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Global Ecology and Conservation
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gecco
Original Research Article
Vulnerability assessment of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,
Colombia: World's most irreplaceable nature reserve
Margareth Duran-Izquierdo, Jesus Olivero-Verbel
⁎
Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zaragocilla Campus, University of Cartagena,
Cartagena 130014, Colombia
article info
Article history:
Received 8 July 2020
Received in revised form 9 April 2021
Accepted 12 April 2021
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Deforestation
Climate change
Sustainable development
Eco-environmental vulnerability
Indigenous people
Mining
abstract
Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta (SNSM), Colombia, has been considered the world's most ir-
replaceable nature reserve. However, little is known about how human activities are gen-
erating significant impacts on this protected ecosystem. The aim of this work was to develop
a Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework as well as a threat assessment
to obtain a generalized view regarding the environmental situation of the SNSM. According
to the DPSIR approach, the main driving forces generating pressures on the SNSM are mining
projects, water management, agricultural systems, tourism, territorial conflicts and climate
change. These findings are in great agreement with the results. The multiple pressures de-
rived from activities, such as mining, land use change, and tourism, have contributed sig-
nificantly to the alteration of the homeostasis of the ecosystem and the reduction of the
ecosystem services that it provides. As an important reserve area, different measures have
been taken to protect biodiversity, however, their implementation has been insufficient.
These results indicate it is a priority to establish governmental measures towards the con-
servation of SNSM, in particular sustainable development-based approaches involving local
indigenous communities, as a guarantee for the well-being of the current and future
generations.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
CC_BY_NC_ND_4.0
1. Introduction
Colombia is one of the countries with the greatest biological richness in the world (Moreno et al., 2016; Noreña et al., 2018).
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, http://www.unesco.org) has recognized five
Colombian biosphere reserves for their significant contribution to ecological, genetic, and cultural biodiversity, serving also as
laboratories for the development of scientific and educational activities (Van Cuong et al., 2017; Bridgewater and Babin, 2017).
One of these special places is the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta (SNSM), located in the Colombian Caribbean. It stands out for
its unique geographical and ecological characteristics, containing a mosaic of representative biomes of global importance
(UAESPNN, 2005; Cardona and Ojeda, 2010; Rueda-Solano et al., 2016). This mountain is a center of national and continental
endemism, a key habitat in the preservation of many species, endemic taxa, and migratory species (Table 1) (Strewe and
Navarro, 2003; Dechner and Diazgranados, 2007; Botero‐Delgadillo, 2011; Bayly et al., 2016; Castaño-Uribe et al., 2013;
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01592
2351-9894/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.
CC_BY_NC_ND_4.0
]]]]
]]]]]]
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: joliverov@unicartagena.edu.co (J. Olivero-Verbel).
Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
Le Saout et al., 2013, Granados-Peña et al., 2014). It provides water resources to three different states in Colombia, Cesar, Guajira
and Magdalena (Uribe-Botero, 2005; Viloria de la Hoz, 2005; IDEAM, 2012; Bocarejo et al., 2015), sharing its resources with four
inter-related indigenous groups that protect and share ecosystem services in the region (www.minambiente.gov.co).
Several legislature orders have been approved to protect the biological richness and number of endemic species in the SNSM
(Pérez-Valbuena et al., 2017). The most recent, the Decree 1500 of 2018, issued by the Colombian Ministry of Interior, aimed to
regulate some potential environmentally damaging economic activities, such as mining. However, over time, these protective
measures have been shown to be insufficient and the SNSM remains highly vulnerable, facing anthropogenic internal and
external multifactorial pressures (López-Londoño et al., 2008; Granados-Peña et al., 2014). Activities such as deforestation,
forests fires, introduction of unsustainable agricultural practices, illicit crops, pesticide spraying, irresponsible tourism and
mining, are known threats facing the region (Manjarres-García and Manjarres-Pinzón, 2004; Viloria de la Hoz, 2006).
Aggravating this situation, natural hazards and anthropogenic activities, enhanced by climate change-driven processes, pose
serious additional threats to the SNSM. Currently, this eco-region has high rates of soil degradation; destruction and frag-
mentation of habitats; significant reduction of its native vegetation (ProSierra, 1998; Viloria de la Hoz, 2005); decreases in the
numbers of globally threatened species, including the majority of taxonomic groups in the Colombian Caribbean (Castaño-Uribe
et al., 2013; Le Saout et al., 2013); water pollution and sedimentation; reductions in snow cover and glaciers (IDEAM, 2017); and
changes in local microclimates (Viloria de la Hoz, 2006), among others.
In the SNSM environmental and social conflicts have led to ecosystem degradation (Jimenez et al., 2015). Therefore, iden-
tifying those factors contributing to the negative environmental impacts, as well as their consequences, is critical to develop
strategies to improve the current situation in their biomes. However, such comprehensive documentation of factors for this
region does not yet exist. This information can inform management policy and/or provide insights to develop new programs to
assist in ecosystem recovery and support resilience in the face broad threats such as climate change.
One possible approach is to develop a Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework (OECD, 1993; Kagalou
et al., 2012). This framework is used as an analysis and research tool to identify and evaluate the relationships between social
systems, economic and natural drivers of environmental pressures (Tscherning et al., 2012; De Sousa-Felix et al., 2017; Omann
et al., 2009), and allows for an adequate management of environmental problems between communities, the state, and third
parties (Patrício et al., 2016; Gari et al., 2015). Through this approach, ecosystem health, that is, the integration of environmental
conditions with the impacts of anthropogenic activities and resilience (Burkhard et al., 2008; Sherman, 2019), has been linked to
diverse socio-economical features, allowing environmental characterizations, policy formulations, and development of in-
dicators, among other ecosystem-based processes (Ramos-Quintana et al., 2018). However, some authors have suggested im-
plementing, in addition to the DPSRI evaluation, complementary methodologies to generate a multidimensional analysis of
complex environmental problems (Elliott et al., 2017; Ehara et al., 2018). These should be focused on the different components
of ecosystems, with quantitative scales that allow identifying those with the greatest impacts (Groom et al., 2006).
