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Chapter
Controversy, Adulteration and
Substitution: Burning Problems in
Ayurveda Practices
PuneshwarKeshari
Abstract
Ayurveda is an Indian traditional system of medicine. In present era, world is
looking towards herbal medicine because of acceptability and safety. Medicinal
plants constitute an effective source of Ayurvedic and other traditional system of
medicines as well as modern medicine. In India, about of the rural popula-
tion depends on herbal medicines in primary health care level. A large percentage
of plants used in herbal industries are subject of controversy. Non-availability of
plants, poor understanding and parallel evolved knowledge systems are some of
the reasons attributed to it. The existing practices of polynomial nomenclature
system of Sanskrit, different perceptions in various communities, vernacular
equivalents, all are cumulative factors for controversy, adulteration and substitu-
tion. “ Sandigdha Dravaya “ is a term used for that type of medicinal plants which
are mentioned in Ayurvedic classics but their exact botanical source is not known.
Adulterants and substitutes are the common practices in herbal raw material trade.
Adulteration is a debasement of an article. The motives for intentional adulteration
are normally commercial that which involves deterioration, admixture, sophistica-
tion, inferiority, spoilage and other unknown reasons. Substitution is a replacement
of equivalent drugs in place of original drugs. The principles to select substitute
drugs are based on similar Rasa, Guna, Virya, Vipaka and mainly the Karma. At
present the adulteration and Substitution of the herbal drugs is the burning prob-
lem in herbal industry and in Ayurvedic practices. So it is necessary to develop reli-
able methodologies for correct identification, standardization and quality assurance
of Ayurvedic drugs.
Keywords: Controversy, Substitution, Adulteration, Ayurveda, Pratinidhi dravya
. Introduction
Ayurveda is an Indian traditional system of medicine. It is a science of life and
believed to be prevalent for last years in Indian Subcontinent. It is one of the
most noted systems of medicine in the world []. In Ayurvedic system of medicine,
treatment is based on Chikitsa Chatuspad (Tetra-pod of treatment) and for success
of treatment, all these pods most contain special qualities []. Aushadh (Drugs) is
one of the major pod, and for success of treatment potent drugs are the primary
requirement. Medicinal plants are the major source of drugs in Ayurveda.
India is one of the world’s top mega diversity countries. It has more than
one fourth () of the world’s known medicinal plant species (,), which
Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants
provides an important source of medicinal raw materials for traditional medicine
systems as well as for pharmaceutical industries []. Medicinal plants are glob-
ally valuable sources of new drugs. There are over medicinal plants used in
Europe, of which are harvested from wild resources; similar figure in India also.
Furthermore, up to of people in developing countries are totally dependent on
herbal drugs for their primary healthcare, and over of prescribed medicines in
developed countries are derived from wild plant species []. Due to an increasing
demand for medicinal plants and a loss and fragmentation of natural habitats, close
to species of Indian medicinal plants have been so far assessed as under threat in
the wild. Around , species are estimated to be facing various degrees of threat
across different biogeographic regions in the country []. Due to such a high demand
and less availability of natural sources and unavailability of crude genuine drugs,
practices of substitution and adulteration are increasing day by day. Similarly a large
percentage of plants used in herbal industries are subject of controversy. Non-
availability of plants, poor understanding and parallel evolved knowledge systems
i.e. knowledge of naming of plants by identifying species with partly similar or fully
similar properties, inherent qualities of accent and dialects, nonmedical literature
describing flora etc. are some of the reasons attributed to it [].
At present the adulteration and Substitution of the herbal drugs is the burning
problem in herbal industry and in Ayurvedic practices. Due to adulteration, faith
in herbal drugs has declined and led to one of the greatest drawbacks in promotion
of Ayurveda and Herbal products. Adulterants are also creating health hazards or
adverse events. Similarly controversy is creating problem for uniformity in stan-
dardization and reliability of Ayurvedic products and due to use of substitutions, it
is difficult to get the appropriate effects as the genuine drugs could give.
. Enumeration of controversy, adulteration and substitution
. Controversy and controversial drugs
Controversial drugs or Sandigdha Dravyas are those plants which are mentioned
in Ayurveda classics but their botanical identification is not clear. The Ayurvedic
and Sanskrit literature has described a herb with many synonyms, which do not
precisely indicate the botanical source but many a times attribute to therapeutic
utility of the plant []. For a single herb various synonyms are mentioned in
Ayurvedic lexicons on the basis of morphology, habitat, origin, therapeutic uses
etc. by using different similes which are leading causes of controversy. Quantum of
information gained from Ayurvedic and other Sanskrit literature revealed various
incidences where on common vernacular name is used for two or more entirely dif-
ferent plant species in Ayurvedic and other traditional system of medicines [] e.g.
