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Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
THE DYNAMICS OF CONTEMPORARY
ISLAMIC THINKING AND THE ROLEOF
EDUCATION: ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM,
OPPONENTS, AND HYBRID THOUGHT
Irham and Zakaria Husin Lubis
Universitas Islam 45 Bekasi, Indonesia
Istitut Perguruan Tinggi Ilmu al-Qur’an Jakarta, Indonesia
email: irham.muu@gmail.com, zakarialubis@ptiq.ac.id
Abstract: This article is written to explain the dynamics of
contemporary Islamic thought and the role of Islamic education
as one of its supports. The dynamics of Islamic thought are
diverse but have the same character that is opposite thoughts
and thoughts that seek common ground. The opposite thoughts
depicting here are Islamic fundamentalism and liberalism. Then
the thought that seeks common ground here is called hybrid
thought. This article is a literature review by utilizing the ndings
in the previous study formulated into new ndings that have not
been discussed in the previous study. This paper concludes that
the dynamic of contemporary Islamic thought with its character
grows not from the role of Islamic education. Although it cannot
be denied that the role of Islamic education in this case is not
the only one, because there are other factors such as historical,
political, technological, globalization, modernization, social and
cultural contexts. Fundamental Islamic thought can be sustained
and developed by an ideological-purist Islamic education model
(manhaj sala). Likewise, the form of liberal thinking and
development by an academic-scientically oriented, rational and
secular model of education. Hybrid forms of thought that are
supported by a moderate-inclusive education model that develop
textual-contextual methods, balance nasal sources, reason and
intuitive, accommodate old and modern traditions that are still
relevant and do not conict with religious values.
106 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
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Abstrak: Artikel ini bermaksud untuk menjelaskan dinamika
pemikiran Islam kontemporer dan peran pendidikan Islam yang
menjadi salah satu penopangnya. Dinamika pemikiran Islam itu
beragam namun memiliki karakter yang sama yaitu pemikiran
yang saling berlawanan dan pemikiran yang mencari titik temu.
Pemikiran yang saling berlawanan yang dijelaskan di sini adalah
fundamentalismedan liberalisme Islam. Kemudian pemikiran
yang mencari titik temu di sinidisebut dengan pemikiran hybrid.
Artikel ini merupakan kajian pustaka dengan memanfaatkan
temuan-temuan dalam kajian terdahulu lalu dirumuskan menjadi
temuan baru yang belum dibahas pada kajian sebelumya.Tulisan
ini menyimpulkan bahwa dinamika pemikiran Islam kontemporer
dengan karakternya tumbuh berkembang tidak terlepas dari
peran pendidikan Islam. Meskipun tidak dipungkiri bahwa peran
pendidikan Islam dalam hal ini bukan satu-satunya, karena
masih ada faktor lainnya seperti faktor sejarah, politik, teknologi,
globalisasi, modernisasi, konteks sosial dan budaya. Pemikiran
Islam fundamental dapat ditopang dan dilahirkan oleh model
pendidikan Islam idiologis-puris (manhaj sala). Begitu pula
107
Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
bentuk pemikiran liberal ditopang dan dilahirkan oleh model
pendidikan yang berorientasi akademik-ilmiah, rasional dan
sekuler. Bentuk pemikiran hybridditopang oleh model pendidikan
moderat-inklusif yang mengembangkan metode tekstual-
kontekstual, menyeimbangkan sumber nas}, akal dan intuitif,
mengakomodasi tradisi lama dan modern yang masih relevan
dan tidak bertentangan dengan nilai agama.
Keywords: fundamentalism, liberalism, hybrid thought, Islamic
Education, Islamic Thought.
INTRODUCTION
The dynamics of contemporary Islamic thought have various styles
and cannot be separated from the intersection of Islam and modernism
and the process of globalization. The dynamics that develop have
certain patterns, namely patterns of thinking that are always face to
face and thoughts that bring them together / middle way thinking.
This pattern has occurred in the history of Islam in the past, for
example the history of the debate between the Shia, Khawarij and
Sunni groups, then groups with qadariyah and jabariyah theology.
Theology of ahl al-sunnah wa al-jama‘ah is a school that takes
the middle ground from the previous debate. So in the history of
the dynamics of Islamic thought, there have always been groups of
thought that have clashed and there have been groups of thought that
have tried to find common ground.
This article examines the face-to-face thinking in contemporary
dynamics, namely Islamic fundamentalism and Islamic liberalism.
Then between these two contradictory thoughts there are thoughts
that are hybrid in nature with their characters open, objective,
textual as well as contextual, moderate, and accommodative for
tolerance of differences, seeking common ground and synthesizing.
The development of this dynamic is certainly inseparable from the
historical roots of the past that have occurred, but this paper does not
focus on this theme.
Many previous studies have been carried out related to Islamic
fundamentalism or liberalism and the differences between the
two. Writings that specifically study Islamic fundamentalism, for
108 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
example, were written by Hannabus who tried to explain from a
historical perspective.1Next written by Sahid Hm. which explains
that khilafahism is an important basis of Islamic fundamentalism
because it makes them obliged to fight for it.2 Another theme is
related to the potential tendency of fundamentalism to lead to radical
movements/extremism. Studies leading to it, for example, were
written by La Ode Anhusadar and Yee Lak3 and which specifically
discusses the configuration of radical Islam, especially in Indonesia,
was written by Masdar Hilmy and Abd A’la.4 The writings that link
the three relationships between Islamic fundamentalism, the state
and global citizenship are written by Asep Muhammad Iqbal and
Zulkifli.5 These writings represent writings on the theme of Islamic
fundamentalism, of course there are many others. In general, the study
of this theme still makes ideology, past history and politics as factors
of background including. As for the factor of religious education with
the pattern specified as a trigger of Islamic fundamentalism has not
been much studied
The study that discusses the theme of Islamic liberalism, for
example, was written by Erowati Dewi, who tried to elaborate on
the issues that became the concentration of liberal Islamic groups.
1 Stuart Hannabuss, “Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalism (2nd
Edition),” Reference Reviews 32, no. 7/8 (September 17, 2018): 10–12, doi: 10.1108 /
RR-09-2018-0133.
