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Functional perspective of black fungi (Auricularia auricula): Major bioactive components, health benefits and potential mechanisms
Abstract
Background: Black fungi ( Auricularia auricula ) was known as one of the major mushrooms grown and cultivated all over the world, especially northeast Asia. It has
been proved that black fungi had tremendous biological functions, and thus was being
remarked to be a potential ingredient for the functional food.
Scope and approach: This review comprises a comprehensive research for the
isolation and characterization of bioactive components in black fungi and their potent
physiological activities. Meanwhile, chemical and metabolic methodologies are
introduced to clarify the specified mechanism and future challenges
Key findings and conclusions: Integrated research results showed that black fungi
contained some bioactive components such as polysaccharide, melanin and phenolic.
According to origin and isolation method, the structural features of polysaccharide and
melanin were significantly different. Health benefits such as antioxidant, hypoglycemic,
antitumor and immunostimulation could be exerted with black fungi components and
their derivatives. Besides, biological activity and physicochemical property of black
fungi enabled the application in the drug delivery and food production. Detailed
mechanisms confirmed that oxidative damage removal, immune signal transduction
and gut microbiota enhancement underlied the promising functionality of black fungi.
However, present research of black fungi still demands the more efficient extraction
and purification including subcritical water, ohmic, high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) and
two-phase partitioning. Challenges to some health benefits such as gut microbiotaimmune, dosage suitable for clinical practice and especially structure-function
relationship should also be worthwhile to increase the total functional value of black
fungi.
... Black fungus is one of the most consumed edible fungi in the world, and northeast China is the main producing area of black fungus [16][17][18] (Ren et al., 2022;Pak et al., 2021;Li et al.). In addition, black fungus is susceptible to heavy metal pollution, which brings The contribution rate of each raw material to Pb ( Figure 5B): sawdust 73.57-96.55%, ...
... Black fungus is one of the most consumed edible fungi in the world, and northeast China is the main producing area of black fungus [16][17][18] (Ren et al., 2022;Pak et al., 2021;Li et al.). In addition, black fungus is susceptible to heavy metal pollution, which brings The contribution rate of each raw material to Pb ( Figure 5B): sawdust 73.57-96.55%, ...
... Black fungus is one of the most consumed edible fungi in the world, and northeast China is the main producing area of black fungus [16][17][18] This study aims to provide theoretical basis for auriculus auriculus production and processing in these two provinces. ...
Black fungus is the second-most consumed edible fungus in China. The establishment of a risk assessment mechanism for heavy metals in black fungus is particularly critical to the safety of edible fungi. To clarify a risk assessment mechanism of heavy metal pollution of edible fungi in northeast China, in this study, the contents of Pb, Cr, CD and As in 415 samples were determined, and a total of 1660 valid data were obtained. Then, based on Monte Carlo simulation, a non-parametric probability assessment system for heavy metals in black fungus was established and improved. The results showed that the residual amounts of As, Pb, Cd and Cr in black fungus were in the order of Cr > Pb > As > Cd. The background content of four heavy metals in the main raw materials was preliminarily clarified. Among them, the content of As is between 0.010–0.320 mg·kg⁻¹, Pb is between 0.051–0.792 mg·kg⁻¹, Cd is between 0.019–0.236 mg·kg⁻¹, and Cr is between 0.06–3.41 mg·kg⁻¹. These results indicate that the dietary exposure risk of heavy metals ingested by dried black fungus in Chinese minors and adults is basically safe, but at the high exposure levels of 97.5% sites and 99% sites, Cr is at the light pollution level, and the comprehensive pollution of four heavy metals is at the moderate pollution level. In addition, this study found that raw materials can cause heavy metal accumulation in black fungus, mainly from sawdust, followed by rice bran and wheat bran.
... Several studies have demonstrated that oxidative stress and molecular in ammation are signi cant contributors to age-related muscle atrophy 8 . Recently, Auricularia auricula-judae (AAJ), have gained attention for their strong antioxidant and anti-in ammatory properties due to various bioactive compounds present in them, such as polysaccharides, melanin, and polyphenols [9][10][11][12] . Evidence suggests that the administration of AAJ and its extracts leads to a considerable decrease in malondialdehyde content, an increase in the activity of superoxide dismutase and glutathione content 13,14 , and enhancement of the expression of the antioxidant enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate quinine oxidoreductase 1) 11 , while exhibiting remarkable antioxidant activities on 2,2-diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl, hydroxyl, and superoxide radicals 14,15 . ...
