selectivity (Espinosa-Alonso
et al., 2017). Thus, it is possible that although the content of
phenolic compounds in avocado oil is low, it is linked to the
antioxidant activity and therefore, it is related to the anti-
inflammatory activity and the CVD prevention. However,
research involving the consumption of avocado oil and the

4146 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
determination of its content of phenolic compounds and
their effects is needed to confirm this possibility.
According to the evidences presented above, the effect
of avocado consumption on CVD has been widely eval-
uated in humans (Abdel-Moneim et al., 2017; Fulgoni
et al., 2017; Furlan et al., 2017; Mahmassani et al., 2018;
Pieterse et al., 2003,2005;Wangetal.,2011,2013,2015)and
in animals (Campuzano-Bublitz et al., 2016; Gouegni &
Abubakar, 2013;Olagunjuetal.,2017;Rodríguez-Sanchez
et al., 2015;Salazaretal.,2005; Shehata & Soltan, 2013)
and is mainly attributed to the fatty acids content (Silva-
Caldas et al., 2017). However, the effect of avocado oil
consumption on CVD is limited, and it is also mostly
attributed to fatty acids, whereas the effects of phyto-
chemicals such as carotenoids, phenolic compounds, toco-
pherols, and chlorophylls in the oil on cardiovascular pro-
tection have received limited attention. Therefore, further
research that focuses on the consideration of lipid-soluble
phytochemicals in avocado oil, which probably have sim-
ilar or maybe higher beneficial effects on CVD than fatty
acids, is needed.
6.3Cancer
It has been shown that PUFA exhibit apoptotic effects
through the calcium (Ca2+) release from intracellular
stores (Evans et al., 2015;Kimetal.,2014). Oleic acid has
also been reported to have this effect by inhibiting the
store-operated Ca2+entry implied in nonexcitable cells sig-
naling to stimulate gene regulation and cell growth (Car-
rillo, del Mar Cavia, et al., 2012). In addition, the antitu-
mor effects of oleic acid may be due to the activation of
specific cellular pathways. Such mechanisms include the
inhibition of the overexpression of the oncogene HER2
implicated in metastasis of human cancers (Menendez &
Lupu, 2006), and the increase in intracellular ROS pro-
duction or caspase 3activity (Carrillo, Cavia Camarero,
et al., 2012). Studies involving the effect of avocado oil
consumption on cancer prevention are unavailable, but
the chemopreventive effect of avocado has been evidenced
(Ding et al., 2007,2009;Luetal.,2005). Jackson et al.
(2012) show that the higher daily intake of MUFA by men
who consumed 60 g/day or more of avocado is related
to a lower risk of prostate cancer, in comparison to men
with intakes of less than 12 g/day. The possible anticarcino-
genic effect of fatty acids from avocado oil merits further
investigation.
It has been shown that the consumption of green vegeta-
bles is related to the prevention of various types of cancer
in humans and animals (Balder et al., 2006; de Vogel et al.,
2005;Voorripsetal.,2000), being attributed to chlorophylls
and their derivatives (Li et al., 2007).
Chlorophylls prevent skin cancer by inhibition of ultra-
violet (UV) light-induced ROS and lipid peroxidation (Jeon
et al., 2009). Other studies have also shown antimuta-
genic and anticarcinogenic effects by chlorophylls deriva-
tives (chlorophyllins) (Akai et al., 1996). The protective
mechanism of chlorophylls and their derivatives could be
attributed to the formation of a complex between the por-
phyrin ring of chlorophylls and the carcinogens–mutagens
(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines,
and aflatoxin B1), resulting in the prevention of DNA
adduct formation and in the reduction of bioavailability of
dietary carcinogens or mutagens (I ˙
nanç, 2011).