2 Sahid Hm, “Contesting Caliphate: Opposition of Indonesian Fundamentalist
Groups to ISIS Caliphate,” Journal Of Indonesian Islam 8, no. 2 (December 1, 2014):
185–208, doi: 10.15642 / JIIS.2014.8.2.185-208.
3 La Ode Anhusadar, “The Potential of Fundamental Islamic Radicalism in Tourist
Destination Areas in Wakatobi Regency,” Al-Tahrir: Journal of Islamic Thought 18,
no. 1 (May 30, 2018): 23–40, doi: 10.21154 / altahrir.v18i1.1122; Yee Lak Elliot Lee,
“Behaviorist Fundamentalism Turns Radical: ETIM / TIP’s Islamic Fundamentalist
Representations and Narratives,” Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies (in
Asia) 9, no. 4 (December 2015): 85–99, doi: 10.1080 / 19370679.2015.12023274.
4 Masdar Hilmy, “The Configuration Of Radical Islamism In Indonesia: Some
Contemporary Assessments and Trajectories,” Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam 14,
no. 1 (May 1, 2014): 1, doi:10.21154/al-tahrir.v14i1.84; Abd A’la, “The Genealogy
Of Muslim Radicalism In Indonesia: A Study of the Roots and Characteristics of the
Padri Movement,” Journal Of Indonesian Islam 2, no. 2 (December 1, 2008): 267–99,
doi:10.15642/JIIS.2008.2.2.267-299.
5 Asep Muhammad Iqbal and Zulkifli Zulkifli, “Islamic Fundamentalism,
Nation-State and Global Citizenship: The Case of Hizb Ut-Tahrir,” Indonesian
Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies 6, no. 1 (June 1, 2016): 35, doi: 10.18326 / ijims.
v6i1.35-61.
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Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
His findings indicate that Islamic thought is the dynamic of Islamic
political thought as opposed to Islamic fundamentalism.6 Then there
is the writing of Badarus Syamsi which tries to find the difference
between fundamental Islam and liberal Islam.7 The same theme was
also written by Ahmad Munjid, who showed that these two opposing
thoughts were both the result of the intersection of Islam and
modernism.8 Based on the existence study, Islam liberalism basically
grow up as a response to the phenomenon of Islamic fundamentalism
in the modern context. Studies that associate with the pattern of
religious education as a trigger of its growth and development is still
little discussed.
The previous writings relating to either fundamentalism or Islam
liberalism is part of the dynamics of contemporary Islamic thought.
This writing which try to face and search for the differences and the
trigger has been widely implemented. It’s just the theme of a study
that tried to parse it simultaneously with the Islamic thought of the
middle way as part of the dynamics of contemporary Islamic thought
very hard to find. Moreover, if it is combined with the discussion of
the role of Islamic education as a center of current thought. Therefore,
this article tries to analyze in order to contribute to the view that
contemporary Islamic thought does not always face to face but there
is the thought of the middle way, which can then bring up the thought
of a hybrid. The contribution of others, this study will show that the
dynamics of contemporary Islamic thought is not separated from
the role of Islamic education. In the end the findings of this article
can be a recommendation for Islamic education so can see the back
orientation of religious education that have been developed.
6 Erowati Dewi, “Islam Liberal Di Indonesia (Pemikiran Dan Pengaruhnya
Dalam Pemikiran Politik Islam Di Indonesia,” JIIP: Jurnal Ilmiah Ilmu Pemerintahan
2, no. 2 (January 23, 2018): 18–32, doi:10.14710/jiip.v2i2.2119.
7 Badarus Syamsi, “Perbedaan Corak Pemahaman Agama Antara
Fundamentalisme Dan Liberalisme Serta Dampaknya Bagi Timbulnya Konflik
Keagamaan,” Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam 14, no. 1 (May 1, 2014): 73,
doi:10.21154/al-tahrir.v14i1.120.
8 Achmad Munjid, “Militant And Liberal Islam: The Unwanted Twin Children
of Modernization “ An Indonesian Experience”, Journal of Indonesian Islam 3, no. 1
(June 1, 2009): 35, doi: 10.15642 / JIIS.2009.3.1.35-68.
110 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
THE DYNAMICS OF THE ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM
AND ITS OPPONENTS
Islamic fundamentalism and Islamic liberalism are the two thoughts
that opposite each other. Both of them criticize each other and
look for each other’s shortcomings. In the context of Indonesia,
the debate over both of them have long been the case, for example
Adian Husaini published a book attacking the views of the islamic
liberalism although the argument is also easily disproved, and vice
versa. Why it happened like that, more details, let’s understand two
thoughts that crossed it. Islamic fundamentalism is a term that has
a meaning evolutive. Initially, fundamentalism was understood as
merely a religious sect that wanted to be like the diversity of the
early generations of Islam. Then this conception continues to shift
to things that have to do with terrorism, extremism, jihadism and
khilafahism.
The initial understanding, for example, was explained by Leonard
Binder. He defines Islamic fundamentalism as a ‘religious sect’ that
is romanticized towards early Islam. Islamic doctrine is believed to be
complete, perfect and covers all the problems of life. God’s laws have
governed the entire universe without any problems that have escaped
his notice.9 In religious practice, these circles are synonymous with
formal legalists, considering absolute sharia at the social level which
is no longer possible to change or to reinterpret it by adjusting current
conditions.10 Some people call this understanding as conservative or
traditional Islam, although of course there are those who disagree,
because each has its own criteria.
Meanwhile, the second understanding is still related to the
previous understanding, which is accompanied by an understanding
of terrorism, jihadism and the caliphate with emotional and political
connotations. This explanation is now becoming popular among
scientists.11 The characteristic of Islamic fundamentalism is the
belief in the establishment of an Islamic caliphate state as part of a
religious obligation. They share the view that the khilafah has a strong
9 Leonard Binder, Religion and Politics in Pakistan (University of California
Press, 1961), 71.
10 Daniel Pipes, In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power (New Brunswick,
NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2002), 124-126.
11 Hannabuss, “Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalism (2nd Edition).”
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Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
textual-normative foundation, so it must be fought for. However, the
adherents of Islamic fundamentalism in various parts of the world
have diversity in the implementation of these beliefs, there are those
that justify all means (extreme) and there are those who tend to be
more lenient by promoting dialogue.12 So that when viewed from its
actions, this fundamentalist group has various forms, ranging from
the hardest to the softest.