... Recently, Auricularia auricula-judae (AAJ), have gained attention for their strong antioxidant and anti-in ammatory properties due to various bioactive compounds present in them, such as polysaccharides, melanin, and polyphenols [9][10][11][12] . Evidence suggests that the administration of AAJ and its extracts leads to a considerable decrease in malondialdehyde content, an increase in the activity of superoxide dismutase and glutathione content 13,14 , and enhancement of the expression of the antioxidant enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate quinine oxidoreductase 1) 11 , while exhibiting remarkable antioxidant activities on 2,2-diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl, hydroxyl, and superoxide radicals 14,15 . Additionally, AAJ extract signi cantly inhibits gene expression of in ammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), and tumor necrotic factor alpha (TNF-α) in murine macrophages 15 . ...
... To date, no population-based studies have been conducted to investigate the association between AAJ consumption and sarcopenia. However, studies have shown that AAJ and its extract have antioxidant 14, 33-36 and anti-in ammatory 11,16,37,38 properties, which are associated with reducing the risk of agerelated chronic diseases 8, 39 . These properties may be attributed to the presence of active components in AAJ such as AAP, melanin, and polyphenols 9,13,40 . ...
Background: Several studies have shown that Auricularia auricula-judae (AAJ) can reduce inflammation and oxidative stress. Although these factors are closely involved in the pathogenesis of sarcopenia, limited research has focused on the association between AAJconsumption and sarcopenia in the general population. We aimed to investigate the potential association between AAJ consumption and sarcopenia in the elderly general population.
Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis using data from the Tianjin Chronic Low-grade Systemic Inflammation and Health (TCLSIH) study, which included 4,034 participants aged 60 years or older. The diagnosis of sarcopenia was based on the Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia 2019 (AWGS 2019) criteria. AAJ consumption was assessed using a validated self-administered 100-item food frequency questionnaire. Multiple logistic regression model and Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was employed to examine the effect of AAJ consumption on sarcopenia.
Results: There were 548 (15.1%) sarcopenia cases. In males, after adjusting for confounding factors, the odds ratios (ORs) (95% confidence interval [CI]) for sarcopenia decreased with increasing frequency of AAJ intake: 1.00 (reference) for almost never, 0.79 (0.53, 1.18) for ≤1 time/week, 0.62 (0.41, 0.93) for ≥2-3 times/week (P for trend=0.02). However, in females, no significant association between AAJ consumption and sarcopenia was identified. Similar results were also found in sarcopenia components.
Conclusions: Our findings suggested that AAJ consumption was inversely associated with the prevalence of sarcopenia in Chinese elderly males but not in elderly females. The exact mechanism underlying this association warrants further investigations.
... Shiitake (Lentinula edodes), black ear (Auricularia auricula), and silver ear (Tremella fuciformis) are widely cultivated and commercially available mushroom cultivars with a high production (Tiwari et al., 2022). Previous studies have been extensively focused on the extraction and characterization of water-soluble polysaccharides from these mushrooms (Pak, Chen, Ma, Hu, & Ji, 2021;Sheng et al., 2021;Wu et al., 2019), which paved the way for the commercialization of polysaccharide products (Gong et al., 2020). Mushroom polysaccharides are heterogeneous (Colosimo et al., 2021), and structurally different polysaccharide gets reflected in different effects on starch properties. ...
... For example, incorporation of β-glucan from shiitake mushroom into wheat starch increased the pasting temperature, storage modulus and enthalpy of the latter (Zhuang et al., 2017). In contrast, incorporation of acidic polysaccharides (mixture of β-glucan and glucuronoxylomannan) of black ear mushroom into yam starch decreased its storage modulus but increased the swelling power (Pak et al., 2021;Zhou & Kang, 2018). Interestingly, acidic polysaccharide (glucuronoxylomannan) of silver ear mushroom decreased the enthalpy of potato starch and greatly slowed down its swelling and leaching of amylose . ...
... The glucose (27.75 mol %), mannose (31.57 mol %), xylose (7.62 mol %), and glucuronic acid (27.60 mol %) were the dominant monosaccharides in AAP, having both β-glucan and glucuronoxylomannan Pak et al., 2021). This can also be confirmed by two main fractions observed on the molecular weight distribution curve of AAP (Supplementary data S2). ...