Dietary intake of carotenoids has been associated with
the prevention of several types of cancer in different
tissues. Specifically, lutein and zeaxanthin (the main
carotenoids in avocado oil) may functions in ocular health,
in prevention of CVD, stroke, and cancer (Tanaka et al.,
2012). They are also protective molecules against erythema
in human skin that is attributed to excessive UV light
exposure linked to skin cancer and precancerous lesions
(Tanaka et al., 2012). Although there does not appear
to be an association between plasma lutein and zeax-
anthin concentration and gastric cancer, intake of these
carotenoids has been reported to decrease colon cancer
in men and women (Jenab et al., 2006; Slattery et al.,
2000; Tsubono et al., 1999). Proposed mechanisms respon-
sible for the anticarcinogenic activity of lutein have been
proposed to include its interaction with the mutagens 1-
nitropyrene and aflatoxin B1and gene stimulation implied
in T-cell conversions by mitogens, cytokines, and anti-
gens (de Mejía, Loarca-Piña, et al., 1997;deMejía,Ramos-
Gómez, et al., 1997;Parketal.,1999).
Lutein and zeaxanthin are not cytotoxic to normal cells
but decrease the viability of cancer cells. These xantho-
phylls tend to form a higher proportion of monomeric frac-
tion in cancer than normal cells, suggesting a differential
metabolism useful in diagnosis of cancer (Grudzinski et al.,
2018).
Although there are no studies demonstrating the effect
of avocado oil tocopherols on the prevention of cancer,
Lu et al. (2005)demonstratedthatanextractfromavo-
cado rich in tocopherols caused the in vitro inhibition of
androgen-dependent and androgen-independent prostate
cancer cell lines, probably acting via downregulation of
cyclin-related signaling (Galli et al., 2004). It is therefore
assumed that this anticancer effect may be caused by avo-
cado oil due to its high tocopherols content.
6.4Age-related macular degeneration
Oxygen partial pressure is relatively low in most tissues
but extremely high in the outer segments of the retina,

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4147
increasing the concentration of singlet oxygen by pho-
tosensitization, and can result in irreversible damage of
cell structures (Ham et al., 1984). Lutein and zeaxanthin
have a passive antioxidant function by their light-filtering
capability in the inner Henle fiber layers, preventing the
generation of radicals by blue light and their possible
oxidative chain reactions. This is mainly attributed to their
ability of absorbing blue light before impinges on the radi-
cals that damage photoreceptor cells (Krinsky et al., 2003).
Additionally, it has been suggested that macular pigments
might deter the onset of age-related macular degeneration
attenuating blue light in the photoreceptor cells and
the retinal pigment epithelium affected by N-retinyl-
N-retinylidene ethanolamine (A2E) (Shaban & Richter,
2002). Another possibility is that plasma lutein may
prevent thickening of the ciliary arteries (Krinsky et al.,
2003). Further research on the effects of xanthophylls in
avocado oil on the protection of the macula is warranted.
6.5Diabetes
Diabetes is characterized by a metabolic disorder in insulin
levels or resistance to insulin actions that result in hyper-
glycemia (Cortés-Rojo et al., 2019; Tabesh, 2017). MUFA
have been proposed as the main blockers of insulin
resistance by high-fat diets and simple monosaccharides,
although it has also been suggested that PUFA intake is
related to fluidity of cell membrane, and inversely related
to resistance induced by sucrose (Del Toro-Equihua et al.,
2016). During its passage through the intestine, oleic acid
stimulates L and K intestinal cells for a greater release
of incretins GIP and GLP-1, which improves insulin sen-
sitivity (Gerhard et al., 2004). In addition, oleic acid can
alter the insulin production through the inhibitory effect of
TNF-α, favoring the phosphorylation of serine via insulin-
signaling cascade (Vassiliou et al., 2009). The antidiabetic
effect of avocado oil in different organs (liver, kidney, and
brain) has been proposed to be related to the activation of
factors such as TNF-α,NF-κB, TGF-β1, HIF, PAI-1, and AP-
1, which are involved in the production of ROS via lipid
peroxidation and mitochondrial membrane potential, and
the GSH/GSSG ratio, which in turn affect nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide (NADH) levels in liver mitochondria
during diabetes (Cortés-Rojo et al., 2019). Table 4summa-
rizes results from different studies evaluating the antidia-
betic effect of avocado oil, mainly in rats. Carvajal-Zarrabal
et al. (2014a) showed that avocado oil supplementation
in diabetic rats decreased the TG, VLDL, LDL, and hs-
CRP levels, revealing a partial reversal of the inflamma-
tory process. Furthermore, they (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al.,
2014b) observed that avocado oil regenerated liver function
in rats that had been adversely affected by bilirubin and
total protein levels, when consuming sucrose. Ortiz-Avila
et al. (2013) reported that dietary avocado oil supplemen-
tation in diabetic male Wistar rats improved the activities
of complexes II and III of the electron transport chain and
the protection against damage by Fe2+induced by oxida-
tive stress and diabetes, and decreased ROS generation in
Fe2+-damaged mitochondria. They associated these results
with a protective effect on the transfer of electrons in com-
plex III linked to the loss of cytochromes c+c1.