It cannot be denied that the potential to become radical in
fundamentalism is very close. Even fundamentalism can be a bridge
to lead to it. This can happen if it is driven by factors that influence it,
for example; religious emotions; religious ideology, political pressure;
media announcement; the ideology of jihad, and the like.13 On the
other hand, there are those who state that Islamic fundamentalism
in the era of 4.0 is often considered radical because they want all
forms of early Islamic behavior to be re-applied in their ways.14 Even
though these views are different, one is still potential and the other
states that it has become, but the opinions of both have the same
tendency towards it.
If examined more de eply, there are similar slices between
fundamentalism and religious radicalism, even though fundamentalism
is said to be the opening door. Basically, radical Islamic ideology
has characteristics including; religious ideology is derived from
religious texts (al -Qur’an and hadith); socio-political setting; and
the relationship between textual understanding and socio-political
issues.15 This characteristic certainly shows that the problems of
fundamentalism and religious radicalism are complex which are not
only seen from the point of view of religious doctrine.
Researchers argue ab out the source of the emergence of this
idea. Some argue that Islamic fundamentalism is characterized as
a reaction to global conditions related to economics and politics,
12 Hm, “Contesting Caliphate.”
13 Anhusadar, “Potensi Radikalisme Islam Fundamental Di Daerah Tujuan
Wisata Di Kabupaten Wakatobi.”
14 Anita Oray, “Religious Fundamentalism and Radicalization,” March 2015,
pag. 1-8, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EPRS-briefing-551342-Religious-
fundamentalism-and-radicalisation-FINAL.pdf.Yee Lak Elliot Lee, “Behaviorist
Fundamentalism Turns Radical: ETIM / TIP’s Islamic Fundamentalist Representations
and Narratives,” Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies (in Asia) 9, no. 4
(December 2015): pag. 85-99, doi: 10.1080 / 19370679.2015.12023274.
15 Hilmy, “The Configuration of Radical Islamism In Indonesia.”
112 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
especially global powers that come from the West. Fundamentalists
try to reject this power because they are considered to have eroded
their traditions. However, there are those who deny this view by
stating that Islamic fundamentalism actually takes part in the
phenomenon of globalization itself. The Islamic fundamentalism
movement accompanied by utopian ideology is part of the power of
globalization which represents the return of the role of religion with
its character of rejecting the validity of the nation state and the vision
of global citizenship by establishing an Islamic caliphate state. Hizbut
Tahrir Indonesia (HTI) is an example of this phenomenon.16This
debate shows that the emergence of religious fundamentalism has
various motivations and methods. Each case is different because of
the diversity behind which they grow in motion.
If you read the history of radical movements in the name of
religion, it will be seen that their growth was not accompanied by a
similarity in social situations or dimensions. This is because the social
settings are different and each movement has its own peculiarities.
However, the movements that lead to religious radicalism have the
same spirit, namely the existence of a deep determination to believe as
the purest version of Islam which subsequently manipulates religious
symbols to realize their political agenda. One such case is the Padri
movement in West Sumatra and the Wahabiah movement in Arabia.17
In essence, Islamic fundamentalism is part of the representation
of religious ideology in which there are movements, ideas, or
understandings by bringing Islamic aspirations into state and social
practice. This form of diversity became a systematic and organized
movement that emerged in the 19th century in Arabia and Egypt,
although its seeds have been around for a long time. This movement
continues to experience development, especially in relation to the
relationship to the state whose goal is to carry out the Islamic political
ideology. There are at least three different types of relationships in
this movement, namely; a relationship with a scriptual-rational style
that gives birth to textualistic and literalistic forms of understanding;
16 Iqbal and Zulkifli, “Islamic Fundamentalism, Nation-State and Global
Citizenship.”
17 A’la, “The Genealogy of Muslim Radicalism In Indonesia.”
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Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
relations that tend to be idealist-realist; and formalist-substantive
relationships.18
The thought that dealing with Islamic fundamentalism is the
thought of islamic liberalism. The emergence of liberal Islam was
initiated by Muslim scholars who were nervous about the decline of
Islam starting in the era of 3.0 to 4.0. All technology is controlled by
European countries which in fact are mostly non-Muslim, coupled
with their behavior towards a very Islamic environment compared to
countries with more Muslims. These considerations are among the
material for reflection by Liberal Islam groups who want the progress
of Islam and leave things that can hinder it.19
The idea of establishing an Islamic state will always be
rejected by liberal Islamic development groups. This group focuses
its attention on issues of pluralism, democracy and equality. In
the history of Islamic political thought the two of them continued
to clash.20The perspective of the liberal Islam group is anti-
literalism or a nti-textualism. This method is a harsh criticism of
fundamentalism or radicalism in understanding religious teachings
or doctrines in the spirit of defending God which can produce rigid
and rigid understanding. Both of them feel the truest in their belief
in understanding religion which is always opposite.21 The difference
between these two schools of thought occurs from all sides, from the
ways or methods of understanding Islam, the epistemological basis
used to the products of thinking and religious ways.
The phenomenon of the existence of Islamic fundamentalism or
Islamic militancy and also the opponent of thought, namely Islamic
18 Abdul Chalik, “Fundamentalisme Dan Masa Depan Ideologi Politik
Islam,” Islamica: Jurnal Studi Keislaman 9, no. 1 (2014): 54, doi:10.15642/
islamica.2014.9.1.54-80.
19 Since 9/11 Islamic thinkers have tried to promote moderate Islam to counter
extremist radical Islam. The impact of this incident was that Western countries
saw Islam as a harsh religion, resulting in Islamaphobia. Since then, Muslims have
emerged who reconcile their thinking with Western thinking, they believe that Islamic
teachings can go hand in hand with modernity. Zaheer Kazmi, “The Limits of Muslim
Liberalism,” Muslim Institute, accessed May 22, 2020, https://musliminstitute.org/
freethinking/religion/limits-muslim-liberalism.
20 Dewi, “Islam Liberal Di Indonesia (Pemikiran Dan Pengaruhnya Dalam
Pemikiran Politik Islam Di Indonesia.”
21 Syamsi, “Differences In Religious Understanding Between Fundamentalism
and Liberalism and Its Impact For The Arrival of Religious Conflict.”