Amrita is used both for Tinospora cordifolia, and Terminalia chebula which are totally
different drugs. Synonyms of herbs are also given according to the local languages.
India is a country having a variety of languages and population dependent on dif-
ferent tribal and folklore medicine. Sometimes this is also responsible for confusion
in the nomenclature of different plants having similar name.
. Causes of controversy
.. Mistake done during copying of manuscripts
In past there was no printing machine, Acharyas had written the manuscript-
manually in Bhurja-Patra or Taalpatra or other substances. During copying of
Controversy, Adulteration and Substitution: Burning Problems in Ayurveda Practices
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98220
these manuscripts by editors or translators, mistakes might have occurred, which
ultimately created controversy.
Single synonym given for multiple plants- In Ayurvedic lexicons single syn-
onym is used for two or more than two herbs which are totally different in morphol-
ogy which creates controversy. These types of practices come in existence mainly
during Nighantu periods e.g. Amrita is used for both Tinospora cordifolia (willd.)
Miers ex Hook & Thoms and Terminalia chebula Retz [–].
Geographical variation- India is a countryof multi diversity having high
Himalayas to sea level area and world highest rainy area to Thar Desert. Every area
has its own types of plant diversity, the plant which found in northern India mayn’t
found in southern part. So due to unavailability of those species another species
are used for the same purpose, which ultimately creates controversy. For example
Convulvulus microphyllus Sieb. ex Spreng is used by the name of Sankhpushpi in
north India but due to geographical variation, it is not available in southern part and
there Clitoria ternatea Linn. is used [–].
S. No. Sanskrit Name of the drugs Botanical Sources
. Brahmi . Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennel
(Scrophulariaceae)
. Centella asiatica (L) urban (Apiaceae)
. Jeevanti . Leptadenia reticulata Wight and Arn. (Asclepiadaceae)
. Desmotrichum fimbriatum Bl. Bidr (Orchiaceae)
. Cimicifuga foetida Linn (Ranunculaceae)
. Shankhapushpi . Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy (Convulvulaceae),
. Evolvulus alsinoides (Convulvulaceae),
. Canscora decussate Schult (Gentianaceae),
. Clitorea ternatea Linn.(Papilonaceae).
. Daruharidra . Berberis aristata DC (Berberidaceae),
. Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. (Menispermaceae),
. Rasana . Vanda tessellata Loud and Loud (Orchidaceae),
. Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd (Scitaminaceae),
. Pleuchea lanceolata C.B.Clarke. (Compositae)
. Viscum album (Loranthaceae),
. Withania coagulens (Stocks) Dunal (Solanaceae),
. Aristolochia indica L.(Aristolochiaceae)
. Inula racemosa Hook.f. (Asteraceae)
. Rauwolfia serpentine (L.) Benth. ex Kurz (Apocynaceae),
. Lochnera rosea (Apocynaceae)
. Enicostemma littorale Blume (E. littorale) (Gentianaceae)
. Talishpatra . Abies webbiana Lindl.(Pinaceae)
. Taxus baccata Linn.(Pinaceae)
. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don.(Ericaceae)
. Pashanabheda . Aerva javanica Juss. (Amarantaceae)
. Ammania baccifera Linn. (Lythraceae)
. Bergenia ligulata Wall (Saxifragaceae)
. Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.)Kurz. (Crassulaceae)
. Coleus aromaticus Benth. (Lamiaceae)
. Rotula aquatica Lour.(Boraginaceae)
. Bridelia montana (Roxb.) Willd. (Euphorbiaceae)
. Homania riparia (Euphorbiaceae)
. Ocimum basillicum L.(Lamiaceae)
Table 1.
List of some controversial drugs.
Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants
Poor understanding of Sanskrit word in different context- Ayurvedic
classics are mainly written in Sanskrit language [–]. Same word in different con-
texts give different meaning, and due to poor understanding of this type of words by
commentator further creates controversy, for example Pippala denotes Bodhivriksha
when used in malegender and the same in female gender denotes long pepper.