Abstract
This study aimed at gaining insight into the mechanism of interactions between sorghum starch and mushroom polysaccharides (MPs) obtained from three cultivars Lentinula edodes (LEP), Auricularia auricula (AAP), and Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides (TFP) in relation to gelatinization, retrogradation and digestibility of starch, and microstructures before and after digestion. MPs decreased the degree of gelatinization, activation energy (retrogradation energy), and digestibility of sorghum starch, whilst they increased the particle size of digesta in a concentration dependent manner (0.15–0.6%, w/v). Confocal laser scanning microscopic (CLSM) images of starch suspensions, gels, and digesta illustrated that LEP was able to coat the sorghum starch granules through electrostatic interaction, which promoted starch retrogradation in gels after long-term storage. AAP and TFP were found to possess ability to suppress starch crystallization in sorghum starch gels, achieved through hydrophobic interaction with starch. TFP (glucuronoxylomannan) and most AAP particles were unable to coat sorghum starch granules, although a small number of AAP particles complexed with the starch through hydrogen bonding. The interaction between sorghum starch and MPs depended on the nature of MPs and their concentration. These findings would provide fundamentals for the utilization of MPs as glycaemic controller of starch and starch-rich foods.
... Among the global producers, China is the largest, accounting for more than 90% of the total world production [14]. Although its nutritional value and functional effects on the body have been extensively studied in Asia [15] and other regions, this mushroom remains relatively less familiar in Western societies, such as Europe and the United States [13]. A. auricula-judae is rich in polysaccharides, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals, and its polysaccharide, known as Auricularia auricula polysaccharide (AAP), has been reported to alleviate chronic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, inflammation, and hyperglycemia [16][17][18]. Although studies have reported that AAP slows the aging process and improves blood lipid levels [19], systematic research on products containing AAP is lacking; therefore, the relevant characteristics of A. auricula-judae products need to be investigated [14]. ...
... Dietary fiber is the major polysaccharide component of A. auricula-judae [27], and AAP, a polysaccharide of A. auricula-judae, has excellent biological functionality and has been shown to have effects on antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and immunomodulatory effects in various studies [16][17][18]. Liu et al. [28] reported that AAP affected lipid metabolism in the blood of mice and slowed weight gain in a study in which they provided an extract of A. auricula-judae as a dietary supplement. In our study, the increase in dietary fiber intake was assessed after the end of the intervention; however, a clear analysis of this aspect increase is difficult, especially when compared with the slight decrease observed in the control group. ...
... Many biological and pharmacological activities, including antidepressant, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antimalarial, anti-infammatory, insecticidal, hepatoprotective, antihelminthic, larvicidal, antihypertensive, anticancer, antidiabetic, cholesterol-lowering, antiurolithiasis, and antifertility, have been demonstrated by the HWE of AAJ, as shown in Table 2. Te anticoagulant, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anticancer, hypolipidemic, antiobesity, antiinfammatory, antiradiation, immunomodulatory, and antibacterial properties of AAJ extracts have also been established by earlier investigations [28,109,110]. According to a study, the phenolic substances epicatechin, catechin, chlorogenic acid, quercetin, and rutin are among the phenolic compounds found in the HWE of AAJ. ...
... Many secondary metabolites, including β-glucans, chitin, and derivatives of the sterol ergosterol, have been detected in numerous in vitro and in vivo studies. Tese metabolites demonstrate potential antiinfammatory activity by reducing the production of proinfammatory cytokines, promoting the production of anti-infammatory cytokines, and preventing both immune response and the development of cancer cells in the body [28,30,110,112]. Tey also protect the body by lowering blood cholesterol, boosting our immune system, preventing infammatory disorders, and delaying the development of cancer [28,112,113]. ...
