How Do We Manage a Just Transition? A Comparative Review of National and Regional Just Transition Initiatives

Abstract

The concept of a ‘just transition’ encompasses political and policy imperatives to minimize the harmful impacts of industrial and economic transitions on workers, communities, and society more generally, and to maximize their potential benefits. This imperative has gained heightened importance as governments commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. A wide range of policies, strategies and initiatives have been adopted by national and regional governments to facilitate and help manage a just transition. It is a concept that is increasingly being put into practice. This scoping study identifies and compares strategies, policies, and practices that are presently being implemented in order to manage a just transition across 25 countries and 74 regions alongside European Union-level policies. This work develops a typology of policy instruments to manage just transitions and identifies implementation gaps and leading practices.

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Article
How Do We Manage a Just Transition? A Comparative Review
of National and Regional Just Transition Initiatives
Tamara Antonia Krawchenko 1, * and Megan Gordon 2


Citation: Krawchenko, T.A.; Gordon,
M. How Do We Manage a Just
Transition? A Comparative Review of
National and Regional Just Transition
Initiatives. Sustainability 2021,13,
6070. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su13116070
Academic Editor: Tomonobu Senjyu
Received: 13 May 2021
Accepted: 27 May 2021
Published: 28 May 2021
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4.0/).
1Public Administration/Faculty of Human and Social Development, University of Victoria,
Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada
2Geography/Faculty of Environment, University of Northern British Columbia,
Prince George, BC V2N 4Z9, Canada; gordonm@unbc.ca
*Correspondence: TamaraKrawchenko@UVic.ca; Tel.: +1-250-721-6442
Abstract:
The concept of a ‘just transition’ encompasses political and policy imperatives to minimize
the harmful impacts of industrial and economic transitions on workers, communities, and society
more generally, and to maximize their potential benefits. This imperative has gained heightened
importance as governments commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. A wide range of policies,
strategies and initiatives have been adopted by national and regional governments to facilitate and
help manage a just transition. It is a concept that is increasingly being put into practice. This scoping
study identifies and compares strategies, policies, and practices that are presently being implemented
in order to manage a just transition across 25 countries and 74 regions alongside European Union-
level policies. This work develops a typology of policy instruments to manage just transitions and
identifies implementation gaps and leading practices.
Keywords:
just transition; energy transition; regional development; public policy; governance;
OECD; European Union
1. Introduction
The concept of a ‘just transition’ encompasses a political imperative, a policy goal,
and a set of practices meant to minimize the harmful impacts of industrial and economic
transitions on workers, communities, and society at large. The term ‘just transition’ was
first championed in the 1970s by the North American labor movement to describe a range
of measures to secure workers’ rights and livelihoods in the wake of government-led
environmental legislation and regulations that could have labor impacts [
1
]. The idea
of a ‘just transition’ became globally prominent in the context of international climate
negotiations and through the advocacy of global union organizations [
2
–
4
]. This is evident
in the sharp increase in the topic as a central theme in academic and think tank work,
much of which has grappled with the dual responsibilities of reducing GHG emissions and
addressing social justice issues in impacted regions [
5
]. Within a just transitions approach,
justice can be conceived in distributional, procedural, and recognitional terms: distributional
justice is concerned with how different groups benefit or experience impacts from the
changes required; recognitional justice identifies interest groups and rights holders who
may be implicated; and procedural justice is concerned with elements of governance—who
is included and how [6–8].
The just transitions literature spans ‘jobs-focused’, ‘environment-focused’, and ‘society-
focused’ interpretations [
3
,
6
,
8
–
12
]. Each approach has implications for where and to whom
governments focus their policy support and investments. The ‘jobs-focused’ interpretation
advocates primarily for workers and communities impacted by environmental and climate
policies. This interpretation has its roots in the original principles of labor leaders who
coined the term. Advocates for a jobs-focused just transition are often social-democratic
unions in regions that rely on carbon-intensive industries and resource extraction [
9
]. This
Sustainability 2021,13, 6070. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116070 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 2 of 16
interpretation is closely aligned with a ‘differentiated responsibility’ approach that assumes
states and capital have a responsibility toward workers impacted by environmental regula-
tions [
3
]. The ‘environment-focused’ interpretation of just transition evaluates transitions
based on the primary objective of enabling the shift to a zero-carbon economy. Its lens is
socio-technical—examining the production and consumption patterns of a sector [
8
,
10
].
‘Society-focused’ interpretations adopt the broadest approach to just transition with the
widest application of solutions. This approach views just transition measures as a means
to uplift and support workers, communities, and society, and encompasses a broad range
of interests and advocates for system transformation [
6
]. It advocates for universal eq-
uity and justice through addressing inequities on national and sub-national scales (e.g.,
marginalized communities facing disproportionate harms of resource development) and
on a global scale (e.g., energy poverty in developing countries) [
5
,
13
,
14
]. Each of these
have implications for the design of policy responses by governments.
This scoping study contributes to the just transitions literature by focusing on policy
implementation for just transitions. It synthesizes national and regional initiatives, strategies,
policies, and practices that are being presently implemented to manage a just transition
across 25 countries (advanced OECD economies) and 74 regions plus European Union
level policies. It develops a typology of national and regional policy practices and offers
comparative policy learning.
2. Methods: Comparative Policy Scoping Review
This study has been conducted as a scoping review: “a form of knowledge synthesis
that addresses an exploratory research question aimed at mapping key concepts, types of
evidence, and gaps in research related to a defined area or field by systematically searching,
selecting and synthesizing existing knowledge” [
15
] (p. 663). The content of national and
regional just transition policies and practices have been collected and analyzed alongside
a review of academic (peer-reviewed) and documents from other relevant public and
non-profit organizations (e.g., International Labor Organization, Just Transition Center,
Green New Deal). The inclusion criteria for this study were broad: any policies, strategies,
and interventions directed to managing industrial transitions that address just transitions
goals: both those that explicitly employ the term ‘just transition’ and those that do not.
The cases of interest were selected from among member countries of the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)—so-called ‘advanced economies’.
This study identified 130 sub-regional territories (TL3) across OECD countries where
there has been a high share of employment in industry (more than a quarter out of total
employment), which has subsequently declined in the past decade (timeframe 1999–2019).
The data for this analysis was accessed from the OECD regional database (https://stats.
oecd.org, accessed on 1 September 2021). Employment in industry (under ISIC Rev 4, B-5)
includes the following: (A) mining and quarrying (B), manufacturing (C), electricity, gas
and conditioning supply (D), water supply, sewerage, waste management and remediation
activities, construction (F). Sub-regions were sorted according to the following four types
(see Figures 1–3below):
•
Sub-regions that have undergone transition (transitioned regions): These 130 sub-regional
territories show a declining trend going from a high share of employment to a lower
share over the past two decades. These are TL3 regions where the share of employment
in industry was greater than 25% in industries including energy from 2000–2009 and
less than 25% from 2010–2019.
•
Sub-regions that may face transition in the future (high industry regions): These sub-regions
show a high share of employment in industry, greater than 25% from 2000–2019.
•
Sub-regions that are increasing in industrial employment (growing industry regions): These
sub-regions demonstrate a higher share of employment in recent years: the share of
employment in industry is greater than 25% from 2010 onward.