Substitute leading controversy- Due to non-availability or high cost in the
market, there are chances of substitution of drugs. If this practice continues for
long time the original identity of a plant may become obscure and the substitute
will be considered as the original, which ultimately creates controversy later on.
For example-Pashanbheda is used as urolithiasis (Ashmaribhedana) as the name
indicates, so drugs like Bryophyllum pinnata (Patharchuda), Aerva lanata Juss etc.
are used by name of Pashanbheda. But originally Bergenia ligualata (Wall.) Engle is
identified as the source of Pashanbheda [–].
Parallel evolving knowledge system- Identifying species and naming them
with partly similar or fully similar properties, inherent qualities of accent and
dialects may create controversy. For example Brahmi is mentioned in Ayurveda
calssics as brain tonic. Mandukparni is another drug mentioned as Medhya Rasayan
(braintonic) in Charaka Samhita. Bacopa monnieri [–].
(L.) Pennel. is source for Brahmi but in North India Centella asiatica (L) urban
(Mandookparni) is called as Brahmi due to similarity in therapeutic effects.
Vernacular names- Somewhere same name is used in different languages but
having different meaning and identity which is also a cause of controversy, e.g.
Matala in Tamil refers to Punica granatum Linn. Where as in Kannada it pertains to
Citrus medica [–].
Non Ayurvedic literature also creates controversy- In poetry Kamala,
Utpala, Kumuda, Kalhara all are referred as same plant lotus but botanically they
are different species [–].
Polynomial nomenclature- Multiple names for single plant are given in
Ayurvedic lexicons. This type of trends aroused during Nighantu Period. Different
Nighantu written by different authors gave multiple names for a single drug especially
for better understanding about the drug but they created controversy later on [–]
(Table ).
. Adulteration
Adulteration is a practice of substituting original crude drug partially or wholly
with other similar looking substances but later is either free from or inferior in
chemical and therapeutic properties. In simple word, it is debasement of an article
[]. On the basis of motive; adulteration is intentional or direct and accidental or
indirect adulteration. Direct or intentional adulteration is mainly done for com-
mercial benefits []. Deterioration, Admixture, Sophistication, Substitution,
Inferiority and Spoilage are methods of adulteration. Intentional impairment in the
quality of drug is Deterioration. Addition or mixing one substance to another acci-
dentally or carelessly or due to ignorance is Admixture. It is a type of unintentional
adulteration. Sophistication is the intentional or deliberate type of adulteration
in which some totally different substance is added in place of genuine drug while
Inferiority refers to adding of any substandard drug, and Spoilage is due to the
attack of microorganisms or parasitic infestation [].
Deterioration, Admixture, Sophistication, Substitution, Inferiority and Spoilage
are methods of adulteration. Intentional impairment in the quality of drug is
Deterioration. Addition or mixing one substance to another accidentally or
carelessly or due to ignorance is admixture.
Controversy, Adulteration and Substitution: Burning Problems in Ayurveda Practices
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98220
It is a type of unintentional adulteration. Sophistication is the intentional or
deliberate type of adulteration in which some totally different substance is added
in place of genuine drug while Inferiority refers to adding of any substandard drug,
and Spoilage is due to the attack of microorganisms or parasitic infestation [].
. Major intentional types of adulteration
• Substitution with substandard commercial varieties [, , ]
• This is the most common type of adulteration in which low standard drugs are
mixed which are morphologically, chemically and therapeutically resembles
to the original crude drugs, for example Arabian senna is used instead of
Indian senna.
• Using superficially similar inferior drugs – In this type of adulteration adulter-
ants are superficially similar in appearance but may or may not having any
chemical or therapeutic value as the original crude drugs. For example papaya
seeds are adulterated with Piper nigrum, saffron is admixed with dried flowers
of Carthamus tinctorious.
• Using artificially manufactured substance – In this type of adulteration artifi-
cially manufactured substances resemble to original crude drugs, are adulter-
ated. This type of adulteration is done for costlier drugs. For example Calcium
carbonate compounds are used by name of Vansha lochan.
• Using exhausted drug - This type of adulteration is usually done for those
drugs which contain volatile oil, for examples fennel, clove, coriander, caraway
etc. In this type same crude drug is adulterated but after extracting major
chemical constituents, e.g. Volatile oil is extracted from bud of Lavanga (clove)
and exhausted buds are adulterated. In this case sometimes extra additives are
used to make the exhausted drugs attractive.