Secondary metabolites are hidden gems in mushrooms. Understanding these secondary metabolites’ biological and pharmacological efects can be aided by identifying them. Te purpose of this work was to profle the mycochemical components of the extracts of Auricularia auricula judae, Microporus xanthopus, Termitomyces umkowaani, Trametes elegans, and Trametes versicolor to comprehend their biological and pharmacological capabilities. Mushroom samples were collected from Kenya’s Arabuko–Sokoke and Kakamega National Reserved Forests and identifed using morphological and molecular techniques. Chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water solvents were used to extract the mycochemical components. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to analyze the chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water extracts of all the species examined. A total of 51 compounds were isolated from all extracts and classifed as carboxylic acids, esters, phenols, fatty acids, alcohol, epoxides, aldehydes, fatty aldehydes, isoprenoid lipids, and steroids. Tetracosamethyl-cyclododecasiloxane (18.90%), oleic acid (72.90%), phenol, 2, 6-bis (1, 1-dimethylethyl)-4-methyl-, and methylcarbamate (26.56%) were all found in high concentrations in A. auricular judae, M. xanthopus, T. umkowaani, T. elegans, and T. versicolor, respectively. Fatty acids make up the majority of the compounds isolated from the T. elegans chloroform extract and the T. umkowaani 70% ethanol extract, respectively. Particularly, these fatty acids play crucial roles in the anti-infammatory, hypocholesterolemic, anticancer, and antibioflm formation activities. Tese bioactive elements indicate that the extracts of fve wild mushrooms may be reliable sources of secondary metabolites for therapeutic development. Terefore, additional research is required to comprehend the usefulness of these chemicals in many functional areas and to improve the present understanding of macrofungi.
... The HWE of AAJ has shown many biological and pharmacological activities such as antidepressant, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, hepatoprotective, anti-helminthic, larvicidal, anticholinesterase, antihypertensive, anticancer, antidiabetic, cholesterol-lowering, anti-urolithiasis, and antifertility. Previous studies also confirmed that AAJ extracts exhibit several biological and pharmacological properties such as anticoagulant, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anticancer, hypolipidemic, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, anti-radiation, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial activities [40,44,45]. A study reported that the HWE of AAJ also contains several phenolic compounds (e.g. ...
... These metabolites exhibit potential antiinflammatory activities and inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines [21,40]. The protective mechanisms of AAJ secondary metabolites against inflammatory activities could be by preventing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, stimulating the anti-inflammatory cytokines, and averting immune response as well as cancer cell formation in the body [21,40,45,47]. They also defend our body by reducing cholesterol in the blood, supporting the immune system of our body, inhibiting inflammatory diseases, and hindering the onset of cancer [40,47,48]. ...
Mushrooms are unexploited treasures of secondary metabolites. Analysis of the chemical constituents of these mushrooms would be necessary for the assessment of their pharmacological and biological activities. This study aimed at profiling of mycochemical constituents of five wild mushroom extracts thereby understanding their biological and pharmacological properties. Mushrooms were collected from Arabuko-Sokoke and Kakamega National Reserved Forests, Kenya. Specimens were identified by both morphological and molecular methods. Bioactive compounds were extracted using chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water solvents. Chloroform, 70% ethanol, and hot water extracts of Auricularia auricula-judae, Microporus xanthopus, Termitomyces umkowaani, Trametes elegans, and Trametes versicolor were determined using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS). From all extracts, a total of fifty-one (51) compounds were identified and grouped into carboxylic acids, esters, phenols, fatty acids, alcohol, epoxides, aldehyde, fatty aldehyde, isoprenoid lipids, and steroid. Of the total compounds, Oleic acid (72.90%) from Trametes elegans was detected abundantly. Most of the compounds obtained from the chloroform extract of Trametes elegans and 70% ethanol extract of T. umkowaani are fatty acids. The identified compounds have revealed many biological and pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, anti-helminthic, larvicidal, vasodilator, antihypertensive, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antidiabetic, antifertility anti-diuretic, antiasthma, antifouling, anti-dermatophytic, antispasmodic, anti-hypocholesterolemic, nematicide, pesticide, immunostimulant, antiarthritic, and antihistaminic. These fatty acids are particularly playing important roles in the anti-inflammatory, hypocholesterolemic anticancer, and anti-biofilm formation activities. The presence of these bioactive components suggests that the extracts of five wild mushrooms could be good sources of secondary metabolites for drug discovery.
... Mushrooms are a great source of functional polysaccharides. Jelly ear mushrooms (Auricularia auricula and Tremella fuciformis) are widely cultivated and have a high content (>9%) of acidic soluble polysaccharides (Pak, Chen, Ma, Hu, & Ji, 2021;Xu et al., 2020). The main chemical structure of Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides (TFP) is a glucuronoxylomannan which is composed of α-(1-3)-Dmannose (backbone) linked by branches composed of β-D-xylose, β-Dglucose, and β-D-glucuronic acid (and O-acetylated glucuronic group) (Xu et al., 2020). ...