A critical point that requires special attention is the recurrent conflict between local, mostly indigenous communities, and
the different governmental institutions (Huertas-Diaz et al., 2017), mainly as a result of land management disputes. The main
request of the communities has been the declaration of their territories as free from mining activities, and the development of
programs to guarantee the conservation of the ecosystem and communities (https://www.cric-colombia.org). This situation
undoubtedly requires dialogue, collective cooperation and respect for the regulatory framework (Albuquerque et al., 2019;
Linstädter et al., 2013). Moreover, sovereignty and the fundamental rights of the ethnic groups must be recognized, and the local
ecological knowledge (LEK), especially ancestral practices of conservation of the territory and medicinal use of local resources
(Barreau et al., 2016; Sujarwo et al., 2014), should be incorporated in the environmental management decision making (Berkes
et al., 2000; Folke et al., 2005), contributing to ecosystem homeostasis (Ernest, 2008). It should be kept in mind that, in order to
achieve an adequate conservation of this biosphere reserve, it is also necessary to implement buffering zones with limited
human activities, as well as transition areas for the sustainable use of the surrounding resources (Biswal et al., 2013).
The current work suggests actions need to be undertaken to reach an adequate pathway to address the main threats in the
region, seeking to consolidate a vision that combines conservation, but also a sustainable use of ecosystem services that ac-
knowledges and includes the cultural contributions of indigenous people in their reserves. Currently, the governance of SNSM is
somehow ineffective, as it deals with specific problems, lacking interactive approaches or solutions between actors (Viloria de la
Hoz, 2005). Moreover, despite the availability of isolated data from different sources regarding environmental problems in the
SNSM, there are gaps and deficiencies in terms of comprehensive information for the whole region, detailing quantitative
assessments of the situation. Therefore, the DPSIR framework would be useful to identify plausible cause-effect relationships
that identify anthropogenic pressures on the system, as well as those feasible responses provided by the communities and the
Table 1
Species of fauna and flora present in Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta (SNSM).
Mountain flora Birds Amphibians Mammals Reptiles
Species in SNSM 1800 631 50 189 92
Endemic species or restricted range 67 36 17 1 12
% Respected of Colombia 8.4 36 8.4 52.7 19.6
Sources: IUCN, 2012; Renjifo et al., 2016; ProSierra, 1998; 2000; www.parquesnacionales.gov; Rangel and Jaramillo-Mejía, 1984; Carbonó and Lozano-Contreras,
1997; Alvear and Almeda, 2014; Mendoza-Cifuentes et al., 2018)
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
2
government. Furthermore, complementing this approach, with an evaluation of environmental threats, will allow estimates of
the vulnerability of the system. This information helps government and environmental entities to promote laws to protect the
habitat and biodiversity of the SNSM.
The aims of this work were 1) to describe the environmental situation of the SNSM. 2) to characterize the threats faced by
the environment and local communities, and 3) to generate a framework with threats and responses for management in terms
of human well-being and ecosystem conservation. This work also emphasizes how indigenous communities, as well as gov-
ernmental and social entities in the region, should collaborate more effectively to promote structural and functional changes to
decrease environmental vulnerability through a synergistic management between indigenous communities and the govern-
ment to preserve this unique region.
2. Methods
2.1. Study area
The main focus of this work is the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta (SNSM), including data also from surrounding areas directly
influenced by the mountainous ecoregion. The SNSM is an isolated mountainous region close to, but separate from, the Andes
that is relatively close to the Caribbean coastline (Cardona et al., 2011), located in northern Colombia, 10°52' North and 73°43'
West (central peaks). Fig. 1. Average temperatures range between 26.6 and 28.5 °C at sea level to 0 °C in the higher parts. The
rain regime is bimodal (Ingeominas et al., 2008) with a high water yield, feeding 3 macro-basins, 35 main rivers and at least 700
micro watersheds (Castaño-Uribe, 1999; Viloria de la Hoz, 2005; 2006). It has an altitude of 5775 m above sea level (m.a.s.l) and
a total area of approximately 17,000 km
2
(IDEAM, 2017).
The legal structure and administration behind the management of the SNSM is complex. It comprises three departments
(Cesar, Guajira, Magdalena); three Regional Autonomous Corporations (RACs) (Regional Autonomous Corporation of Magdalena
[CORPOMAG], Regional Autonomous Corporation of Cesar [CORPOCESAR and Regional Autonomous Corporation of Guajira
[CORPOGUAJIRA]); two National Natural Parks (PNN), Tayrona and Sierra Nevada; an archaeological park; and three legally
recognized indigenous reserves (Arhuaco, Kogui-Malayo and Kankuamo) (http://www.prosierra.org). It also contains a
Biosphere Reserve, with 675,000 ha in SNSM National Park and 56,250 ha in Tayrona National Park (https://en.unesco.org/
biosphere/lac/sierra-nevada_santa-marta). Finally, the Colombian government recognizes an ancestral territory called the
“black line” or “theological zone of ecological and cultural interest for the indigenous communities (Pérez-Valbuena et al., 2017).
Fig. 1. Location of the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta (SNSM).
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
3
There are approximately 60,000 indigenous people and 150,000 settlers in the region (DANE, 2005). The lands of the SNSM
are critically important to the indigenous peoples of the region. They serve as the foundation for their livelihoods and cultural
practices. The main economic activities for indigenous people in this region are agriculture, mostly represented by polyculture
and small-scale livestock husbandry (CIT, 2015).