The role of chlorophylls as hypoglycemic agents is
thought to be mediated by the inhibition of free radicals,
because chlorophylls donate their electrons to such free
radicals and form complexes with peroxyl radicals to gen-
erate stable molecules (Alsuhaibani et al., 2017). In avocado
oil, chlorophyll and its derivatives are implicated in oxi-
dation; however, at adequate conditions (absence of light
and oxygen) they exhibit antioxidant properties (Ramos-
Aguilar et al., 2019). On the other hand, carotenoids such
as lutein in avocado oil may interact with transcription
factors (NRF-1and PGC-1α) in the mitochondrial dys-
function, demonstrating a protective effect on mitochon-
drial respiration and ∆Ψ𝑚during diabetes (Ortiz-Avila,
Esquivel-Martínez, et al., 2015). Specifically, the antidia-
betic effect of chlorophylls and carotenoids from avocado
oil have received minimal attention due to the extent of
their oxidation and instability in the oil, despite the sug-
gestion that these pigments are strongly related to diabetes
prevention (Ortiz-Avila, Esquivel-Martínez, et al., 2015).
7CURRENT AND POTENTIAL USES
OF AVOCADO OIL
7.1Pharmaceutical and cosmetic
applications
Avocado oil is characterized by high iodine and peroxide
values, unsaponifiable matter, MUFA (Berasategi et al.,
2012;Floresetal.,2019; Villa-Rodríguez et al., 2011), chloro-
phylls, tocopherols, and carotenoids (Ashton et al., 2006;
Lu et al., 2005,2009; Rodríguez-Carpena et al., 2012;Villa-
Rodríguez et al., 2011), which are linked to chronic degen-
erative diseases risk prevention (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al.,
2014a,2014b;Dreher&Davenport,2013). This supports the
potential use of the oil in the pharmaceutical industry. Its
beneficial effects on health have been previously discussed
in the above sections and in Table 4.
On the other hand, the predominant use of avocado oil is
in the cosmetic industry due to its high vitamin E content
and emollient properties (Eyres et al., 2001; Flores et al.,
2019; Naeimifar et al., 2020). However, for this function,
the crude avocado oil needs to be refined before its incor-
poration into cosmetic products (Costagli & Betti, 2015),

4148 AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH.. .
implying additional and costly processing. In the cosmetics
industry, avocado oil is used in skincare products, because
of its sun screening property and rapid absorption into the
skin. For instance, it is used in formulations of creams
for massage muscle and psoriasis, and soaps for dandruff
treatment (Dunford, 2017).
7.2Sensory properties and culinary uses
In addition to pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications,
the specific sensory properties of avocado oil, mainly a
buttery and nonpungent flavor, draw the attention of con-
sumers as a delicate oil for application in culinary recipes,
whether in fresh or processed foods (Dunford, 2017;Tan
et al., 2018a;Woolfetal.,2009). Due to its physicochemi-
cal properties, avocado oil has been compared to olive oil,
which has a pungent and bitter flavor (Woolf et al., 2009),
which is why it has gained ground over other vegetable oils
in the culinary industry in recent years.
Avocado oil is mainly used in raw form in salads, but
its high smoke point (above 250◦Cor482◦F) confers it a
special property for its application in shallow pan frying
for the preparation of different processed dishes (Dunford,
2017). Heating at temperatures beyond its smoke point
causes oxidation and degradation of bioactive compounds,
and generates toxins in the oils; however, these implica-
tions are dependent of the oil type, as well as time and type
of fried product in the culinary process (Berasategi et al.,
2012;Oji&Vivian,2020).