... The main chemical structure of Tremella fuciformis polysaccharides (TFP) is a glucuronoxylomannan which is composed of α-(1-3)-Dmannose (backbone) linked by branches composed of β-D-xylose, β-Dglucose, and β-D-glucuronic acid (and O-acetylated glucuronic group) (Xu et al., 2020). The Auricularia auricula polysaccharides (AAP) contain β-(1,3-1,6)-glucan and glucuronoxylomannan (Pak et al., 2021). Like other polysaccharides, the two acidic mushroom polysaccharides slowed down the αamylase digestion of starch by preventing the rigid structure of the starch (Yang et al., 2022;Zhou & Kang, 2018). ...
This study investigated the ability of acidic polysaccharides from Auricularia auricula-judae (AAP) and Tremella fuciformis (TFP) mushrooms to modulate starch digestion and absorption. Gelatinised sorghum starch was used as starch-rich material, and its digestion and glucose transport were determined through in vitro digestion/Caco-2 cells model. Results showed that fortification with 0.6% AAP/TFP increased the proportion of high molecular weight α-dextrin and delayed glucose diffusion from digested starch gels. Gelatinisation of sorghum starch with AAP and TFP reduced the amount of transported glucose by 34.2% and 38.7%, respectively. This reduction was related to the inhibition of AAP/TFP on α-glucosidase and the difficulty in the hydrolysis of high molecular weight maltooligosaccharides. The potential bonding of AAP/TFP to glucose transporter (SGLT1) also impeded glucose transport. The findings suggest that AAP/TFP could act as natural hypoglycaemic agents used in starch-based foods and provide a better understanding of the hypoglycaemic mechanism of mushroom polysaccharides.
... auricula), of the genus Auricularia, family Auriculariaceae, order Auriculariales, class Agaricomycetes, and phylum Basidiomycota [1], is a common edible fungus with rich nutritional value found mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. Modern medical research [2][3][4][5] has shown that A. auricula can also provide extensive medicinal benefits. Its main active component, A. auricula polysaccharide (AAP), has been found to exhibit numerous physiological functions, including antioxidation [6,7], and antibacterial [8], hypoglycemic [9] and anti-cardiovascular activities [10]. ...
... polysaccharide QPI-I had an obvious diffraction peak at 28.40 • , which inferred that the QPI-I had a stable single crystal structure. Figure 7a shows that the thermogravimetric (TG) curves of the AAP-NPs and AAP within the experimental temperature range were similar, and could be summarized into 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Intensity (a.u.) ...
Auricularia auricula-judae polysaccharide (AAP)-based nanoparticles (NPs) prepared via an anti-solvent precipitation approach were studied. Response surface methodology (RSM) design was carried out on the basis of single factor experiments, using average size and polydispersity index (PDI) as indicators. The optimal preparation conditions were determined to include an AAP concentration of 1 mg/mL, a pH of 8, and an anti-solvent/solvent volume ratio of 6. The average particle sizes of the AAP-NPs, PDI and electrical characteristic (ζ-potential) were found to be 150.27 ± 3.21 nm, 0.135 ± 0.012 and −31.10 ± 0.52 mV, respectively. Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to determine the chemical structure of the AAP-NPs. It was observed that the intensity of AAP-NPs in the wide spectral band of 3000–3750 cm−1 was significantly stronger than that of the AAP, as was the characteristic peak of carboxyl anion, and the characteristic band moved to shorter wavelengths. Subsequent thermogravimetric analysis showed that the antisolvent precipitation method improved the thermal stability of the AAP, while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that the morphology of AAP-NPs was uniform and well-distributed, and that their single crystal structures had remained unaffected during the process. Moreover, the DPPH and ABTS scavenging activities of AAP-NPs were increased, and the IC50 values were 0.544 ± 0.241 mg/mL and 0.755 ± 0.226 mg/mL, respectively.
... (Liu et al., 2019). In contrast, the acidic polysaccharide (glucuronoxylomannan) of silver ear mushroom decreased the storage modulus of potato starch (Pak et al., 2021). Xiao et al. (2020)found that the coolant polysaccharide extraction methods of sodium carbonate and cellulose affected the physicochemical characteristics of cassava starch. ...