This territory presents a marked altitudinal variation, which translates into a multiplicity of ecosystems and diverse forest
formations, corresponding to the different thermal floors (Carbonó and Lozano-Contreras, 1997). The ecosystems present in the
region includes dry and wet tropical forests, sub-Andean and Andean forests, mountain moorland, and zones with perpetual
snow cover, including glaciers (Strewe and Navarro, 2004; Cardona and Ojeda, 2010). Research on the flora and fauna of the
SNSM and Tayrona Natural Park have been limited to specific areas, generally at or below 1000 m.a.s.l (Alvear and Almeda,
2014), with limited data at higher altitudes (ProSierra, 2000). Despite insufficient research regarding the biodiversity of the full
region, experts nonetheless recognize that the general biodiversity of the SNSM provides a remarkable contribution to the
biological richness of Colombia and the planet, therefore, it is considered a continental island (Alvear et al., 2015).
2.2. Environmental characterization
An exhaustive review was carried out in internet and specific databases to identify studies that report data in the SNSM. The
databases included were Google Scholar, Science Direct and PubMed. Most articles dealt with biodiversity, and very few studies
were found related to the environmental state. A detailed description of our search strategy, including key terms, is included in
Table S1.
2.2.1. Causal network model (DPSIR)
The DPSIR model is a management tool that identifies and analyzes the causes and effects on environmental problems, and
can improve decision-making by stakeholders and the government (Kelble et al., 2013). It comprises five components: drivers,
pressures, state, impacts, and responses (Ehara et al., 2018). Drivers (D) include social, demographic and economic growth
activities that generate pressures on ecosystems. Pressures (P) are human-dependent activities or processes that have the
potential for adverse effects (impacts); the state (s) refers to changes in ecological integrity, including alterations in physical,
biological and chemical conditions in a specific area; the impacts (I) make reference only to human well-being (socio-economic
system); and the responses (R) deal with political actions and programs led by institutions, community and the government
(Müller and Burkhard, 2012; Pinto et al., 2013; Elliott et al., 2017). The model integrates natural, social and economic in-
formation (de Jonge et al., 2012; Malekmohammadi and Jahanishakib, 2017), using a detailed categorization of the activities that
are known to exert pressure on the system causing changes in its structure, including both anthropogenic and natural activities,
as well as qualitative and quantitative data on social and economic factors, as well as resource exploitation and pollution,
according to the availability of information (Liu et al., 2018). For this study, the information required to build the model was
collected from the literature: scientific papers, reports and other types of published materials, similar to other authors (Wang
et al., 2015; Gari et al., 2018). Once the components to inform the model were collected from the literature, a DSPIR model was
constructed as previously described (Lin et al., 2007; de Stefano, 2010; Lu et al., 2019). From the literature, we collected en-
vironmental information including land use, vegetation, rivers, coasts, wildlife, natural parks and reserves, as well as socio-
economic characteristics such as those related to agriculture, livestock, and tourism activities.
The design of the Causal network model DPSIR was based on drivers and pressures identified in the SNSM from the literature
in the context of this work. Impacts described here include those affecting human populations and their well-being.
2.2.2. Quantitative assessment of threats in the SNSM
Natural reserves face a large number of different threats, although biodiversity loss due to habitat degradation and frag-
mentation, overexploitation, invasive species, climate change, contamination are quite common (Groom et al., 2006). The as-
sessment of these threats is usually carried out employing indicators that can be taken from different sources, including
literature reports, field-based monitoring and remote-sensing-related technologies (Beresford et al., 2020). In this work, the
authors have used the methods implemented by the Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute (IAvH) of
Colombia (Mesa-S et al., 2016).
This approach evaluates threats that could lead to alterations of three important components of the system: 1, ecological
status of aquatic ecosystems; 2, ecological status of terrestrial habitats; and 3, biodiversity loss (Barriga and Portocarrero-Aya,
2016). For each one of these components, variables classified as threats have been categorized between 0 and 3. Accordingly, the
threat does not exist (0); it is low (1), medium (2) or high (3). These categories were given by IAvH experts. Once the scores were
assigned to the study area, based on the pressure and impact drivers identified in the first DPSIR framework, summations of the
values for the three components were performed as described in equation 1.
= + +Totalvalueofthreat ( Threat(1)x0.35) ( Threat(2) x0.35) ( Threat (3)x0.30).
(1)
The identified threats were evaluated using the two approaches, allowing the contribution of relevant data to characterize
the environmental status and functions of the system.
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
4
3. Results
3.1. Causal network model
The main drivers, pressures, impacts and responses identified in the causal network model for SNSM are shown in Table 2.
The analysis through the DPSIR framework shows that critical pressures in the ecoregion include the pollution associated with
mining-related activities, deforestation, inappropriate or overuse of pesticides and fertilizers, poor management of water re-
sources, non-sustainable agricultural systems, transport routes, tourism and ecotourism, urbanization, waste generation, as well
as natural events that are influenced by anthropogenic factors, in particular forest fires, loss of glaciers and erosion. Main drivers
also involve territorial conflicts as well as climate change, a force that exacerbates human impacts throughout the SNSM.
These factors have promoted decreases in ecosystem services, water scarcity, biodiversity reduction and territory loss,
leading to several problems that compromise the social tissue in the ecoregion, including food and water insecurity, health
problems, displacement from territory, loss of autonomy and traditional knowledge, among others (Table 2).
The main legal responses given by different governmental or non-governmental institutions or agencies are presented in
Table 3. This work described eleven legislative orders (one international) that have originated to encourage the protection of the
biological, endemic and cultural wealth of the SNSM. 27% of these legislations have been issued to regulate economic activities
potentially detrimental to this region (Table 3).
Currently, indigenous communities share the management of the Tayrona and SNSM Natural Parks with the National Parks
of Colombia.