114 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
liberalism, is a result of the intersection of Islam and modernity. Both
are very contrasting in religion and have the principle of life, even the
development of both of them are both fast along with the project of
modernity. However, it should not be forgotten that both have past
roots that are embedded in the struggles of theology, history, socio-
politics and ulama thought. These two phenomena basically indicate
the dynamics among Muslims in negotiating between religion and
modernity.22
This dynamic has occurred in past Islamic history, especially
when there was an intersection of Islamic thought with other thought
traditions. This happened at a time when Islam made a massive
expansion outside the Hejaz region, especially the Hellenization
areas (Egypt, Syria, Iran and Iraq). The Hellenization area long before
Muhammad Saw. preached Islam there had been an exchange and
confusion of ideas in the region. The hegemony of the thoughts of the
Greek philosophers succeeded in introducing philosophy in this area
so that there was acculturation with the local culture.
At the peak of Islamic glory, namely the Umayyad era, the
expansion of Islam stretched from the east in parts of Asia, south
in parts of Africa and to the west of Andalusia. Judging from the
strength of the military, this daulah makes non-Muslims unable to
attack areas controlled by Muslims so that the transformation of war
turns into a war of thought (ghazwah al-kr). Christian communities
living in Muslim areas try to launch attacks through thinking by
having a dialogue about tawhid to Muslim communities because
with this non-Muslims hope to win and disturb Muslim beliefs.
It was from these religious dialogues and debates that Muslims
were first converted to the benefits of logic and also to attack the
religions of other parties. They have experienced for themselves
how the weapons of logic and philosophy are used by non-
Muslims to attack Islamic teachings.23As a result of this religious
debate, a Muslim community known as the kalam sect appeared
to protect Islamic teachings from logical attacks launched by non-
Muslim circles. Figures such as Jahm Ibn Safwan (w.128H/746M)
who was famous for his Jabariyah understanding, Wasil Ibn Atha’
22 Munjid, “Militant And Liberal Islam.”
23 Abdul Aziz Dahlan, Pemikiran Falsa dalam Islam (Jakarta: Djambatan,
2003), 20.
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Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
(w.131H/749M) who was famous for his Mu’tazilah understanding,
Ma’bad al-Juhani (w.80H/699M) which is famous for its Qadariyah
understanding and so on. Judging from the historical journey
between these two understandings at the political level, they are
very ambivalent, sometimes in line if they are in accordance with
the prevailing ideology of the regime and sometimes they are not
in line if they are not in accordance with the prevailing ideology
of the regime. For example Ahmad bin Hambal whose thoughts
differed from the regime in power at that time caused him to be
sentenced to imprisonment by the Abbasid caliph, Al-Ma’mun.
Furthermore, when Mutawakil came to power Ahmad bin Hambal
was released.24 This kind of dynamic often occurs between the
ulama themselves and the ulama with the ruling political regime.
Recently, there have been scholars who have become a middle
way or able to synthesize from the thoughts of previous scholars.
Imam Shafii is one of those whose thoughts are able to bring
together previous thoughts. However, not all of these are well
received by different groups. Imam Shafi’i was one of the victims of
the understanding of the opposing followers of Maliki, then he was
attacked with a padlock by Asyhab bin Abdul Aziz which caused
him illness for a few days and finally died around 204 H.25 So the
products of rigid, flexible, rational, textual, or moderate thoughts
have basically occurred in the past, between those who are hostile
and those who seek a middle way. The group in the middle of the road
was not separated from rejection either. Islamic fundamentalism and
liberalism today have the same slices as past history, although the
context is different. This past history can be called the seed of these
two schools of thought.
24 Many stories circulate about Ahmad bin Hanbal when he was put in prison
because of differences in understanding with the regime, one of which is about the
Quran, whether it is a creature or God’s word. Abdul Aziz al-Rajihi, Syarh Usul al-
Sunnah li Imam Ahmad bin Hamal (Riyad: Dar tauhid, 1433), p. 54-55, https://www.
noor-book.com/ -------- pdf-pdf.Ibn al-Jawzi, Manaqib al-
Imam Ahmad bin Hambal (Miṣr: Maktabat al-Khānjī, 1979), p. 397.
25 Yaqut al-Hamawi al-Rumi, Mu’jam al-Udabā: Irsyad al Arif ila Ma’rifati al-
Adib (Beirut: Dar Gharbi al-Islami, 1993), http://archive.org/details/waq45344.Ibn
Hajar al-’Asqalānī, Tawālī Al-Ta`sīs (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-’Ilmiah, 1986), p. 86.“Al-
Shafi’i,” in Wikipedia, July 31, 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-
Shafi%E2%80%98i&oldid=970506984.
116 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
If we observe closer that the dynamics of Islamic fundamentalism
and liberalism from the above discussion layed in the process
of understanding religion. This process can be seen in terms of
the methodology in understanding the Qur’an and hadith, the
epistemological basis used, the understanding of the relationship
between religion and the state and the response to the socio-cultural
context (modernization). Specific discussions about the differences in
how to understand Islam and those related to hybrid Islamic thought
will be explained in the next section. So in essence, the process of
understanding religions that are contradictory or synthetic/hybrid,
then determines one’s Islamic and religious thinking.
EPISTEMOLOGICAL CONFLICT
The world is now moving in a nuance called an industri 4.0. This world
is marked by the existence of information and digital technology as
the basis for humans to fulfill their lives, including utilizing digital
literature for learning purposes. In this era, everyone is free to access
information without time and space limits. All forms of knowledge are
often obtained in cyberspace without having to involve the presence
of teachers as in the real world.26 With increasingly sophisticated
technology and information, the process of globalization becomes
faster, including the globalization of religion.
In this context, both religious fundamentalism and its opposites
find a moment, so that the gap becomes even wider. Fundamentalist
and liberal doctrines in the era of 4.0 are increasingly being carried
out by social media activists with various goals. Print and electronic
media have become a means of polemicizing these two views. The
growth of publishers among fundamentalists nurtured the sowing
of puritan ideas in society, especially the student community in
state public universities. A normative and apologetic style of
writing characterizes most of the works that were born among
fundamentalists. These works are aimed at arousing a religious spirit
and consistently implementing Islamic teachings.
26 Sven-Vegard Buer, Jan Ola Strandhagen, and Felix TS Chan, “The Link
between Industry 4.0 and Lean Manufacturing: Mapping Current Research and
Establishing a Research Agenda,” International Journal of Production Research 56,
no. 8 (April 18, 2018): p. 2924-2940, doi: 10.1080 / 00207543.2018.1442945.