This study investigated the effect of twin-screw extruded-enzymatically prepared soluble dietary fibers (EESDF) on various properties of CS. Results showed that adding EESDF decreased the viscosity and crystallinity. Incorporating 10 % EESDF reduced the peak and final viscosities of CS by 323 cP and 380 cP, respectively. When stored for 14 d, EESDF reduced the relative crystallinity (RC) and enthalpy of retrogradation (ΔHr) of CS. The RC and the ΔHr were reduced by 4.83 % and 41.53 %, respectively, when adding 10 % EESDF. The resistant starch content was increased by 6.7 % when stored for 0 d with the addition of 10 % EESDF. The eGI value was decreased when adding 10 % EESDF. These findings showed that EESDF inhibited the retrogradation and digestion of CS. They will provide a basis for using EESDF as a quality control for starchy foods and for using starch in soft gels and foods for dysphagic categories.
... Auricularia heimuer is one of the most widely-cultivated edible mushrooms in China, with various beneficial properties, including its content of known anti-oxidants [1], antiinflammatory constituents [2], and low hypoglycemic index [3]. The species has also been reported to have anti-tumor properties [4] and ability to stimulate immune responses [5]. As a white-rot wood decay, it has the ability to degrade lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose [6]. ...
The cultivation of Auricularia heimuer, a species of edible mushroom, heavily relies on the availability of wood resources serving as substrate for the growth of the species. To ensure the sustainable development of the A. heimuer industry and optimize the utilization of corncob as a substrate, this study sought to investigate the potential use of corncob as a substrate for the cultivation of A. heimuer. The purpose of this study was to explore the utilization of corncob lignocellulose by A. heimuer at the mycelium, primordium, and fruiting stages, by specifically examining the expression profiles of both carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) and the transcriptome of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) relevant to corncob biomass degradation. The results revealed 10,979, 10,630, and 11,061 DEGs at the mycelium, primordium, and fruiting stages, respectively, while 639 DGEs were identified as carbohydrate-active enzymes. Of particular interest were 46 differentially expressed CAZymes genes that were associated directly with lignocellulose degradation. Furthermore, the study found that A. heimuer exhibited adaptive changes that enabled it to effectively utilize the cellulose present in the corncob. These changes were observed primarily at the primordium and fruiting stages. Key genes involved in lignocellulose degradation were also identified, including g6952, g8349, g12487, and g2976 at the mycelium stage, g5775, g2857, g3018, and g11016 at the primordium stage, and g10290, g2857, g12385, g7656, and g8953 at the fruiting stage. This study found that lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase (LPMO) played a crucial role in the degradation of corncob cellulose, further highlighting the complexity of the molecular mechanisms involved in the degradation of lignocellulose biomass by A. heimuer. The study sheds light on the molecular mechanisms underlying the ability of A. heimuer to degrade corncob biomass, with implications for the efficient utilization of lignocellulose resources. The findings from this study may facilitate the development of innovative biotechnologies for the transformation of corncob biomass into useful products.
... Boosts immune function in treated mice, enhances cytokines and tight junction proteins, and restores gut microbiota, suggesting use in food and pharmaceuticals. [15,16] Grifola frondosa Polysaccharides ...
This review evaluates the therapeutic effects of polysaccharides derived from mushroom species that have medicinal and edible properties. The fungal polysaccharides were recently studied, focusing on their modulation of the gut microbiota and their impact on various diseases. The study covers both clinical and preclinical studies, detailing the results and highlighting the significant influence of these polysaccharides on gut microbiota modulation. It discusses the potential health benefits derived from incorporating these polysaccharides into the diet for managing chronic diseases such as diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. Furthermore, the review emphasizes the interaction between fungal polysaccharides and the gut microbiota, underscoring their role in modulating the gut microbial community. It presents a systematic analysis of the findings, demonstrating the substantial impact of fungal polysaccharides on gut microbiota composition and function, which may contribute to their therapeutic effects in various chronic conditions. We conclude that the modulation of the gut microbiota by these polysaccharides may play a crucial role in mediating their therapeutic effects, offering a promising avenue for further research and potential applications in disease prevention and treatment.
... These are the main bioactive compounds that have been linked to a reduced risk of cancer and atherosclerosis, as well as other health advantages. It makes food functional (Pak et al. 2021). ...