3.2. Quantitative assessment of threats in the SNSM
The assessment of threats to the SNSM, based on the pressures outlined by the DPSIR, are presented in Table 4. The results
showed that from 12 analyzed threats, five displayed high scores, whereas seven presented average ones. The greatest threats to
aquatic ecosystems in SNSM are open pit mining-related activities, as well as biodiversity loss/reduction in the region, mainly
from deforestation. However, others factors, such as expansion of the agriculture frontier, unsustainable tourism, and the use of
large quantities of pesticides in oil palm and banana palm trees, are serious threats that require urgent attention.
4. Discussion
This study addressed the environmental problems of the SNSM ecoregion through two complementary approaches, a DPSIR
framework and a threat assessment. The DPSIR framework allowed an analysis of the socio-technical, socio-economic and
socio-political components (Madu et al., 2018); and the threat assessment methodology determined which of the analyzed
pressures exerted greater impact on the system, taking into account a quantitative scale.
4.1. Drivers
4.1.1. Mining projects
According to the Colombian Ministry of Mining, within the legal figure of the SNSN and the Tayrona Natural Parks, no mining
operations are reported (www.minminas.com). However, inside and around the figure of the “black line” (Fig. 1), a legal frontier
line that delimits the ancestral territory of the SNSM, there are mining titles for the exploitation of construction material in
addition to illegal mining (UPME, 2017).
Moreover, the two largest coal mining districts in Colombia are located within few miles from our study area (Cesar and La
Guajira departments) (Huertas et al., 2012), with operations impacting local biota and water quality (Cabarcas-Montalvo et al.,
2012; Fuentes et al., 2018). Currently, according to data obtained from Google Earth, the total area covered by coal mines in the
vicinity of the SNSM is approximately 279 km
2
(including the Cesar and Guajira mining projects) (Table S2).
4.1.2. Water management
The water richness of the SNSM has generated conflicts between local communities and government over resource man-
agement. Activities such as agroindustry, mining in surrounding areas, the construction of dams and irrigation districts, in
addition to the gradual loss of vegetation cover, climate change and ecotourism, have contributed to a decrease in the avail-
ability of the water resources (Viloria De La Hoz, 2005). Data of annual precipitation for the period 2000–2018, from the
National Water Studies in Colombia, have shown a pronounced decrease in water availability in the SNSM, with reductions
between 10% and 30%, especially in dry years, as a result of pressures from anthropogenic activities on the basins (IDEAM, 2000,
2010, 2018).
4.1.3. Non-sustainable agricultural systems
Subsistence or family agriculture is the basis of the indigenous economy in the SNSM with mixed and temporary crops
(CIT, 2015). The types of food grown are according to the climatic conditions of the different regions and their community,
although some have small extensions of permanent crops of coffee, avocado and cocoa. Crops in the mountains (mainly moors)
are very scarce due to the difficult terrain and ecological vulnerability (De Lange et al., 2010). However, in recent decades,
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
5
Table 2
Causal network (CN) Driver–Pressure–State–Impact–Response (DPSIR) of the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta (SNSM).
Driving Force Pressures Environmental State Human Impacts Given or Suggested Response
Mining projects Pollution by heavy metals, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and
particulate matter less than 10 µm in
aerodynamic diameter (PM
10
), mine
tailings.
Sedimentation of rivers, disposal of
contaminated waste. Crop damage. Loss of
vegetation cover and soil quality. Territory
loss. Groundwater and surface water
contamination. Ecosystem services loss.
Human health problems.Food and water
insecurity. Social and economic
displacement.
Gov: Assignment of mining-free zone. Comm:
Public campaign and protest. Aca: Scientific
research to evaluate and monitor impacts
derived from mining.
Water management Water flow rate changes due to shrinking
snow pack and glacier. Dam construction.
Narrowing of water courses.Surface water
pollution. Hydric stress. Changes in
hydrological balance.
Decrease number of available water
resources. Food and water insecurity.
Aca: Scientific research to evaluate and monitor
impacts derived from dam construction.
Agricultural
systems
Use, especially inappropriate or overuse,
of pesticides and fertilizers. Deforestation.
Land use change. Soil and water pollution.
Decline of biodiversity.
Food and water insecurity Gov & Comm: Community-based agro-
ecological programs for sustainability and
organic agriculture. Gov: support indigenous
agriculture Comm: Developing a community-
based environmental program
Tourism and
ecotourism
Waste production and littering.Increased
numbers of tourists.Chemical and
microbiological pollution. Sediment
Pollution. Building of second houses.
Vegetation removal for buildings.
Habitat alterations. Biodiversity exposed to
toxics. Water sources pollution with
untreated sewage.Noise-related
disturbances. Diffuse and point source land-
based pollution.
Loss of autonomy in the management and
administration of their territories. Social
and economic displacements.
Comm: Community-based management of
tourism and urbanization. Gov. Comm. & Aca:
Development of plans for visitors with
environmental education and conservation.
Implementation of solid waste integral
management systems.
Urbanization
Territorial conflicts Threats to community leaders. Loss of livelihood and territory. Loss of autonomy and traditional
knowledge. Loss of religious and spiritually
important lands. Loss of archeologically
important areas and relics. Violations of
fundamental rights the indigenous people.
Comm: Protest actions and collective
demonstration. Gov: Laws (Table 3). Aca:
Investigate and publish reports that show the
social conflicts generated by the occupation of
ancestral territory.
Climate risks Changes in temperature and precipitation
patterns Forest firesErosion
Water scarcity and hydric stress.Reduction
of habitats and decline in species’ richness.
Frequent forest fires and
landslides.Hazardous climate events.Soil
erosion. Genetic resource loss. Threat of
natural disasters.
Food insecurity. Displacements. Gov: National measures against climate
change.Provide reforestation programs in the
most critical areas. Gov & Aca: Generate
comprehensive programs for the management
of highly sensitive ecosystems in national
development plans.