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 3 of 16
•
Lower industry employment sub-regions (low industry regions): Sub-regions for which
there is less than 25% share of employment in industry including energy. These are in
effect “the rest” [16].
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
• Sub-regions that are increasing in industrial employment (growing industry regions): These
sub-regions demonstrate a higher share of employment in recent years: the share of
employment in industry is greater than 25% from 2010 onward.
• Lower industry employment sub-regions (low industry regions): Sub-regions for which
there is less than 25% share of employment in industry including energy. These are
in effect “the rest” [16].
The first type—sub-regions that have undergone transition—formed the basis of case
selection for the regional and national policy scan, resulting in a final selection of 74 re-
gions across 25 counties.
Academic and policy literature, including government websites, were searched
through a number of key search terms related to just transitions in order to develop a
comprehensive understanding of the range of policies that are being used to manage in-
dustrial transitions (or not, as the case may be). The searches focused on policies, strate-
gies, and interventions within the past five years (2015–2020). Multiple searches were con-
ducted for the purposes of exhaustive coverage (facilitated by Google Translate for non-
English and non-French documentation and studies). Search terms included a mix of pol-
icy instruments types (e.g., policy, strategy, commitment, program, initiative, mechanism,
fund) alongside sectoral or thematic descriptors (e.g., industry, workforce, climate adap-
tation and mitigation, energy, energy transition, fair transition, transition, employment,
community, coal). Literature was coded by key terms and core findings have been syn-
thesized using Mendeley reference management software (using thematic tagging) and in
Excel tables in order to identify the main thematic areas of policy interventions and strat-
egies. The policy intentions (i.e., type of supports, how they were directed) were summa-
rized, recoded, and thematically bundled, forming the basis of the comparative typology
and summary tables. Wherever possible, comparative analysis was verified against exist-
ing resources [17]. There are a number of limitations of this study. This research relied on
web searches of publicly available documentation, largely from government websites. It
is possible that some information was not up to date and that, despite our best efforts at
conducting comprehensive searches, important polices, initiatives, or strategies were
missed.
Figure 1. Case selection typology, North America. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 1. Case selection typology, North America. Source: Own elaboration.
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14
Figure 2. Case selection typology, Europe. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 3. Case selection typology, Korea, Japan, Chile, Australia. Source: Own elaboration.
3. Results: National and Regional Just Transitions Initiatives
This section provides an overview of national and regional just transition initiatives.
Seven thematic policy areas of intervention were identified in this analysis:
1. Governance mechanisms: Measures to manage, coordinate, plan, and dedicate specific
resources toward transition;
2. Climate and sustainability planning: Ensuring preparedness for the effects of climate
change and realizing new opportunities in a green economy;
3. Workforce development: Supporting employed and displaced workers with the skills,
training, and information required to find and keep jobs;
4. Economic development: Creating new economic opportunities to replace traditional in-
dustries or update existing ones;
5. Regional and rural development: Ensuring all regions have the assets and capabilities to
be successful and supporting places negatively impacted by industrial transitions;
Figure 2. Case selection typology, Europe. Source: Own elaboration.