Similar to olive oil, avocado oil is characterized by a high
MUFA content, which confers it a high smoking point,
making these two oils highly stable (Dunford, 2017;Tan
et al., 2018a). Temperature at which oils show a contin-
uous bluish smoke is defined as smoke point, indicating
breakdown of fat to glycerol, and subsequently to acrolein
(main component of the bluish smoke). Thus, smoke point
is highly dependent on the FFA content and chain length,
but minimally influenced by partial glycerides and degree
of unsaturation (Guillaume et al., 2018). The most volatile
fatty acids lower the smoke point during frying, thereby
diminishing its usefulness. Hence, the smoke point is a
fundamental measurement for any oil used for cooking
(Eyres, 2015).
In comparative matters, there are few scientific stud-
ies that accurately demonstrate the smoking point of avo-
cado oil over other vegetable oils. However, Eyres (2015)
reported smoke point for avocado oil of 220◦C(withno
specification of whether it was in refined or unrefined
form), above olive oil (156–200◦C) and refined coconut
oil (170◦C), but below refined canola oil (230◦C). These
data are consistent with those reported by Oji and Vivian
(2020)whoshowedthatthesmokepointofunrefinedand
refined coconut oils was at 170◦Cand232
◦C, respectively,
unlike avocado oil that requires temperatures of around
250◦C for unrefined form and 271
◦Cforrefinedformto
reach its smoking point. This suggests that the smoke point
also depends on the refining process and handling dur-
ing transport and storage in shops and kitchens. On the
other hand, Berasategi et al. (2012) demonstrated that sta-
bility of fatty acids, phytosterols, and vitamin E in avo-
cado oil was similar to that of olive oil during heat treat-
ment. Similarly, Guillaume et al. (2018)showedthatboth
avocado oil and virgin and extra virgin olive oils were
more stable at temperatures of 25–240◦C during 0–360 min
than oils of canola, rice bran, grapeseed, coconut, high
oleic peanut, and sunflower, indicating a decrease in their
smoking point during heat treatment and linking it to the
increase in FFA. This supports the advantage of avocado
oil compared to other vegetable oils during cooking.
The increased desire of consumers for natural products
of better nutritional quality and less harmful effects has
contributed to the commercialization of avocado oil, con-
siderably increasing the demand for avocado cultivation,
and finding other additional applications for the oil that
had not been previously considered.
8TENDENCIES IN THE USE OF
AVOC AD O OI L
Currently, avocado oil is used for the production of struc-
tured lipids, using immobilized lipases (regiospecific sn-
1.3) to modify the positional distribution of fatty acids in
the glycerol backbone to increase the nutritional proper-
ties (Caballero et al., 2014; Nkosi et al., 2020). In addition,
it is used as a source of phospholipids in the production
of emulsions and natural surfactants for the food indus-
try due to its interfacial characteristics (Züge et al., 2017),
improving palatability properties and significantly increas-
ing the bioavailability (Wang et al., 2018). Arancibia et al.
(2017) formulated O/W nanoemulsions with 10% of avo-
cado oil and observed an improvement in properties such
as dispersibility of water in the encapsulated oil and good
physical and chemical stability, increasing the bioavail-
ability of health-promoting LSBC. Wang et al. (2018)pre-
pared high internal phase emulsions using avocado oil
and citrus nanofibers and tannic acid as stabilizers. Such
emulsions remain stable by low levels of lipid hydroperox-
ides, malonaldehyde, and hexanal after applying thermally
enhanced storage (Guillén-Sanchez & Paucar-Menchado,
2020). Similarly, Dias et al. (2018)evaluatedtherheologi-
cal and encapsulation properties, and stability of W1/O/W2
emulsions containing avocado oil, and concluded that avo-
cado oil has a great potential as food ingredient due to its
functionality for multiple emulsions. Furthermore, it has

AVOCADO OIL AND HEALTH. .. 4149
been also employed as organic phase for interface between
two immiscible electrolyte solutions, which presented vis-
cosity properties that favored the ion transfer at the liq-
uid/liquid interface (Chen et al., 2020).
In addition to the pharmaceutic, cosmetic, and food
industries, avocado oil has been employed in other appli-
cations such as nanotechnology and environmental care.