References. López-Londoño et al., 2008; Armenteras et al., 2009; Granados-Peña et al., 2014; Bonilla-Mejía and Higuera-Mendieta, 2016; Pérez-Valbuena et al., 2017; Correa-Fernández, 2018; IDEAM, 2000; 2010; 2017;
2018; García-Alzate, 2017; INVEMAR, 2012.
Gov: government; Comm: community; Aca: academy.
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
6
intensive processes of deforestation (García et al., 2018) and the installation of agro-industries have been developed in low- and
middle-altitude areas (ProSierra, 2000), in particular African palm (Elaeis guineensis), banana (Musa paradisiaca), coffee (Coffea
arabica) and cocoa (Theobroma cacao) (Viloria de la Hoz, 2005). Local agriculture is also threatened by illicit crops (www.unodc.
org) and events of invasion of indigenous territories by outsiders (Viloria de la Hoz, 2018), both as a result of few legal protection
barriers (Armenteras et al., 2009; Bonilla-Mejía and Higuera-Mendieta, 2016).
4.1.4. Tourism and ecotourism
In the case of the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta and Tayrona National Parks, tourism is a growing activity. Tayrona Park was
the second most visited park in Colombia in 2018 with 446,299 visitors, whereas the Sierra Nevada Natural Park occupied the
fourth position with 25,312 people (Fig. 2A, 2B, 2C) (PNN, 2018a). Currently, tourism pressures are negatively impacting the
SNSM and Tayrona Parks (Bonilla-Mejía and Higuera-Mendieta, 2016), and at times, force the authorities to temporarily close
them to tourists. Tourism-related activities include damage to local resources, generation of solid waste, fires, and direct sewage
discharges to aquatic systems impact biodiversity (García-Alzate, 2017; INVEMAR, 2012). However, despite the large tourist flow
in the SNSM, where environmental education should be the axis of ecotourism as a biodiversity hots-pot (Chan et al., 2018), it
has been reported that of the eleven tour operators at the Tayrona Park, only two comply at 100% with governmental speci-
fications for environmental education activities, good social practices for the dissemination of general sustainability policies,
and awareness and knowledge among visitors of the ecological importance of these ecosystems for the country (Oliveros-
Ocampo and Beltrán Vargas, 2018). Moreover, only one company demonstrated adequate environmental practices, proper
protection of biodiversity, and solid waste management (Rubio and Amaya, 2018).
4.1.5. Infrastructure development
Various infrastructure projects related to ecotourism have been executed inside the Tayrona Park (The Tayrona National Park
is within the black line (Fig. 1) and is part of the indigenous territories of the SNSM), and during the last decades, and in one
case, a project was stopped due to its negative impacts during construction on the system (ANLA, 2015). Tayrona Park also
presents a complex situation related to the ownership of land within the Natural Park. A report from the Superintendence of
Notaries and Registry (SNR) revealed that after the creation of the Park, three declarations of ownership in the park have been
made, as well as eleven allocation of lots to individuals, 172 purchases of land, 12 construction licenses granted, 30 seizures of
property, and 28 mortgages are in progress (SNR, 2012).
4.1.6. Territorial conflicts
Territorial conflicts are part of the socio-environmental problems that derive from access to and management of natural
resources, generating collective actions against entities, local people and the government (https://ejatlas.org). The most well-
Table 3
Legal responses on Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta, Colombia.
Year Level Response Functions
1959 National Law 2. Congress of the Republic of Colombia. Environmental protection: Declaration of a large area of
SNSM as a forest reserve.
1964 National Resolution 191. Colombian Institute of Agrarian
Reform
SNSM and Tayrona Park are declared as Natural National
Parks.
1973 National Resolution 02. Ministry of Interior. Creation of the
so-called “black line”.
Biocultural protection: The government recognized
territories, as well as points of religious importance to
the communities of the SNSM.
1979 International Non-
governmental
UNESCO. Biosphere Reserve. Biocultural protection: To ensure international
protection for biodiversity.
1980 National Resolution 0109. Colombian Institute of Agrarian
Reform. Creation of the Kogui-Malayo-Arhuaco
Reserve.
Biocultural protection: To provide legal recognition of
indigenous territories.
1986 Local Non-
governmental
Creation of ProSierra Nevada Foundation, a non-
governmental entity.
Non-governmental responses: To protect and preserve
the natural and cultural patrimony of the SNSM.
1995 National Resolution 837. Ministry of Interior. Infrastructure
projects require prior consultation with
communities.
Guarantees a fundamental right for local
communities.
2002 National Resolution 0621. Ministry of Environment.
Guidelines for environmental planning and
management processes in the territory.
To standardize procedures to carry out actions according
to sustainable development principles.
2010, 2014 National Sentences T-547 and T-849. Constitutional Court of
Colombia
To protect the fundamental rights of indigenous people
for prior consultation.
2017 National Resolution 3760. Ministry of Culture. To protect and recognize the cultural heritage of
indigenous communities.
2018 National Decree 1500. Ministry of Environment. To amplify
the area covered by the black line polygon.
To recognize more sacred points for indigenous
communities.
Sources: Mininterior, 1995; Minambiente, 2002; 2018; Viloria de la Hoz, 2005; Consejo de estado, 2013; Corte constitucional de Colombia, 2010, 2014;
Mincultura, 2017; Minambiente, 2018.
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
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known conflicts in SNSM include the human occupation of the “Inarwa” hill, inside the Arhuaco shelter (Fig. 2D), as well as
conflicts regarding the construction of coal cargo ports and dams inside the so-called black line (http://www.Ejatlas.org).
4.1.7. Climate change
The impacts of climate change on the distinct ecological structures of SNSM remain unknown. However, changes in climate
patterns have been linked to transformation of the ecosystem and loss of biodiversity (Ulloa, 2009).