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 4 of 16
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14
Figure 2. Case selection typology, Europe. Source: Own elaboration.
Figure 3. Case selection typology, Korea, Japan, Chile, Australia. Source: Own elaboration.
3. Results: National and Regional Just Transitions Initiatives
This section provides an overview of national and regional just transition initiatives.
Seven thematic policy areas of intervention were identified in this analysis:
1. Governance mechanisms: Measures to manage, coordinate, plan, and dedicate specific
resources toward transition;
2. Climate and sustainability planning: Ensuring preparedness for the effects of climate
change and realizing new opportunities in a green economy;
3. Workforce development: Supporting employed and displaced workers with the skills,
training, and information required to find and keep jobs;
4. Economic development: Creating new economic opportunities to replace traditional in-
dustries or update existing ones;
5. Regional and rural development: Ensuring all regions have the assets and capabilities to
be successful and supporting places negatively impacted by industrial transitions;
Figure 3. Case selection typology, Korea, Japan, Chile, Australia. Source: Own elaboration.
The first type—sub-regions that have undergone transition—formed the basis of case
selection for the regional and national policy scan, resulting in a final selection of 74 regions
across 25 counties.
Academic and policy literature, including government websites, were searched through
a number of key search terms related to just transitions in order to develop a comprehensive
understanding of the range of policies that are being used to manage industrial transitions
(or not, as the case may be). The searches focused on policies, strategies, and interventions
within the past five years (2015–2020). Multiple searches were conducted for the purposes
of exhaustive coverage (facilitated by Google Translate for non-English and non-French
documentation and studies). Search terms included a mix of policy instruments types (e.g.,
policy, strategy, commitment, program, initiative, mechanism, fund) alongside sectoral or
thematic descriptors (e.g., industry, workforce, climate adaptation and mitigation, energy,
energy transition, fair transition, transition, employment, community, coal). Literature was
coded by key terms and core findings have been synthesized using Mendeley reference
management software (using thematic tagging) and in Excel tables in order to identify the
main thematic areas of policy interventions and strategies. The policy intentions (i.e., type
of supports, how they were directed) were summarized, recoded, and thematically bundled,
forming the basis of the comparative typology and summary tables. Wherever possible,
comparative analysis was verified against existing resources [
17
]. There are a number
of limitations of this study. This research relied on web searches of publicly available
documentation, largely from government websites. It is possible that some information
was not up to date and that, despite our best efforts at conducting comprehensive searches,
important polices, initiatives, or strategies were missed.
3. Results: National and Regional Just Transitions Initiatives
This section provides an overview of national and regional just transition initiatives.
Seven thematic policy areas of intervention were identified in this analysis:
1.
Governance mechanisms: Measures to manage, coordinate, plan, and dedicate specific
resources toward transition;
2.
Climate and sustainability planning: Ensuring preparedness for the effects of climate
change and realizing new opportunities in a green economy;

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 5 of 16
3.
Workforce development: Supporting employed and displaced workers with the skills,
training, and information required to find and keep jobs;
4.
Economic development: Creating new economic opportunities to replace traditional
industries or update existing ones;
5.
Regional and rural development: Ensuring all regions have the assets and capabilities to
be successful and supporting places negatively impacted by industrial transitions;
6.
Innovation and research: Ensuring readiness for an evolving global economy and
advancing technology to ensure industries and regions are modern, efficient, and
functional; and,
7.
Social Supports: Ensuring access to basic financial and social supports during periods
of economic change.
The remainder of this section describes the prevalence of national and regional initia-
tives across these seven thematic areas.
3.1. National Initiatives
The national cases span federal, quasi-federal, and unitary states and one suprana-
tional body in the case of the European Union (EU). Table 1provides an overview of the
national interventions by thematic area. A broad range of policy instruments can address
aspects of a just transition; however, only those interventions that are specifically targeted to
industries or regions/communities facing industrial transitions have been highlighted in blue.
A major delineation in approaches is the overarching policies and strategies that seek
to propel socio-technical transitions toward new low carbon activities versus those that
are directed to specified sectors or industries (in regions). Among the countries of study, only
three have clearly defined just transitions mechanisms that are directed to specific sectors.
These are:
•
Canada’s Task Force on Just Transition for Canadian Coal Power Workers and Communities,
which developed recommendations on how to manage the transition [
18
]. This has
subsequently resulted in federal funding for transition centers in impacted communi-
ties [19];
•
Spain’s Just Transition Agreements with territories experiencing coal mine, coal power
plant, and nuclear power plant closures [20];
•
New Zealand’s Just Transition Unit housed in the Ministry of Business Innovation and
Employment, which conducts research and provides advice to government on the
challenges and opportunities created by the transition to a low-carbon economy [21].
These initiatives work in different ways. Canada’s Just Transition Task Force has
entailed a targeted response to the coal sector. An external group of experts was convened
to understand the problem of coal phase outs in specific communities and 10 recommen-
dations were subsequently made to the government on how they could act to support
this process. These recommendations focus on multi-level government coordination with
an emphasis on income and labor market supports and community investments (e.g.,
local infrastructure development). In 2019, the Government of Canada funded the fourth
recommendation of the Task Force: to fund the establishment and operation of locally-
driven transition centers in affected communities [
18
]. Canada has also agreed to fund
the eighth recommendation to identify, prioritize, and fund local infrastructure projects in
affected communities. The purpose of these units is to create a single hub for community
members to access a wide range of services such as re-employment support, training, and
social support services. The Government of Canada is discussing the creation of a new
“Just Transition Act,” which would update the Canadian Environmental Protection Act
(CEPA) [22]. It is not yet clear what aspects of the environment the Act would address.
Spain’s approach to managing just transitions is far more encompassing. Through its
Just Transition Agreements, Spain has entered into pacts with social partners. For example,
the transition deal between the government, trade unions, and the National Federation
of Coal Mining Businesses (Carbunion) covers Spain’s privately-owned pits until 2027
(other agreements will cover public sector mining operations and other industries such