• Using synthetic chemicals to enhance natural character- Synthetic chemicals
are used as adulterant which enhances the natural characteristics of original
drug, for example, Citral is added in citrus oil like oil of lemon or orange oil.
• Presence of vegetative matter of same plant- Instead of proper used parts of
crude drugs other parts of same species or miniature species grown around
the large species are mixed with genuine crude drugs. For example instead of
Moola (root) of
• Bala (Sida cardifolia) stem or whole parts of plant is used. This type of adul-
teration occurs in both intentional and unintentional adulteration.
• Harmful adulterants - For increasing weight of crude drugs for commer-
cial profit, some harmful substances are added with genuine crude drugs,
for example stone pieces and sand particles mixed in Guggulu (gum of
Commiphora mukul).
• Adulteration of powders- The drugs which are commonly found in powder
forms are adulterated with powder of other substances resembling the same,
examples are dextrin in ipecacuanha and Kampillak (Malotous phillipinensis)
powder is adulterated with Annatto dye (Bixa orellana Linn.) [, , ].
Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants
. Reason for adulteration
. Intentional adulteration is done mainly due to commercial benefits, when there
is high demand but less availability of drugs.
. Unintentional adulteration is done due to following reasons [, ]
• Confusion in vernacular names- e.g. Aerva lanata (source of Pashanbheda in
south) adulterated as Bergenia ligualata.
• Lack of knowledge about authentic source e.g. Calophyllum inophyllum is
adultered with Mesua ferra.
• Similarity in color and morphology – For example Mucuna utilis and Mucuna
deeringiana are used for Mucuna pruriens
• Careless collection/improper collection – Definite part of herb should be
collected in particular season, particular place and particular part of plant
should be collected but ignorance of these things during collection and drugs
collected carelessly may cause adulteration.
• Improper storage- Due to improper storage physical factors such as air
(oxygen), humidity, light, and temperature can bring about deterioration
directly or indirectly and use of such type of drug acts as adulterant.
• Imperfect preparation- Some of crude drugs should be processed before
marketing, during such processing improper technique may destroy active
constituents e.g. over drying of crude drugs, removal of cork from zinger etc.
(Table ).
. Substitution
Substitution is a replacement of equivalent drugs in place of original drugs on
the basis of similar pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses. In Ayurveda,
substitution is described by the name of Abhava Pratinidhi Dravya. During
Samhita Period concept of adulteration and substitution was not existed but
S.No. Genuine drugs Adulternats
. Mussabar(Aloe barbadensis)Black catechu (Acacia catechu)
. Nagkeshara (Mesua ferrea)Buds of Mammea suriga and Calophyllum inophyllum
. Punarnawa (Boerhavia diffusa)Trianthema portulachastrum
. Ashoka (Saraca indica)Polyalthia longifoia
. Kutaja (Holarrhena antidysenterica)Wrightia tinctoria, Wrightia tomentosa
. Guggulu (Gum of Commiphora wightii)Gum resin of Boswellia serrata,
Hymenodictyon excelsura
. Bol or Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)Gum of Commiphora wightii
Table 2.
List of few commonly used adulterants in Ayurveda.
Controversy, Adulteration and Substitution: Burning Problems in Ayurveda Practices
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98220
later on this practices come in existence. But Va g bh a t t a has mentioned that the
dravya having similar Ras (taste), Guna(characteristic), Vee ry a (potency) and
Vipaka should be used in absence of each other. So Abhava Pratinidhi Dravya is a
replacement of original drug basically having similar Rasa, Guna, Veerya, Vipak
and mostly on Karma. Description of Abahva Pratinidhi Dravyas are mentioned
in Bhavaprakash Nighantu, Yogratnakar and Bhaishajya-Ratnawali [–]. There
are drugs of plant origin (Sthavar Dravya), drugs of animal origin (Jangam
Dravya), drugs Minerals- Metals origin (Bhoumya Dravya) and food materi-
als (Ahara Dravya) mentioned for Abhava Pratinidhi Dravya in Bhavaprakash
Nighantu [, ].
. Need for substitution
• Non-availability of the drug: Some drugs mentioned in Ayurvedic lexicon are
not available nowadays, so those drugs are substituted by other drugs having
similar therapeutic value [, , , , ]. For example most of drugs from
Astavarga are not easily available so those drugs are substituted by other ones
e.g. Meda and Mahameda are substituted by Shatavari.