It has been estimated that SNSM has experienced climate change-driven temperature increases between 0.3 and 0.5 °C per
decade (Pabon, 2010). It is known that the snowpack of the SNSM has been reduced 76.1 km
2
in the last six decades (1954–2017)
(IDEAM, 2017), and just between February 2016 and December 2017, this area was reduced by 5.5% (0.39 km
2
). Over time, this
has led to the loss of 91% of its glacial area, a process shared by all Colombian glaciers, which might be losing about 3% of their
area per annum (IDEAM, 2014; 2017). It is likely that the processes of deglaciation are also influenced by deforestation (Fig. 2D),
mostly associated with logging for agricultural purposes and forest fires (IDEAM, 2019), these lasts, at the same time, are more
prone to occur under very dry conditions. Together, deglaciation and deforestation have led to changes in the local hydro-
biological cycle that have affected the regional microclimate and water reserves (IDEAM, 2018; Lopez-Moreno et al., 2020),
likely contributing to a considerable decrease in precipitation throughout the Colombian Caribbean region (Hoyos et al., 2019;
IDEAM, 2012).
Other regional characteristics are accentuated by climatic changes. For example, SNSM due to the high slopes, soils are
generally considered unsuitable for intensive crops, which limits human impacts (Viloria de la Hoz, 2005). Moreover, in the
moorland areas, the anthropogenic pressures are relatively low, with human activities only accounting for about 0.8% of
transformation (Sarmiento et al., 2013). Under these premises, the glacial losses in the SNSM cannot be attributed entirely to
local human activities.
Table 4
Scores for ecological threats in the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta.
Fishing and exploitation of aquatic
species
Non-existent
Subsistence
Commercial within the area
Commercial inside
and outside the area
2
Other uses of ora
Non-existent
Subsistence
Commercial within the area
Commercial inside
and outside the area
1
Total score
9.1
*. The Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta received aerial sprays of agrochemicals aimed at controlling illicit crops.
**. Currently, deforestation is occasional; however, in the past (last three decades), this was frequent.
Adapted indicators from Barriga and Portocarrero-Aya, 2016.
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
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It is also known that SNSM has many subzones with a potential for water erosion (Fig. 2F) (IDEAM, 2018); and therefore,
those are highly vulnerable to climate change. Although there is a need to establish scientific relationships, local communities
have registered decreases and losses in their crops as the water scarcity has increased in the region (CIT, 2015). Together, all
these climate change-dependent and independent factors, contribute to water and food insecurity in the region.
Fig. 2. Landscape at the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta (SNSM). A. Nabusimake, capital of the Kogui-Malayo-Arhuaco indigenous reserve. B. Daily life of
Arhuacos: The "Arhuacos" is one of the four communities that inhabit the SNSM. They have their own language and a typical dress that characterizes them. This
community stands out for its political and religious organization and the struggle to preserve its culture and territories. C. Nabusimake river is a typical river in
SNSM, the largest water reserve in the Caribbean region in Colombia. D. Inarwa hill, occupied by telecommunications antennas, cause of territorial conflicts. E.
SNSM landscapes with presence of deforestation. F. SNSM has a high predisposition to erosion. Photographer: Jesus Olivero-Verbel.
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
9
4.2. Pressures
4.2.1. Agrochemicals: Agrochemicals
In Colombia, the first official operations for the eradication of illicit crops were carried out in the SNSM in 1984, although
experimental spraying using several herbicides, such as tebuthiuron, hexazinone and paraquat, date back to 1978 (http://www.
mamacoca.org/). Glyphosate was the first pesticide widely used for eradication campaigns in the country (Idrovo, 2015),
peaking its use in SNSM around 2006 (http://www.mamacoca.org/). It was not until 2013 that the Colombian government
suspended the aerial spraying of herbicides in the biosphere reserve. This was the result of applying the precautionary principle
due to its status as a protected area (Sentence 2004–00227) (Consejo de Estado, 2013). Aerial spraying was carried out entirely
without consultation with the indigenous communities, generating documented impacts, including deforestation and dis-
placement of indigenous families (http://www.mamacoca.org/).
4.2.2. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals
PAH levels have been detected in sediments near coal ports in Santa Marta, with levels up to 89.9 ng/g, highlighting the
presence of fluoranthene, phenanthrene and pyrene. Trace element concentrations also showed the existence of anthropic
contamination that may be affecting Tayrona Natural Park (Caballero-Gallardo et al., 2015). Contamination of sediments by
these pollutants can affect human and environmental health (Musilova et al., 2016). Moreover, the transport of coal from the
mines to the cargo ports, some of them within the ancestral territory of indigenous groups in the SNSM, generates elevated
noise levels and exposure to coal dust, with non-documented consequences for environmental and human health (Torres
et al., 2015).
4.2.3. Garbage production and debris
The accumulation and improper handling of solid waste stands out among the factors of environmental deterioration in the
Tayrona Natural Park. On most beaches dedicated to tourism, single-use plastic waste has been recorded, generating alerts
regarding the efficiency of waste management practices (INVEMAR-CORPAMAG, 2018). This is a recurrent problem. From
2014–2016, solid waste collection in Tayrona Park recovered around 14 tons of waste in some sectors (PNN, 2018b). Other
initiatives in the SNSM have allowed the collection and management of 2 300 tons of waste from 2009 to 2015 (http://www.
sierraviva.org). Moreover, in the Grande Marsh of Santa Marta, a Ramsar site south the SNSM, significant amounts of micro-
plastics and marine litter have also been reported (Garces-Ordóñez et al., 2019).
4.3. State (Current situation)
The driving forces and pressures described above have generated profound changes in forest cover of the SNSM. From the
1980s to the present, more than 90% of the forests has been lost and previously forested territory has been converted into
agriculture or similar land uses.