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 6 of 16
as electricity unions) [
23
]. EU regional development funds are a key part of Spain’s just
transitions efforts [
24
]. National and EU funding will support: (i) investments in business
and clean energy initiatives (2019–2023); (ii) early retirement for miners over 48 and;
(iii) retraining for green jobs; and, environmental restoration of the affected areas. This
last point is worth noting—environmental restoration and land management are often
absent from transition plans. For example, Canada’s Just Transition Task Force made
no recommendations to the government regarding environmental remediation and land
management. Land is a critical asset in affected communities and, except for remediation
and effective land management, these industrial closures could become a major liability for
the community.
In contrast to Spain and Canada’s just transition initiatives, New Zealand’s Just
Transition Unit offers a center of governmental expertise on how to manage just transitions
and broker partnerships in affected regions. New Zealand has committed to a low carbon
economy: the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) Amendment Act 2019 is now law
and in 2018, it was announced that no further offshore oil and gas exploration permits
would be issued. This transition impacts certain regions more than others. The Taranaki
region—where the energy sector represents 28% of the regional economic output—has been
a major focus of the unit’s partnership efforts and governmental and local and regional
partners have co-developed the Taranaki 2050 Roadmap, which sets out a strategy for
economic diversification [
25
]. The work of New Zealand’s Just Transitions Unit is notably
proactive, seeking to identify regions that are (or will be) negatively impacted by ongoing
efforts to decarbonize the economy and to co-develop new economic strategies. The just
transitions literature as well as expert recommendations (such as by Canada’s Task Force)
all note the importance of early interventions. New Zealand’s approach aims to do just that.
Among the vast majority of the countries studied, national level just transition plans
are absent: this is about to change. In January 2020, the European Commission unveiled
aJust Transition Mechanism that aims to mobilize EUR 150 billion (100 billion direct EC
contribution, remaining matching funds) through three main mechanisms:
•
A new Just Transition Fund that provides funding that should be matched by member
states through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the European
Social Fund Plus (ESF+).
•
An InvestEU scheme that will provide financing according to just transition objectives
in targeted territories. These funds will be used to support a wide range of projects
including those for energy and transport infrastructure including gas infrastructure
and district heating, but also decarbonization projects, economic diversification, and
social infrastructure.
•
Anew loan facility leveraged by the European Investment Bank (EIB) that will primarily
entail grants to public sector entities with resources to implement measures to facilitate
the transition to climate neutrality [26].
EU countries will produce Territorial Just Transition Plans to 2030 that will describe the
nature of the social, economic and environmental challenges stemming from fossil fuel-
related phase-outs and/or GHG decarbonizing initiatives. These will outline the transition
process to 2030 including development, reskilling, and environmental rehabilitation [
27
].
The plans will detail timelines, operations, and governance mechanisms to meet prescribed
targets. Thus, government planning in Europe is poised for change.
Overarching national transition strategies such as those being promoted by the EC’s
Just Transition Mechanism may bring coherence to what are at present a patchwork of
initiatives related to the thematic policy areas relevant to industrial transition. Fourteen
out of the 27 countries examined have binding net zero GHG commitments, with Finland’s
2035 commitment being the earliest. However, only in eight cases do these commitments
specifically address industrial or economic transformations. Coal phase out legislation,
strategies, and commitments have been made in Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland,
France Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, New Zealand, Portugal, Slovakia, Sweden,
and the UK. The Powering Past Coal Alliance—a group of 104 countries, cities, regions, and