117
Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
The polemic waged by fundamentalists against liberal Islam
shows the struggle between puritanism and relativism in religion.
This polemic stems from differences in the basic approaches
of Islamic studies among Muslims. The polemics launched by
fundamentalists are not only related to liberal Islam, but also against
fellow fundamentalists and against non-Muslims. The polemic was
held through various means, including magazines, books, and open
debates, which were then documented on a CD.27
The argument commonly used by fundamentalists against their
opponents, especially the liberal ones, is apologetic. The beautiful
jargon that is spread by packing a relativism understanding of truth
that looks logical and attractive is always rejected by him. Such
beautiful jargon is like the expression “differentiate between religion
and religiosity”, “religion is absolute, while religious thought is
relative”, “humans are relative, therefore all thoughts are products of
human reason are also relative”, “interpretation is a product of human
reason, so that it cannot be absolutely absolute revelation itself “,”
as long as humans are still human, then the results of their thinking
remain partial, contextual, and may be wrong “.28
Fundamentalism and Islamic liberalism are two contrasting
religious streams and are always in conflict. Each of them has a
claim to truth on the basis of their religious teachings. Both have
fundamental differences in their approaches to understanding religion.
Islamic fundamentalism seeks to restore pure religious teachings with
a textual-literal approach. Meanwhile, Islamic liberalism rejects this
because it is considered to trigger violence and underdevelopment
of Muslims. The approach used is the contextualization of religious
teachings so that they are relevant to the progress of the times.29 In
the case of Indonesia, the perspective of liberalism is also rejected
27 Jainal, “Polemik Metode Pemikiran Islam Fundamental Dan Liberal Tentang
Ideologi Negara” (UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, 23 Juni), 4-5, Http://Digilib.Uin-
Suka.Ac.Id/22453/1/08370014_Bab-I_Iv-Atau-V_Daftar-Pustaka.Pdf.
28 Fadlurrahman Ashidqi, “The Problem of Secularism Doctrine,” KALIMAH 12,
no. 2 (September 15, 2014): p. 229, doi: 10.21111 / klm.v12i2.237.
29 Badarus Syamsi, “Perbedaan Corak Pemahaman Agama Antara
Fundamentalisme Dan Liberalisme Serta Dampaknya Bagi Timbulnya Konflik
Keagamaan,” Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam 14, No. 1 (May 1, 2014): 73,
Doi:10.21154/Al-Tahrir.V14i1.120.
118 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
from the perspective of Islamic purification, conservatism, and anti-
liberalism.30
These fundamentalists are very hostile to Muslim scholars who
study their Islam in the West who prioritize empirical and socio-
historical approaches. Meanwhile, fundamental Islam studies Islam in
general normatively and textually.31 Everything that the Prophet had
never done during his life, especially like this 4.0 era, was considered
heresy, even though some of them were in it. Islam fundamentalist
fanatical towards religion is usually very exaggerated and tends to
shut itself off from other views and consider views that differ from
them as wrong or heretical views.32 Usually this group limits the
association, those who do not agree with it will be avoided even more
violently they will deny it.
Responding to the doctrine and religious reality of these liberal
and fundamental circles cannot be black and white, wrong or right,
because each also has advantages and disadvantages. Fundamentalists
are more dominant in studying Islamic sciences by memorizing books
written by certain classical scholars, while liberalists in understanding
Islamic science are more interested in contemporary scholars. It
is not imaginary when fundamentalists face a reality that is not in
accordance with the doctrine which tends to easily ‘disbelieve’ and/or
consider the matter to be a heresy. As for liberalists in facing realities
that are not in accordance with religious doctrine, they understand
it by adjusting a case to the current context, and sometimes even
understanding Islamic teachings are slightly out of the corridors of
sharia.
In addition, liberalists are usually more likely to be individualized
in public life and their attitude towards an ordinary teacher. Any
information or doctrine taught by a teacher must be reviewed by
30 Akh. Muzakki, “Current Debates in the Post-Soeharto Indonesian Islam:
Examining the Intellectual Base of Liberal and Anti-Liberal Islamic Movement,”
Al-Jami’ah: Journal of Islamic Studies 45, no. 2 (December 28, 2007): 321–66, doi:
10.14421 / ajis.2007.452.321-366.
31 Stephen M. Feldman, ed., Law and Religion: A Critical Anthology, Critical
America (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 319-321. HE Chehabi,
“Society and State in Islamic Liberalism,” State, Culture, and Society 1, no. 3 (1985):
85–101.
32 Muchlis M Hanafi, Moderasi Islam (Menangakal Radikalisasi Berbasis
Agama) (Kertamukti: PSQ, 2013), hal. 16, http://opac.ushuluddin.uinjkt.ac.id//index.
php?p=show_detail&id=8444.
119
Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
analyzing it according to the prevailing reality. These circles do not
easily believe in doctrinal or normative knowledge, let alone that
doctrine is mixed with myths. A critical approach is always put
forward. Therefore, many innovations and knowledge derivations
were generated from these liberals when the information received
was not in accordance with current realities. As an epistemological
description, the difference between the doctrine and reality of Islamic
fundamentalism is identical to the ideological mode, while liberal
Islam is identical with the academic mode.33
According to the Liberal Islam group, the reading and efforts
of the classical mufassirin towards the text (nas) still prioritize the
understanding of the text that comes from the reader (the reader/
himself), so that it seems that there is a deviation (mastery of the
truth of the text from the absolute which is “unlimited” by those who
“limited” reader). So from here reading a text (nas), hermeneutics is
needed. The Liberal Islam movement seeks to capture the meaning
of the text by “avoiding arbitrary interpretation” - which in their eyes
- often occurs and is carried out by individuals or groups of people
who limit God’s will (the will of divine) or the deepest desires of the
meaning of the text by provides a final limit and is the final result of
the will of the text which cannot be denied and contested.
The position of the narrative shar‘i or let’s call it the Qur’an and
the sunnah nabawiyyah among fundamentalists is very significant.