In fact, some authors have declared that SNSM ecosystem is among the most threatened tropical forests, since deforestation
is rapidly shrinking habitats and biota composition (Carbonó and Lozano-Contreras, 1997). Alone, illicit crops have devastated
more than 120,000 ha of vegetation cover, impacting biodiversity (ProSierra, 2000; Uribe-Botero, 2005). Some specific areas,
such as Guachaca, Don Diego, and Mendihuaca, are among those with the greatest agriculture-induced anthropogenic impacts
(Viloria de La Hoz, 2005; UAESPNN, 2005). Monoculture farming is one of the critical factors intensifying landscape transfor-
mation (Ibarra-Trujillo and García-Alzate, 2017). Plants such as orchids, generally very abundant in this area, are threatened due
to the destruction of forests (Yepes-Rapelo et al., 2015).
Changes in biodiversity lead to decline in ecosystem services (Peres and Palacios, 2007). Moreover, soils degraded by
chemicals inputs, related to inadequate agricultural management practices, have negatively impacted the relative abundance of
arthropods in Minca (Tayrona Park) (Camero, 2002). Habitat reduction, forest fragmentation and restricted distribution of
regional organisms are threatening endangered species, many of which are endemic (Renjifo et al., 2016; Renjifo and Amaya-
Villarreal, 2017).
Evidence suggests that bird species restricted to the SNSM are highly sensitive to climate change (Velasquez-Tibatá et al., 2013).
Around 1.6% of all SNSM species are threatened, including many migratory birds that depend on the SNSM as a wintering site
(Jimenez-Alvarado et al., 2015).
The quality of several small streams and rivers, especially in areas with the most human activity, are presenting low physico-
chemical and bacteriological quality (Barros-Nuñez and Granados-Martínez, 2016; Jimenez-Alvarado et al., 2015; Guerrero-
Bolaño et al., 2003). In some cases, anthropogenic inputs are so severe, for instance in the Gaira River (Tayrona Park), that the
water system has a tendency towards eutrophication (García-Alzate, 2017).
Although it has been stated that the greatest impacts on the SNSM have occurred below 800 m.a.s.l (ProSierra, 1998), the
entire ecosystem is under pressure, not only by local factors but also by global ones, such as climate change.
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
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4.4. IMPACTS
4.4.1. Public health impacts
In general, there is little information about human health in the four communities living within the SNSM (Arhuacos, Kogui,
Wiwa and Kankuamos). However, some work has been carried out in populations located near the SNSM, in particular those in
the coal mining zones who have been impacted by air and water pollution, as well as by coal dust and its associated pollutants
(Pulido, 2014; Olivero-Verbel, 2016). The prevalence of several respiratory diseases, skin rashes and eye-related problems have
been reported for communities in la Jagua de Ibirico and Hatillo (CGR, 2014; Cardoso, 2015), as well as in municipalities where
there are railways and mine tailings (Quiroz-Arcentales et al., 2012).
4.4.2. Socio-economic impacts
Socio-economic impacts have occurred as a result of anthropogenic intervention in the SNSM, including human displace-
ment, loss of cultural practices/ identity/sacred territories, deterioration of livelihoods and the dispossession of land (Cardoso,
2015; Perez-Rincón et al., 2019), violence, and deaths of people living in native communities. In many cases, these problems
have been substantially linked to mining projects developed in and around the SNSM leading to intense social conflicts
(Pulido, 2014).
Other activities, such as territorial occupation by foreigners and massive tourism, with more than 44 thousand visitors per
year (PNN, 2018a) developed within the SNSM and the Tayrona National Park, have generated intense social conflicts related to
territorial sovereignty and the management of indigenous lands (Perez-Rincón, 2014). Finally, pesticide spraying in the past to
control illicit crops caused contamination of water sources and continue to threaten to food security in affected areas
(Mamacoca and INDEPAZ, 2015).
4.5. Responses
The anthropogenic impacts in the SNSM has provoked different responses, not only from local and national authorities, but
also from international and non-governmental organizations, which have implemented legal actions in order to safeguard the
integrity of local communities (MinAmbiente, 2018). Several responses have aimed to mitigate the impacts generated by
mining, and land- and water-related problems in the SNSM, such as wildlife conservation initiatives, and environmentally
friendly agriculture and ecotourism-related programs (Viloria de la Hoz, 2005).
The evaluation through the DPSIR framework was useful to identify pressures, impacts and ecological and environmental
status of the SNSM. The available data on the SNSM showed that activities related to mining projects, water management,
agricultural system, tourism and ecotourism, urbanization, territorial conflicts, and climate risks are key drivers in the general
ecological deterioration. The different pressures derived from these activities have altered the homeostasis of the ecosystem,
negatively impacting the quality of life of the indigenous communities that inhabit the interior of the territory and its sur-
rounding areas. These pressures have generated changes in the socio-economic status of people living in many communities
within or nearby SNSM, mainly due to water scarcity and food insecurity, deprivation of livelihoods and farmland, lack of
territorial autonomy, biodiversity loss, both in aquatic and terrestrial environments, reductions in livestock and decreases of fish
in rivers, forcing displacement, among other problems (Fierro, 2014; Cardoso, 2018).
Although the DPSIR model allowed to see the existence of different drivers from which the pressures affecting the system
are derived, the absence of quantitative data limited the generation of multidirectional cause-effect interactions. These include
the levels of contamination in bodies of water; the health effects of the use of pesticides, both in agribusiness and in the
eradication of illicit crops; domestic discharges in rivers (García-Alzate, 2017) among many others. This information gap can
limit the processes for assessing health and ecosystem services that provide weight in decision-making (Wright et al., 2017).
In general, it is evident that there is a disarticulation between the different actors that are responsible for environmental
management and legal regulation in the SNSM. The responses required by the DPSIR focus mainly on preventing the expansion
of activities such as mining, tourism, and infrastructure, as well as the need to structure support spaces for joint state-com-
munity management. This should be accomplished by dialogue, coordination and decision-making on all stages required for the
protection and conservation of these ecosystems (Tscherning et al., 2012). Environmental management should emphasize
biodiversity protection and prioritize specific ecosystems to avoid the permanent disappearance of natural resources, programs
that allow the restoration of the system, improving the capacity for self-regulation, and with them safeguard the territories and
indigenous cultures of the region of physical and cultural extinction. Highlighting that today indigenous communities continue
to express their concerns about the management of this region through press releases and public protests.