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 7 of 16
organizations aiming to accelerate the fossil-fuel phase out of coal-fired power stations—
have been instrumental in building momentum on this. Despite these commitments, some
would argue that the transition has not been actively planned and managed [
28
]. Almost
all countries are investing in innovation and green energy, but these are not necessarily
linked to economic development plans and regional development initiatives, nor do they
address elements of justice (e.g., excluding important stakeholders and rights holders from
decision making). Some countries have an energy transition fund (e.g., Belgium), but this
is not linked to broader multi-level governance mechanisms.
Social insurance programs are another critical transition policy instrument which
serve to support individuals who have lost their jobs as they transition to new employment,
as does labor market support (e.g., skills upgrading, retraining, employment placement
supports). These resources can be mobilized for targeted interventions; this is most com-
monly done at the regional or local level, depending on how these services are organized
(i.e., they may not be absent, but delivered at a different scale). As a response to the
COVID-19 pandemic, states have adopted a wide range of temporary income support for
individuals who have lost their jobs. However, only the United States offers temporary
income support for displaced workers in a specific industry—the U.S. Department of Labor
offers POWER Dislocated Worker Grants and Resources for Coal Miners in three states
(Ohio, Kentucky, and West Virginia) [
29
]. The United States also has a separate national
pension plan for miners.
In the 14 countries that have national spatial planning frameworks, mechanisms to
address the transitioning uses and remediation of land in high industry regions are absent.
The European Commission’s Just Transition Mechanism (JTM) is shifting the status quo
as spatial plans will need to be submitted to the EC for approval for JTM funding. For
example, Greece, which has vast lignite dependent regions, will need to present analytical
spatial plans detailing spatial transitions in accordance with the National Energy and
Climate Plan [
30
]. These plans will then be incorporated into the EU’s National Strategic
Reference Framework.
The just transitions policy landscape is quickly changing due to new climate commit-
ments and economic stimulus measures as a response to COVID-19. For example, Korea’s
Green New Deal regulates and ends financing for coal plants, imposes phased carbon taxes,
and increases “energy welfare” [
31
,
32
], and Germany’s federal Structural Development
Act provides support to lignite regions. While the policy response in some countries has
been to embrace a decarbonization agenda and address the social aspects of such a shift, in
others, carbon intensive industries are being championed as key to recovery efforts. For
example, the Morrison government in Australia is promoting a “gas-led recovery” and the
renewable energy target will not be extended beyond 2020 [33].
3.2. Regional Initiatives
Regional just transitions initiatives are described here as all those policies and inter-
ventions directed to managing industrial transitions at the subnational (regional) level that
address just transitions goals. The jurisdictional responsibilities of regions differ across the
countries examined, spanning federal, quasi-federal, and unitary systems. In countries
such as Canada, regional governments (i.e., provincial and territorial government) are
a constitutionally independent order of government and have important policy respon-
sibilities including jurisdiction over health care, education, natural resources, and local
government. Many regions (particularly in unitary states) are policy takers, with their
capacities and scope for action disproportionately shaped by national governments. As
such, national strategies, policies, and interventions shape regional agency and functions.
Industrial transitions are inherently place-based and, as such, regional policies are
an important instrument to manage these transitions. This component of the research
has examined the presence of industrial transition policies in 74 regions identified by
their having sub regions where there has been a significant industrial shift in the past
two decades. In the case of the region of Leverkusen Kreisfreie Stadt of Cologne, Germany,

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 8 of 16
the share of employment was as high as 36% (in 2000). The greatest proportional declines
in industrial employment over the 2000–2019 regions were in New Zealand’s Auckland
and Wellington regions, Bay of Plenty region, and the West Lothian, Stoke-on-Trent, and
Walsall regions of the UK. These places experienced rapid transformations as they shed
industrial employment.
The regional scale is closer to workers, community members, and local governments
than that of national governments and as such can work on the ground with local govern-
ments, residents, and businesses to support them [
34
]. This scan of regional strategies and
policy instruments was conducted in order to determine whether initiatives could either:
(i) be leveraged for the purpose of mitigating negative outcomes from industrial transition
on workers and communities; or (ii) provide wide enough benefit to economic, social, or
environmental outcomes in order to potentially cushion the negative outcomes of industrial
transitions in regions. This included a review of plans and strategies that outline intentions
and general approaches to a given subject (e.g., economy, environment). The presence
of a strategy does not necessarily mean that there are funded actions associated with it.
Strategies can be funded (i.e., clear budget allocations) or unfunded. Funded strategies
that are accompanied by tangible, concrete actions and that include implementation plans
are the most effective and often serve to coordinate actions across levels of government
and between sectoral departments. It is also important to note that strategies are political
documents and, as such, may be of a limited time perspective.
Out of the 74 regions examined, around a third (34%) had regional level plans that ad-
dress some aspect of a just transition. Among these, broad-based just transitions strategies
were evident in around a third of the regions (32%) while the remainder were focused on
technology and innovation (25%), circular economy (14%), energy efficiency (14%) climate
change (11%), skills (7%), and coal phase-outs (7%). In Germany, the coal phase out law
has impacted many regions and there is a national compensation mechanism to facilitate
this adjustment. There are regional energy strategies in several provinces; some of these
have been developed in a participative manner and are described as best practices in the
literature (e.g., Rhineland-Palatinate and North Rhine-Westphalia). Notable also is the
creation of Just Transition Commissioners. Scotland’s Just Transition Commission was
established in 2019 to develop practical, realistic, affordable recommendations for action to
meet Scotland’s 2040 net zero emissions goal and its economic strategy. Ireland also has
a Just Transitions Commissioner for the Midlands and there have been significant invest-
ments in communities facing industrial shifts (e.g., closure of peat harvesting operations).
As noted in the previous section, this is a quickly changing field. Under the new 2021–2027
program in EU states, the Fair Transition Mechanism and Fund are being mobilized for
regional development and other activities and, as such, a growing number of regions are
orienting their regional operational programs around these objectives.
Ten regions were chosen to profile in greater detail how national and regional policies
address industrial transitions in a given sub-region where clearly identifiable sectors were
undergoing significant changes (e.g., automotive manufacturing, coal mining, etc.). These
were: Ontario, Canada; Grand Est, France; Saarland, Germany; Western Macedonia, Greece;
Peidmont, Italy; Incheon, Capital Region, Korea; Bay of Plenty, New Zealand; Basque
Country, Spain; Kalmar, Småland with Islands, Sweden; and Wales, United Kingdom.
Table 2summarizes the distribution of regional instruments across these ten profiles.
Some policy instruments do not neatly fit into one category; for example, while ‘jobs and
skills strategies’ may be considered a workforce development instrument, employment
centers, which are considered a social support instrument, may be included as part of jobs
and skills strategies, or financed through these strategies. Similarly, there is significant
overlap between industrial transition commitments, innovation investments and initiatives,
and Industry 4.0 strategies.