○Uncertain identity of the drug: The drugs which are mentioned in
Ayurvedic classics but their botanical identity is not clear those are substi-
tuted by known one e.g. for the herb Lakshmana, different species such as
Arlia quinquefolia, Ipomea sepiaria etc. are considered.
• Cost of the drug: Kumkuma (Crocus sativus) is more costly so it is substituted
by less expensive Kusumbha (Carthamus tinctorius Linn.).
• Geographical distribution of the drug: Rasna (Pluchea lanceolata) is used in
Northern India while in southern parts Alpinia galanga is used as Rasana and
Vanda roxburghii is considered as source in Bengal.
• The adverse reaction of the drug: Vasa (Adhatoda vasica) is good Rakta-
Pittahara (antihaemorrhagic) drug, but having abortificiant activity, so
instead of this drug Laksha (Lacifer lacca), Ashoka (Saraca asoka) etc. are used
in pregnant women for the same purpose.
• Seasonal availability of drug- Punarnawa (Boerhaavia diffusa) is commonly not
found throughout the year so for that Trianthema portulacastrum (Varshabhu)
can be used as substitute, which is found throughout the year [, , , , ].
. Types of substitution
• Substitution with totally different drug - Use of Danti (Baliospermum monta-
num) as a substitute of Chitraka (Plumbgo zelenycum) [, , , , , ].
• Substitution of species belonging in same family – Datura metal is
substituted by Datura stamonium.
• Using different species having common Sanskrit name - Two types of
Gokshura are used, they are Tribulus terrestris (Laghu Gokshur) and Padalium
murex (Brihat Gokshura).
Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants
• Using different parts of same plant – Instead of root of Sida cordifolia whole
plants of Sida cordifolia is used.
• Due to similar action- Aamalki (Embelica officinalis) is taken instead of Bhallatak
(Semicarpus anacardium) for Rasayan karma (rejunaive action) (Tabl e ) [, ].
. A case of substitution in Nepal
Rohitaka is mentioned in almost all classics of Ayurveda such as Brihattrayee
(Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, and Ashtanga Hridya) and other lexicons
such as Sharangdhara Samhita, Bhavaprakasha Nighantu, and Yoga Ratnakar. It
is also mentioned in maximum numbers of Nighantu (Ayurvedic lexicons). It is
mentioned as Yakritpleehagulmodar Roga-hara (useful in liver diseases, spleen dis-
orders, and abdominal lumps). Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem. from Bignoniaceae
family is a genuine source of Rohitaka. It is commonly known as “Rohida” or
“Desert Teak” and an important deciduous, ornamental, and medicinal tree [].
In crude drug market of Nepal Rhododendron arboreum Sm. is sold by the name
of Rohitaka and considered as substitute of Tecomella undulata (Sm.) Seem. The
Nepali name of Rohitaka is given as Guransa in Chandra Nighantu which is a hand
written famous manuscript in Nepal and kept in Singha Darbar Vaidyakhana Vikas
Samiti (SDVKVS) in Kathmandu. In this manuscript manually drawn picture of
Rohitaka is given which is Guransa and is botanically identified as Rhododendron
arboretum Sm. Traditional practitioners use this drug for liver disorders like
Jaundice (Kamala), hepatitis, hepatomegaly etc. Leaves, flowers, bark are used for
various purposes traditionally and in Ayurvedic practices [].
The genuine source of Rohitaka is identified as T. undulata (Sm.) Seem.
However, due to non-availability of the genuine source, various other drugs are
used as substitute. Stem bark of R. arboreum Sm. is commonly found by the name
of Rohitaka in herbal raw drugs trade in Nepal. The rationality behind selection of
Pratinidhi Dravya (substitute drug) isbased on similarity in Rasa, Guna, Veerya,
and Vipaka with that of original drug. On organoleptic evaluation, both drugs
are bitter in taste substantiated the similarity in Rasa. The pharmacognostic and
analytical studies have confirmed the genuinity and purity of both the drugs (R.
arboreum Sm. and T. undulata [Sm.] Seem.). Both the drugs have few common
phytochemicals such as carbohydrates, alkaloids, tannins, and phenols which are
responsible for their pharmacological actions. Chromatographic study showed
S.No. Main drugs Substitutes
. Plumbago zeylanicum Linn Baliospermum montanum Muell
. Valeriana wallichii D C Saussurea lappa C B Clarke
. Punarnawa (Boerhavia diffusa)Trianthema portulachastrum
. Ashoka (Saraca indica)Polyalthia longifoia
. Marsedenia tenacissima W Odina woodier Roxb.