4.6. Ecological threats in the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta
The total score for the ecological threats at the SNSM was 9.1/12, suggesting these threats are quite important and require
strong interventions. This result is similar to that reported for a nearby aquatic ecosystem, also under influence of the SNSM, the
Zapatosa Marsh (Barriga and Portocarrero-Aya, 2016), whose value was 9.8/12. It is clear the SNSM region is receiving impacts
from numerous anthropogenic activities generated within and on the surrounding areas. However, the obtained value could be
underestimated, as in some cases, despite evident dam-related problems, data from the impacts generated by dams have not
been published. The same is also true for effects on aquatic ecosystems, and activities related to agriculture and livestock.
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
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According to the analysis, the most influential threats on the SNSM are related to the presence of mining in the region and the
type of mining, followed by intensive agriculture, the use of large amounts of pesticides, livestock, deforestation, and dams,
among others. These threats are in great agreement with those factors identified by the DPSIR approach.
DPSIR identified the economic development as the main driver of environmental changes, whereas the threat assessment
showed that large-scale mining activities are the main threat to biodiversity and ancestral cultures, many of which result of
ignoring the fundamental rights of communities, such as the prior consultation, a constitutional right of Colombian people to be
consulted for activities to be carried out by third parties in their territories (ABColombia et al., 2012). Community and mining
conflicts have been described by Sonter et al. (2018) who concludes that mining in forest areas around biological corridors alters
different process that are necessary for the maintenance of ecological / hydrological connectivity and other ecological functions.
In Colombia, around 62 environmental conflicts have been documented with indigenous communities related to the ex-
ploitation of natural resources, infrastructure development, and the bidding and licensing of their territories without adequate
prior consultation, as a fundamental right of people to be consulted for activities to be carried out by third parties in their
territories (International Labour Organization Convention, Article 169). The SNSM communities have had various socio-
environmental conflicts related to environmental licensing, land occupation and mining (CINEP, 2016).
5. Final remarks and recommendations
The SNSM is a critically important ecosystem for the communities that inhabit it and for the preservation of global bio-
diversity (Botero-Delgadillo, 2011; Le Saout et al., 2013). The SNSM represents an area of substantial cultural value to the
Colombian Caribbean region (Pérez-Valbuena et al., 2017). Moreover, for the indigenous Peoples who live in the SNSM, the local
environment is integral to the identity and tradition and include numerous sacred places of substantial spiritual importance.
The black line, which encompasses many of these special sites is unique among reserves in Colombia. However, the biodiversity
and social tissue of this region is threatened by activities related to mining, extensive agriculture, uncontrolled tourism and the
effects of climate change.
In SNSM there are priority biomes of special importance for the conservation of the biological diversity of the region, such as
areas of bird endemism (Jimenez-Alvarado et al., 2015), paramos systems (IAVH, 2013), natural national parks and territory of
indigenous communities. It is important to restore areas affected by deforestation, watersheds, and promote responsible
ecotourism. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen governance, create joint state-community work spaces, highlighting the key
role that communities play in protecting their resources.
The development of small or large-scale mining in indigenous territories represents a serious threat to their livelihoods,
which is why activities should be restricted in these territories, taking care of the fundamental rights of the communities.
Unfortunately, the ineffective legal protections to preserve biodiversity applied to the SNSM mirror situations elsewhere in the
world, in that these protections are not sufficient (Nori et al., 2015).
In terms of conservation, biological functions need to be better supported through the expansion of the protected area. This
may be done through zoning, including transition zones and buffer zones (Biswal et al., 2013), including those lands with major
threats but not yet protected, in particular low parts of the SNSM (<1000 m.a.s.l.) inhabited by non-indigenous people. In
addition, certain regions should be declared as mining-free zones. The reforestation of critical areas is needed to regularize
water sources and create shelters for endangered species. These approaches be best supported with more scientific studies that
incorporate active community participation and take into account the biological richness, still mostly unexplored. In addition,
more research is needed on the environmental and toxicological impacts that affect the SNSM, including tourism-related ac-
tivities, dams, illegal mining, extraction of river material, and the distinct operations carried out in surrounding massive open
pit coal mines.
At the local level, it is necessary to develop initiatives aimed at recovering ancestral knowledge related to biodiversity
conservation, ecological restoration by integrating knowledge and the use of traditional medicine in the prevention and
treatment of diseases. Initiatives such as analog forestry, traditional agricultural practices and carbon sequestration, would help
generate income sources for indigenous groups in the SNSM, and help mitigate socioeconomic and environmental damage in
the region. At the national level, Colombia needs to define strict policies that restrict and regulate mining in indigenous ter-
ritories. The development of ecotourism activities controlled by the communities can be a strategy to obtain economic income,
diminishing the environmental impact of conventional tourism. Finally, the government needs to enforce these policies in order
to avoid the human and ecological consequences related to the destruction of ecosystems, including impacts on food security
and sovereignty, loss of livelihood and traditional practices, limited access to the natural resources, and the toxicological effects
of mining on the environment and health.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have ap-
peared to influence the work reported in this paper.
M. Duran-Izquierdo and J. Olivero-Verbel Global Ecology and Conservation 28 (2021) e01592
12
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Program to Support Research Groups and Doctoral Programs (2018–2021), University of
Cartagena. Special thanks to Prof. Catherine Mclean Pirkle (University of Honolulu, Hawaii) for their useful comments and
suggestions, and also to Nadia Coronado-Posada and Juan Carlos Valdelamar-Villegas for their help.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version at doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01592.
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