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 9 of 16
Table 1. National just transition initiatives and related policies by instrument type and country.
Type of initiative
AUS
BEL
BUL
CAN
HRV
DNK
EST
EU
FIN
FRA
DEU
GRC
HUG
ITA
KOR
LVA
LTU
MLT
NZL
PRT
ROU
SVK
ESP
SWE
UK
USA
GOVERNANCE
Consultations & engagements X X X X
Multi-stakeholder collaborative tables X X
Coordination offices X X X
SOCIAL SUPPORTS
Temporary financial support for
displaced workers X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Employment services X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Social insurance/ unemployment support
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Pension supports X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT
Employment and skills strategies X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Training and education programs X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Job databases & labor market info. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Industrial transition
commitments/strategies X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Business and tax incentives X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Sector-specific Investments X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Small and medium-sized enterprises and
entrepreneurship support X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Strategies & plans X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Regional development program X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Rural development program X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Infrastructure investments X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Spatial planning X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY, DIGITALIZATION, INDUSTRY 4.0
Innovation investments/ initiatives X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Industry 4.0 Strategy X X X X X X X X X
Funding for research and
higher education X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 10 of 16
Table 1. Cont.
Type of initiative
AUS
BEL
BUL
CAN
HRV
DNK
EST
EU
FIN
FRA
DEU
GRC
HUG
ITA
KOR
LVA
LTU
MLT
NZL
PRT
ROU
SVK
ESP
SWE
UK
USA
CLIMATE SOLUTIONS
Binding net zero GHG commitment
2040
2050 *
2050
2050
2035
2050
2050
2050
2050
2050
2050
2050
2050
2045
2050
Climate change & energy strategies X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Adaptation programs X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Mitigation programs X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Investments in clean tech./ energy
transition fund X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple sources. Scan of national policies across all thematic areas. Additional resources: Bautista, J.O.R., Lozada, M.Á.R., and Gutiérrez, J.L.C., Main Industry 4.0
Initiatives in Member Countries of the OECD; OECD (2017). Land-Use Planning Systems in the OECD, OECD Publishing, Paris. * Note: Act introduced in Parliament. Country codes: AUS, Australia; BEL,
Belgium; BUL, Bulgaria; CAN, Canada; HRV, Romania; DNK, Denmark; EST, Estonia; EU, European Union; FIN, Finland; FRA, France; DEU, Germany; GRC, Greece; HUG, Hungary; ITA, Italy; KOR, Korea;
LVA, Latvia; LTU, Lithuania; MLT, Malta; NZL, New Zealand; PRT, Portugal; ROU, Romania; SVK, Slovakia; ESP, Spain; SWE, Sweden; UK, United Kingdom; USA, United States of America.