Avocado oil is used in the degradation of biopolymers
because it acts as a carbon source for bacterium Cupri-
avidus necator H-16 in the synthesis of polyhydroxyalka-
noates (Flores-Sánchez et al., 2017). Another current appli-
cation is the nanoparticles’ synthesis with avocado oil.
Kumar et al. (2018) used avocado oil to produce gold
nanoparticles in the presence of direct sunlight and
noted that nanoparticles were capped with carboxylic acid
groups of fatty acids in avocado oil and exhibited a higher
antioxidant activity than the avocado oil. In addition, avo-
cado oil was also used to prepare nanoparticles of copper to
evaluate the film-formation capability and tribological per-
formance. Such nanoparticles led to a reduction in friction
and wear (Shafi et al., 2018).
Although avocado oil is increasingly being used in phar-
maceutic, cosmetic, and food industries, recent applica-
tions in other areas have provided interesting findings
(Nkosi et al., 2020; Sotelo-Mazon et al., 2020;Szlapak
Franco et al., 2020). Production of structured lipids for
nutritional properties, phospholipids source in the produc-
tion of emulsions and natural surfactants, and palatability
properties, among others, are the new tendencies in the
use of avocado oil. However, all the attributes of avocado
oil will depend on its characteristics and properties, which
vary according to fruit conditions and other mentioned fac-
tors. For this reason, further studies involving avocado oil
with different properties and presentations (crude, virgin,
refined, etc.) are necessary to determine the oil type with
better attributes in the different areas of applications.
9CONCLUSIONS
Global data show that significant quantities of avocado are
designated for oil production, although it is not enough to
meet consumer demand. Preferences for avocado oil are
based on its sensory properties, color, consistency, and high
content of health-promoting LSBC. The most used method
for the extraction of avocado oil is the use of solvents; how-
ever, cold pressing is used to produce avocado oil for culi-
nary uses, although with less yields. Alternative methods
have emerged in order to enhance the yield and main-
tain desirable characteristics of the avocado oil, resulting
SFE-CO2, LPG, and UAA the most efficient. The different
extraction methods and the conditions of the raw materi-
als affect the different types of avocado oil (raw, virgin, and
refined) and result in a wide variability in yield, physico-
chemical characteristics, nutritional properties, and LSBC
content. Although the beneficial health effects of avocado
oil are mainly attributed to unsaturated fatty acids, high
levels of carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols are
also strongly linked to weight control, reduction of the
probability of diabetes, regulation of blood cholesterol lev-
els implicated in liver metabolism, and skin care. The spe-
cific properties of avocado oil are of interest for its appli-
cation in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical industry, and as
edible oil. However, the new tendencies in its applica-
tion include production of structured lipids, phospholipids
source in the production of emulsions and natural sur-
factants, and palatability properties. Properties such as
smoke point and stability during heat processing have not
been considered in detail. Thus, characteristics such as
dynamic rheological properties, microstructural changes,
flavor, and color during its smoke point need to be further
investigated in order to increase its usein the development
of diverse healthy products.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is part of the research project “Determinación de
acil-transferasa y posibles genes involucrados en la esterifi-
cación de carotenoides, su potencial de absorción y actividad
antioxidante en frutos de aguacate”fundedbyCONACyT
(I1200/169/2019, MOD.ORD./38/2019, CB2017-2018, GEN-
ERAL, A1-S-28359).
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Braulio Cervantes-Paz conceptualized the idea of the
study; curated the data; assisted in formal analysis, inves-
tigation, and methodology; wrote the original draft; and
reviewed and edited the manuscript. Elhadi M. Yahia
conceptualized the idea of the study; curated the data;
assisted in formal analysis, investigation, methodology,
project administration, supervision, validation, and visu-
alization; acquired funding; provided resources; wrote the
original draft; and reviewed and edited the manuscript.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
ORCID
Braulio Cervantes-Paz https://orcid.org/0000-0001-
6976-9684
Elhadi M. Yahia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3557-8975
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How to cite this article: Cervantes-Paz B, Yahia
EM. Avocado oil: Production and market demand,
bioactive components, implications in health, and
tendencies and potential uses. Compr Rev Food Sci
Food Saf.2021;20:4120–4158.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12784