Nas for fundamentalists is a “living” message, what is written must
be carried out and done in the realm of life as it is stated:
“Those whom We have given him the Bible, they read it with
the actual reading [do not change and interpret as they like, they
believed in him. and whoever denies to him, Then they are the
people who lose (al-Baqarah: 121) and its application in life as in
one of the contents of the Qur’an: “This is a book that we send to
you full of blessings so that they pay attention to His verses and
in order to get a lesson from those who have thoughts” (Surah S}
a>d: 29).34
33 Caroline Cox, John Marks, and Institute for the Study of Civil Society, The
“West”, Islam and Islamism: Is Ideological Islam Compatible with Liberal Democracy?
(London: Civitas, Institute for the Study of Civil Society, 2003), 27-28.
34 Alamul Huda, “Epistemologi Gerakan Liberalis, Fundamentalis, Dan Moderat
Islam Di Era Modern,” Journal De Jure 2, No. 2 (December 30, 2010), Doi:10.18860/
120 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
The perspective of the two schools of thought described above
which is supported by the development of digital technology shows
that there is an epistemological dynamic that will never finish. The
two of them continue to compete by spreading ideas and carrying
out real movements to fight for influence in society, the impact of
which is the occurrence of polarization. However, in this case the
writer argues that the two perspectives do not always conflict.
There are Muslim groups that are able to reconcile or synthesize
epistemological dynamics as well as religious ways which are always
considered to be conflicts. This is called a hybrid of thought, and in
Indonesia like this has developed. So the dynamics of thinking that
are always face to face are always accompanied by thoughts that try
to bring them together.
HYBRID RELIGIOUS THOUGHT IN INDONESIA
It should be noted that in the contemporary context, Islamic thought
cannot be seen in black and white. The school of thought described
earlier shows face to face which makes it impossible to meet in a
person or a group. However, this section wants to emphasize that
not always people who understand fundamentalism will reject
liberalism or vice versa, including other religious schools of thought.
This kind of person has a hybrid thinking character. This character of
thought seeks to find common ground between things that are always
contradictory and then tries to integrate them. Hybrid thinking is
often used by scientists from various disciplines who seek to find
common ground for differences. For example, what happens in the
discipline of psychology which seeks to find common ground from
differences related to the factors that influence delusional beliefs. In
the same philosophical discipline, hybrid logic is said to be better at
performing proofs than ordinary logic. Then what is the kind of hybrid
religious thought that has developed? This section will explain it in
the context of Indonesia.
Religious thoughts that were previously contrasting can also
synthesize and complement each other. This is confirmed by Kersten
in the work he wrote about the contestation of Muslim thought in
J-Fsh.V2i2.2977.
121
Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
Indonesia.35Azra notes in commenting on the work which states
that Muslim intellectuals who are categorized as traditionalists at
the same time can also accept the modernist point of view. On the
other hand, Muslim intellectuals who were originally categorized as
modernists at the same time accept and appreciate the traditionalist
point of view that holds true to the turast realm. They can no longer
be said in isolation unrelated to any other thought. According to
him, the dynamics in contemporary Indonesia cannot be separated
from the dynamics of society, both domestically and globally. The
contextualization and indiginization approach seems to be a trend
by Indonesian Muslim intellectual circles. According to Kersten,36 In
the realm of philosophy, post-modernism is the last (third) school of
thought of the two previous schools, namely traditionalism (the first)
and modernism (the second).
There is a lot of other evidence that points towards it. Ahmad
Najib Burhani’s research attempts to describe the context of
Muhammadiyah institutions. According to him, Muhammadiyah as
a religious and community organization has been able to combine
Islam and modernism. But on the other hand, in the theological
context, a number of Muhammadiyah members are exclusive and
puritanical, although some are religiously moderate. Two opposites
that were previously considered unable to meet, in this case can meet
their respective contexts.37
When examining the backward discourse, there are two terms
that describe the above understanding, namely “neo modernism” and
“post traditional”. The two terms are basically the same spirit, but
they have differences. Neo modernism is able to attract attention
from modernists as well as traditionalists, but its thought base is
dominated by a modernist perspective. The majority is supported by
academics. It is different from post-traditionalism whose supporters
come from traditionalist circles. They see that the worldview of
neo-modernism misses out on their intellectual traditions. This post-
35 Carool Kersten, Islam in Indonesia: The Contest for Society, Ideas and Values
(London and New York: Hurst & Co Publishers and Oxford University Press, 2015).
36 Azyumardi Azra, “Kontestasi Pemikiran Islam Indonesia Kontemporer,”
Studia Islamika 23, no. 1 (July 26, 2016): 175–84, doi:10.15408/sdi.v23i1.2905.
37 Ahmad Najib Burhani, “Pluralism, Liberalism, and Islamism: Religious
Outlook of Muhammadiyah,” Studia Islamika, December 1, 2018, 433–70, doi:
10.15408 / sdi.v25i3.7765.
122 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
traditionalism group seeks to reconcile the basis of their intellectual
tradition with philosophical theories, social sciences, field studies,
advocacy and others. Not only from among students or scholars, the
traditional pesantren also joined this group. These two groups are not
groups of fundamentalism or liberalism, but groups that have mixed,
merged and integrated from various religious thoughts.
Post-traditionalism is based on the dynamics of a local context
that is not pressurized from abroad and interacts openly with various
societies, religious currents, and all existing world views. Although
they are different between neo-modernism and post-traditionalism,
both of them have the same attention to contemporary humanitarian
issues and Indonesian issues. Then they emphasized the importance
of political tolerance, upholding law and human rights, and
developing social organizations. Although they are different
between neo-modernism and post-traditionalism, both of them
have the same attention to contemporary humanitarian issues and
Indonesian issues. Then they emphasized the importance of political
tolerance, upholding law and human rights, and developing social
organizations. Although they are different between neo-modernism
and post-traditionalism, both of them have the same attention to
contemporary humanitarian issues and Indonesian issues. Then they
emphasized the importance of political tolerance, upholding law and
human rights, and developing social organizations.38 In this context
the terms neo modernism and post traditionalism are used to describe
synthetic thoughts.