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 11 of 16
Table 2. Regional just transitions initiatives and related policies.
Type of Initiative
Ontario, Canada
Grand Est, France
Saarland, Germany
Western Macedonia, Greece
Piedmont, Italy
Incheon, Capital Region, Korea
Bay of Plenty, New Zealand
Basque Country, Spain
Kalmar, Småland & Islands, Sweden
Wales, United Kingdom
Territorial level of initiative
R = Regional N = National RNRNRNRNRNRNRNRNRNRN
GOVERNANCE
Expert panel consultations & engagements X X
Multi-stakeholder collaborative tables X O X
Coordination offices X O O X X
SOCIAL SECURITY
Social insurance/ temporary income support X X X X O X X X X X X
Employment services O X O X X X X X O X X O
Social insurance/ unemployment support X X X X X X X X X X
Community care programs O O
WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT
Jobs and skills strategies X O X X X X X X O X O X O X
Training and employment programs O X X O X X O X X X X X O X
Job databases & labor market info. O X X X X X X X X X X
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Economic development strategies X O O O O O O
Industrial transition commitments/strategies X X X X X X X X X
Business and tax incentives X X X X X O X X X X X
Sector-specific Investments and programs O X O X O X O X X X X O X X O X
Small and medium-sized enterprises and
entrepreneurship support XOXOXOXOX X XOXOXOX

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 12 of 16
Table 2. Cont.
Type of Initiative
Ontario, Canada
Grand Est, France
Saarland, Germany
Western Macedonia, Greece
Piedmont, Italy
Incheon, Capital Region, Korea
Bay of Plenty, New Zealand
Basque Country, Spain
Kalmar, Småland & Islands, Sweden
Wales, United Kingdom
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Strategies & plans for regions and sub-regions O X O X X X O X X O X X O X O X
Regional development program O X X X O X O X X O X X X
Rural development program O X O X O X X O X X X O X O X X
Infrastructure investments O X X O X X O X X O X X O X O X
Spatial and land use planning O O X X X X X O X
Community resources O
KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY, DIGITALIZATION, INDUSTRY 4.0
Innovation investments/ initiatives X X O X X O X X X O X O X O X
Industry 4.0 Strategy X X O X X X X
Digital infrastructure O O O O
Funding for research and higher education X O X O X X X O X X
CLIMATE SOLUTIONS
Climate change & energy strategies O X O X X X O X X O X O X X O X
Mitigation and/or adaptation programs X X X O X X X X X X X
Clean technology/energy transition funds X X O X X O X O X X X X X
Source: Authors’ own elaboration based on multiple sources. Scan of national and regional policies across all thematic areas. Note: X indicates national instrument; O indicates regional instrument.

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 13 of 16
4. Discussion: Leading Practices, Gaps, and Areas for Future Study
This scoping review has examined the broad range of national and regional govern-
ment just transitions initiatives in countries and regions that have experienced industrial
transitions. This broad overview has uncovered a number of implementation gaps and
identified several leading practices.
Managing a just transition is a multi-level government challenge. A multi-faceted issue
such as just transition requires integration across policy areas. Across the countries and re-
gions of study, infrastructure strategies, Industry 4.0 strategies, and workforce development
plans commonly lack coordination mechanisms. Furthermore, economic development
strategies commonly acknowledge the need for low carbon industries but they generally
do not identify declining ones or the nature of their fixed infrastructure. The economic
development strategies examined were generally poorly integrated with workforce devel-
opment planning (i.e., skills and training). Economic development strategies and Industry
4.0 initiatives tend to display an urban bias, especially in terms of how technology and
innovation are viewed. Innovation or Industry 4.0 measures tend to be focused on small
and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) and not existing large industries. A gap in any
of the above policy instrument areas means that key aspects of transition planning are
absent, creating the risk of an inadequate or ineffective response to industrial transition.
There are opportunities for regions and countries to link industrial transition strategies and
clean growth opportunities, as demonstrated in the Korean New Deal: National Strategy
for Great Transformation, which includes both a climate plan, a digitization plan, and
foundational measures to strengthen the employment and social safety net, thus addressing
several integrated policy issues under a single strategy.
Proactive initiatives are needed. Climate and economic strategies across the countries
of study acknowledge that a shift toward less carbon intensive activities is needed and
that this will impact the economy (and distinct regional economies). However, among the
initiatives studied, very few have identified how those shifts can be proactively identified
and addressed in order to facilitate their transition. This has been a common criticism of
policies in support of coal transitions; they have often been adopted after the transition is
already well underway, with workers and communities already impacted (e.g., the UK,
Poland, and Greece). One exception is workforce development measures, which do tend
to have a proactive outlook that anticipates the skills needed in the future (e.g., Future
Skills Center, Canada; National Skills Strategy; Germany). However, these strategies are
commonly implemented at the national level and are aspatial in their outlook. A leading
practice for proactive measures is the Welsh Government’s Future Generations Act and the
establishment of the Future Generations Commissioner, whose role involves examining
the long-term impacts of government decisions and prevent persistent problems such as
poverty, health inequalities, and climate change. There is potential for an initiative such as
this to hold decision makers to account and incentivize actions that emphasize long-term
gains rather than short-term political wins that do not extend beyond electoral cycles.
Among the practices reviewed, New Zealand’s Just Transition Unit housed in the Ministry
of Business Innovation and Employment does explicitly seek to provide research and
advice to anticipate where future transitions will occur in order to coordinate actions and
manage them [
21
]. As such, it is one example of proactive and anticipatory planning.
However, it is not a center of government function and therefore the extent to which the
Unit is able to coordinate actions across ministries is unclear.
Jobs- and environment-focused initiatives are the most common. Jobs-focused and environment-
focused strategies, polices, and initiatives were most prevalent among the countries of study.
Well-developed workforce and skills strategies and wide ranging climate action plans were ev-
ident. However, society-focused framing was less common. The policy documents reviewed
acknowledge that a society and economy wide transformation is needed, but the policy
measures to support this were lacking. Among the regional profiles, it was found that social
justice language was largely absent from industrial transition policies; that is, language rooted