. Clerodendrum serratum Spreng Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad
& Wendl
. Piper cubeba Linn.f. Cyperus rotundus Linn.
Table 3.
List of few examples of substitute drugs (herbs) [20, 21].
Controversy, Adulteration and Substitution: Burning Problems in Ayurveda Practices
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98220
the presence of phytoconstituents in R. arboreum and phytoconstituents in
T. undulata extracts, and among them, three phytoconstituents having Rf of ..
., . are common [].
. Discussion
Controversy, Adulteration and Substitution are interrelated with each other.
Substitution practices if exists for long time the original identity of a plant may
become obscure and the substitute will be considered as the original, leading to cre-
ate controversy. Nonavailability and high market price of crude drugs led to adul-
teration. Similarly controversy about authentic botanical source of medicinal plants
dealt in classical Ayurveda texts led a cause of substitution because of lack of proper
authentication, the drugs having similar morphology or similar therapeutic effects
might be practiced. Controversy, adulteration and substitution create problems for
standardization of Ayurvedic practices and herbal products. Substitution of genuine
drug is need of time because of unavailability of genuine drugs due to deforestation,
global warming, lack of adequate cultivation practices etc. Although substitution
should be only done for endangered and red listed plants and the major constituent
of a preparation should not be substituted. The rational substitution in Ayurveda
is based on similarities in Guna of both the drugs and not on inferior qualities. It
should be properly validated in contemporary context using both Ayurvedic princi-
ples and Modern Scientific tools. World Health Organization (WHO), in its publica-
tion on quality standards for medicinal plant materials, recommends rejecting any
batch of raw material, which has more than of any other plant part of the same
plant (e.g. stem in leaf drugs), never the less if they are derived from the authentic
plant. Based on these standards, adulteration whether, intentional or unintentional,
should be rejected. Collectors, suppliers and traders should be educated for authen-
tic sources of drugs. Intentional adulteration should be discouraged by strictly
implementing the regulatory laws. Due to adulteration faith in Ayurvedic practices
and drugs has declined and adulteration in market samples is the greatest drawback
in promotion of herbal drugs. So for quality, safety and standardization purpose of
Ayurvedic products and practices the problem related with controversy, substitution
and adulteration of drugs should be resolved for its worldwide acceptance.
The prime factor for resolution of controversy is the proper authentication
of botanical source of medicinal herbs mentioned in classics, for this, literature
review, ethno-botanical survey, medicinal plants survey and drug evaluation
(morphological, microscopic, chemical, physical and biological evaluation)
should be done. Similarly for determination and detection of adulteration,
various steps of drug evaluation should be applied. Substitution of drugs should
only suggested when therapeutic efficacy of substituted drug is similar to
original one.
The uniformity in selection of crude drugs for pharmaceutical preparations and
practices should maintain the standardization of Ayurvedic products and for this
Ayurvedic pharmacopeia of India (API) and Ayurvedic formulary of India (AFI)
is playing a vital role, so maximum number of drugs mentioned in classics and
practiced traditionally should be incorporated in API and AFI.
. Conclusion
• Controversy about drugs is mainly due to polynomial system of nomenclature
in classical texts.
Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants
Author details
PuneshwarKeshari
Department of Ayurveda and Alternative Medicine, Ministry of Health and
Population, Government of Nepal, Teku, Kathmandu, Nepal
*Address all correspondence to: dr.puneshwarkeshari@gmail.com
• Naama-Roopa (nomenclature and morphology) of drugs are clear in Samhitas,
controversy aroused mainly due to Nirukti (basonyms)and Paryaya (syn-
onyms) are given by different Nighantus.
• Proper identification of original botanical source is even a great problem
till date.
• Adulteration and Substitution are different. The most essential criteria for
substitution is the pharmacological activity rather than morphology or
phytoconstituents.
• Substitution of the herbs is the need of the hour with more than medicinal
plants becoming red listed.
• Adulteration is a malpractice not only done intentionally but accidentally due
to involvement of untrained personnel in collection and trade.
• Controversy about authentic botanical source of medicinal plants dealt in
classical Ayurvedic texts and problem regarding substitution and adulteration
should be resolved by integrated research and those sources should be vali-
dated which have more potency for described pharmacological activities.
© The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/.), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Controversy, Adulteration and Substitution: A Burning Problem in Ayurveda Practices
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98220
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