Another thought that is same with his character is Islam
wasatiyyah. The Indonesian Ulama Council uses this term to
consolidate the dynamics of Islamic thought which tends to be too
right or too left. This idea has characteristics; taking the middle
path (tawassut}), continuous, straight and firm (i’tida>l), tolerance
(tasa>muh), egalitarian (musa>wah), prioritizing deliberation (shu>ra>),
has the spirit of reform (is}la>h}), prioritizes the priority (aulawiyah), is
dynamic and innovative (tat}awwur wa ibtika>r), and is civilized (tahad}
38 Abdul Ala, “Niqāt Al-Iltiqā ‘Bayn Madhhad al-Taḥdīth al-Jadīd Wa al-Ittijāh
al-Taqlīdī al-Mutaṭawwir al-Judhūr al-Ma’rifīyah Li Madhhab al-Jawharīyah al-
Islāmīdī wa Intishāruhī, Studīāruhīs, 11, no. 1 (April 30, 2004), doi: 10.15408 / sdi.
v11i1.654.
123
Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
d}ur).39Meanwhile, the Indonesian government, through the Ministry of
Religion, did not remain silent. It is the term that he has developed is
religious moderation which is the middle way of all schools of thought
by publishing books in print and online which can be downloaded for
free on the internet.40 The basics of this view (Islam wasat}iyyah) were
also written by the foremost exegete in Indonesia, namely Quraih
Shihab who wanted to emphasize that Islam is moderate.41
The hybrid form of thought that has been described is a response to
the dynamics of Islamic thought today which are always face to face.
This characteristic of thinking seeks to find a middle way, conduct
a synthesis, take the good from existing thoughts, be more objective
and accommodate differences.The position of the synthesis or hybrid
of this thought can be seen, for example, in understanding religion
using both textual and contextual methods that involve rationality
and intuition. The previous traditions and the modern traditions are
equally upheld (accommodated) while they are still relevant or not
contradicting with religious values. Both classical and contemporary
sources of knowledge are used in understanding religious teachings.
Once again, this way of thinking in Indonesia is not sudden but
has gone through a long history of Islam in Indonesia.42Although the
hybrid way of thinking already exists and even becomes the majority
in Indonesia, the dynamics of conflicting thinking previously
discussed are still growing. This means that in this case the dynamics
of Islamic thought are very diverse and continue to grow forever. The
world of education in this part contributes in shaping these various
thoughts.
THE ROLE OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION
The growing religious school of thought cannot be separated from
the role of Islamic education, although it is not the only one. Socio-
39 Taujihat Surabaya, the IXth Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) National
Conference which was held on 08-11 Dzul Qa’dah 1436 H / 24-27 August 2015.
40 Tim Penyusun Kemenag RI, Moderasi Beragama (Jakarta: Balitbang Diklat
Kemenag RI, 2019).
41 M. Quraish Shihab, Wasathiyyah Wawasan Islam Tentang Moderasi Beragama
(Tangerang: Lentera Hati, 2019).
42 Irham Irham, “Bentuk Islam Faktual: Karakter Dan Tipologi Islam Indonesia,”
El-Harakah (Terakreditasi) 18, no. 2 (2016): 1–18, doi:10.18860/el.v18i2.3684.
124 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
cultural and political aspects also contributed to the formation of
religious schools.
Liberalism and its challengers, which are often referred to
as anti-liberal or as a form of religious fundamentalism, are two
schools of Islamic legal thinking. In the case of Indonesia, these
two schools of thought were formed not only from the educational
aspect but also from other aspects. The socio-cultural background
that builds the epistemic community in urban areas is involved in
creating this thought. Liberal Islamic thought patterns are formed
from a combination of traditional and modern education in Islamic
studies with other disciplines accompanied by the interaction of
urban communities in urban areas. The characteristics of this liberal
group are faced with the orientation of secular ideology. This means
that the development of their Islamic understanding is carried
out in a certain way which has the same frequency and is not like
conventional preaching. With this, the developed liberal Islamic
thought can continue to grow.
It is different from the anti-liberal group (fundamentalism group)
which is formed from a traditional or modern learning without any
combination which is strengthened by meeting with the urban
Muslim community who have an ideological Islamic orientation.
They are formed into an epistemic community as opposed to the
liberal Muslim community.43 This explanation actually shows the
same pattern between the formation of the two groups above. Both
have a background from the world of education, then coupled with
the joining of people who have the same orientation or have the
same interest in these ideas and grow in the same community with
the same understanding. Educational background is the initial basis
for the way of thinking of each group which can then determine the
school of thought that must be followed, although this is not forever
because one day they can move.
The form of education that gave birth to these two schools
of thought has a contrasting teaching model and orientation. The
educational model developed by the liberal Islamic group is said to be
an academic model. This educational model is oriented towards the
43 Akh. Muzakki, “Is Education Determinant? The Formation of Liberal And
Anti-Liberal Islamic Legal Thinking In Indonesia, “Journal of Indonesian Islam 1, no.
2 (December 1, 2007): 280, doi: 10.15642 / JIIS.2007.1.2.280-322.
125
Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
development and expansion of science, then uses a critical approach to
make analyzes, presents various views of thought which then results
in education (outcomes) to produce alumni or individuals who are
autonomous and able to think independently.This education model
is usually developed by religious education institutions/colleges
(universities) with an orientation to the development of knowledge,
or the development of students’ skills.Meanwhile, the educational
model developed by fundamentalist Islamic groups is called the
ideological model. This model prioritizes studying the Qur’an, h}
adi>th, and classical Islamic sources as well as learning Arabic. The
full authority that can explain or teach this knowledge is the scholar
or the teacher. Critical reasoning is certainly not taught here. The
purpose of this approach is to produce devout Muslims who reject
the criticism of students.44 The example of this educational model
include madrasah or boarding school (Islamic education institutions)
with a religious purification style (manhaj sala) or other terms are
haraki boarding school.45
The output produced from these two educational models has an
impact on their social attitudes. The ideological education model
tends to mingle with society and has extraordinary courtesy to the
figure of a teacher who teaches Islamic science such as ustadz, kyai or
habaib. This phenomenon can be seen how their respect for teachers
is by kissing their hands to get blessings, removing their sandals
when they are on a pilgrimage to the graves of sacred scholars or
kiai, standing up and stopping while bowing to when they cross paths
with teachers. The teacher’s authority and its authority in choosing
science strengthen the legitimacy of its doctrine towards students.46
Actually, the ideological education model does not necessarily
give birth to a fundamentalist way of being religious, but it can also
create traditionalist or conservative groups. Each of these groups
is different in character, because traditionalist and conservative
44 Cox, Marks, and Institute for the Study of Civil Society, The “West”, Islam
and Islamism, 27-28.