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 14 of 16
in whole economy thinking (e.g., addressing structural inequalities, social issues, matters of
race, gender, socio-economic status, etc.).
Several policy levers are missing. This study examined how a wide range of initiatives
address the aims of a just transition and how they are targeted to specific industries and
regions experiencing these shifts. This overview has also revealed gaps, particularly with
regard to spatial planning and land use, and the use of social security systems and direct
funding to communities facing transitions.
•
Land use is rarely recognized as an important policy lever for managing a just transition. Large
industrial activities have major impacts on land and the environment, particularly
where they involve mining, as in the case of coal. Land management is hence a key
part of the transition process and becomes a great liability when remediation and
rehabilitation are ignored. Moreover, poor and absent enforcement of environmental
regulations for environmental remediation leaves communities with a colossal liability
that impacts their future development potential. British Columbia’s Dormant Sites
Reclamation Program, which focuses on pandemic recovery, the cleanup orphan wells,
and jobs creation, is a promising example [35].
•
Social security systems are an underused policy mechanism to facilitate a just transition.
Adaptable programs that permit carve-outs with flexible parameters can help provide
timely support. This might entail expanding timeframes and amounts payable to
those who have lost employment through employment insurance or establishing early
pension systems for specific industries (e.g., coal pensions in the U.S.).
•
Direct funding for community level economic development are not common among the regions
studied. While it is well acknowledged that industrial transitions not only impact
the workers employed in those sectors, but also in the broader community and lo-
cal economy, community-oriented supports for a just transition were often absent.
Some policies presume workers are mobile and will move to seek employment. While
this may be true for some people, it is likely not true for all, as individuals often
have deep connections and identities linked to their communities. An example of
community economic development funding is the Rural Dividend Fund in British
Columbia, Canada [36].
Finally, accountability mechanisms are needed for determinations of justice. Understand-
ing how policy instruments and strategies address justice and equity is fundamental to
public policy because it defines the parameters for success. When it comes to sustain-
ability transitions, distributional justice is concerned with how different groups benefit
or experience impacts from the changes required; recognitional justice identifies interest
groups and rights holders who may be implicated; and procedural justice is concerned
with elements of governance—who is included and how [
6
]. The establishment of Just
Transitions Commissioners in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland is one accountability mecha-
nism that governments could use to track, measure, and report on these elements of justice.
The Commissioners act in a coordinating role within and between governments and report
annually. A leading practice of a policy approach is the Hap
¯
u/Iwi Resource Management
Plan in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. The plan established legislative requirements
to ensure resource management issues important to local Indigenous peoples were taken
into account. The inclusion of Indigenous peoples in decision making, particularly re-
garding resource development, is crucial in establishing recognitional, procedural, and
distributional justices.
This national and regional policy review has explored interventions across seven the-
matic areas ranging from strategies and governance coalitions to sectoral funding programs
to targeted supports for individuals and communities. This research raises a number of
questions regarding the successful implementation of just transitions policies. To what
extent are targeted national approaches warranted and what types of governance arrange-
ments best facilitate this? As a multi-sectoral issue, where should coordination on just
transitions ‘sit’ as a function within government? To what extent can overarching policies
and programs in areas such as social support and workforce development facilitate just

Sustainability 2021,13, 6070 15 of 16
transitions—do they require adaptation to be more effective? What are the most effective
interventions at the national level versus regional and local? Most critically, how do any of
these policies address justice in procedural, recognitional, and distributional terms?
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, T.A.K. methodology, T.A.K.; validation, T.A.K.; formal
analysis, T.A.K. and M.G.,; investigation, T.A.K. and M.G.; resources, T.A.K. and M.G.; data cura-
tion, T.A.K. and M.G.; writing—original draft preparation, T.A.K. and M.G.; writing—review and
editing, T.A.K. and M.G.; visualization, T.A.K. and M.G.; supervision, T.A.K.; project administration,
T.A.K.; funding acquisition, T.A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of
Canada, grant number #872-2019-1004.
Acknowledgments:
The authors are grateful for the support of the project team, which was com-
prised of Diana Gibson (Community Social Planning Council of Greater Victoria), Frederick Grouzet
(Psychology, University of Victoria, UVic), Trevor Hancock (School of Public Health and Social Policy,
UVic), Thomas Heyd (Philosophy, UVic), Katya Rhodes (School of Public Administration, UVic)
and Karena Shaw (School of Environmental Studies, UVic). Many thanks to Darcy Harrison (UVic
Geography) for creating the maps.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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