45 Mukhibat, “Deradikalisasi Dan Integrasi Nilai-Nilai Pluralitas Dalam
Kurikulum Pesantren Salafi Haraki Di Indonesia,” Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam
14, no. 1 (May 1, 2014): 181, doi:10.21154/al-tahrir.v14i1.121.
46 Mohammad Muchlis Solichin, “Interrelation of Kiai Authorities, Curriculum
and Learning Culture in Indonesian Pesantren,” Tarbiya: Journal of Education in
Muslim Society 5, no. 1 (October 21, 2018): p. 87-100, doi: 10.15408 / tjems.v5i1.7781.
126 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
groups do not have the doctrine of khilafahism or jihadism like
fundamentalism. The educational model that leads to fundamentalism
can be said to be an ideological-purification education model. This
model seeks to limit reading material, and to provide books that can
be read only. The doctrines of purification, khilafahism, jihadism
are always there, and do not miss the doctrine of al-wala’nwa al-
barra’. This latter doctrine later became the seed of takri ideology.
Basically, the aspect of the faith is the foundation of this educational
model. The religious models born from this education are salafi puris,
sala h}araki, and sala jihadi (who like to fight against different
views). Another term for this model is the salafi manhaj education
model.47 Islamic education in Indonesia which is oriented towards
that direction (liberalism or fundamentalism) certainly exists,
although not much, because this group is still a minority.
Furthermore, related to hybrid thinking, it is also developed in
the world of Islamic education. Islamic boarding school education,
although it varies including the existence of the h}araki/manhaj
sala boarding school, but in general (mainstream) this education
is recognized as capable of producing moderate-inclusive diversity
as a character of hybrid thinking. This education can be seen as
enlightening the socio-cultural context and can also be influenced
by social realities such as the development of fundamentalism and
religious liberalism. The principles inherent in it are togetherness,
justice/balance, tolerance which leads to social liberation. The
dynamics of this education cannot be separated from the developing
social factors. The role of this pesantren has occurred since several
centuries ago which has since become a local wisdom as a moral
fortress of society on socio-religious issues.48
Kyai Sahal Mahfudh, who is a representative of pesantren people,
has emphasized that pesantren is the meeting point of various Islamic
schools of thought, especially thoughts of jabbariah and qadariah
faith. The majority of pesantren caregivers have a clear understanding
the next Aswaja (ahl al-sunnah wa al-jama>‘ah) which colors the
47 Irham Irham, “Pesantren Manhaj Salafi: Pendidikan Islam Model Baru Di
Indonesia,” Ulul Albab Jurnal Studi Islam 17, no. 1 (May 25, 2016): 1–18, doi:10.18860/
ua.v17i1.3252.
48 Ahmad Fauzi, “Konstruksi Model Pendidikan Pesantren: Diskursus
Fundamentalisme Dan Liberalisme Dalam Islam,” Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam
18, no. 1 (June 11, 2018): 85, doi:10.21154/altahrir.v18i1.1161.
127
Irham, Lubis, The Dynamics of Contemporary Islamic
Islamic style of the pesantren. The aswaja style of thought is a middle
way. However, the main purpose of the pesantren is not to create a
flow of aswaja from its founding figures but to create an active Islamic
personality.49 Thus the pesantren is very open and becomes a meeting
point for existing Islamic thoughts that are considered opposites.
The principle inherent in pesantren is al-muh}a>fad}ah ‘ala> qadi>m al-s}
a>lih}, wa al-akhdhu bi al-jadi>d al-as}lah} including the principle of this
meeting point (the principle of hybrid thought). According to Lukens
Bull, pesantren are able to bring together tradition and modernity.50
The explanation above emphasizes that Islamic education is a
strong aspect to form a religious typology including the dynamics of
contemporary Islamic thought that has been previously described. It
should also be underlined that the styles of Islamic education vary in
orientation and teaching models. In the author’s opinion, the hybrid
model is certainly interesting to be explored further, which in turn
can give birth to hybrid religious thinking and patterns.
CONCLUSION
The dynamics of contemporary Islamic thought have various styles,
but have the same character. The character is a form of thought
that is face to face (hostile) then there is a form of thought that
synthesizes the various thoughts that exist (hybrid thought). This
paper describes the opposite forms of religious thought, namely
fundamentalism and liberalism. These two ideas are contradictory
from various sides ranging from the basis of epistemology, ways
or methods of understanding religion to religious models and
when looking at the relationship between Islam and the nation-
state and when responding to modernization / globalization. Then
hybrid thought as a thought that takes a middle way and looks for
common ground, its forms also vary; there are thoughts of post-
modernism, neo-modernism, post-traditionalism, and moderate
Islam (Islam wasat}iyyah). The characteristics of this thinking are
open, objective, accommodative, integrative, looking for common
49 MA. Sahal Mahfudh, Pesantren Mencari Makna, ed. Marwan Ja’far, 1st ed.
(Jakarta: Pustaka Ciganjur, 1999), 50–57.
50 Ronald A. Lukens-Bull, “Two Sides of the Same Coin: Modernity and
Tradition in Islamic Education in Indonesia,” Anthropology <html_ent Glyph = “@
amp;” Ascii = “& amp;” /> Education Quarterly 32, no. 3 (September 2001): 350–72,
doi: 10.1525 / aeq.2001.32.3.350.
128 Al-Tahrir, Vol. 21, No. 1 Mei 2021 : 105-133
ground, synthesizing, balanced and tolerant. The dynamics of
contemporary Islamic thought are basically supported by the existing
Islamic education model. Islamic fundamentalism is supported by the
ideological-purist Islamic education model (manhaj sala). Then the
thought of Islamic liberalism is supported by academic, scientific,
rational and secular educational models. The hybrid/moderate form
of thought is supported by a moderate-inclusive education model
that develops textual-contextual methods, balances nasal sources,
reason and intuitions, accommodates old and modern traditions that
are still relevant and not in conflict with religious values. A hybrid
Islamic education model will always innovate without leaving rooted
traditions. The next question is, which of the characteristics of
thought described above are the types of Islamic thought and which
Islamic education model is relevant in the digital era or the current 4.0
era? Future studies are certainly suggested to answer this question.
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