Nepal is rich in mycoflora diversity, also known as the diversity of fungi. Fungal study in Nepal has initiated by foreign researchers, but now a growing number of Nepali researchers continuing the explorations. Many people are attracted to fungi due to their diversity, unique characteristics, medicinal properties, nutritional value, and wide range of human benefits. The few fungi species that are protected under government law require permission for collection. This chapter provides an overview of the current status of mycofloral research in Nepal so that future research objectives can be established. In conclusion, future research should focus on ecological studies, nutritive value, efficiency, toxicity, and the study of secondary metabolites found in different fungi species. These studies will help us understand more about mycoflora in Nepal.
... Analysis of the intensity of each chromatographic peak revealed that the proportions of glucose, mannose, arabinose, galactose, and rhamnose in AAP3 accounted for 61.45%, 17.44%, 14.65%, 3.26%, and 3.20%, respectively (Table 2). Tese values are close to the proportions reported by Pak et al. [39] (80.02%, 4.78%, 5.64%, 4.78%, and 4.78%). scavenging capability of AAP0 reached 23.55%, whereas that of AAP3 with the smallest M v was 34.00%. ...
Objective
This study aimed to investigate the growth of calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals regulated by Auricularia auricular polysaccharides (AAPs) with different viscosity-average molecular weights (Mv), the toxicity of AAP-regulated CaOx crystals toward HK-2 cells, and the prevention and treatment capabilities of AAPs for CaOx stones.
Methods
The scavenging capability and reducing capacity of four kinds of AAPs (Mv of 31.52, 11.82, 5.86, and 3.34 kDa) on hydroxyl, ABTS, and DPPH free radicals and their capability to chelate divalent iron ions were detected. AAP-regulated CaOx crystals were evaluated by using zeta potential, thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy. The cytotoxicity of AAP-regulated crystals was evaluated through examination of cell viability, cell death, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and cell surface hyaluronic acid (HA) expression.
Results
The in vitro antioxidant activities of the four AAPs were observed in the following order: AAP0 < AAP1 < AAP2 < AAP3. Thus, AAP3, which had the smallest Mv, had the strongest antioxidant activity. AAPs can inhibit the growth of CaOx monohydrate (COM), induce the formation of CaOx dihydrate (COD), and reduce the degree of crystal aggregation, with AAP3 exhibiting the strongest capability. Cell experiments showed the lowest cytotoxicity in AAP3-regulated CaOx crystals, along with the lowest MDA content, HA expression, and cell mortality. In addition, COD presented less cytotoxicity than COM. Meanwhile, the cytotoxicity of blunt crystals was less than that of sharp crystals.
Conclusion
AAPs, particularly AAP3, showed an excellent antioxidative capability in vitro, and AAP3-regulated CaOx crystals presented minimal cytotoxicity.
... Auricularia auricula belongs to the family Auriculariaceae, the genus Auricularia, is a valuable medicinal and food colloidal fungus that is widely renowned globally as a health food. 1 It is grown in abundance, and production has increased dramatically worldwide and is included in the top four most widely grown edible mushrooms in the world. Numerous studies have shown that A. auricula is rich in protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, and lipids, which has made it popular. ...
BACKGROUND
Auricularia auricula is rich in bioactive components, and microbial fermentation can further dramatically increase its content and bioavailability. However, there are few studies on the relationship between fermented A. auricula pulp (FAAP) and gut microbiota. In this study, standard strains Lactobacillus plantarum 21801 and 21805 purchased from the China Center of Industrial Culture Collection were used to ferment A. auricula pulp at a ratio of 2:1, with an inoculum of 5%, a fermentation temperature of 31 °C, and a fermentation time of 22 h. The nutritional properties, aroma, and color of FAAP and their effects on the body characteristics of mice and the structure and abundance of gut microbiota are discussed.
RESULTS
The results showed that, compared with A. auricula pulp, FAAP significantly increased the nutritional properties while maintaining favorable sensory quality and flavor profiles. Among them, the content of total polyphenols and total flavonoids reached 22.04 μg mL⁻¹ and 20.56 μg mL⁻¹ respectively, and the 2,2′‐azino‐bis(3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid free‐radical scavenging rate increased to 73.21%. The consumption of FAAP had no negative effects on weight or liver and kidney function in mice and dramatically enhanced the antioxidant capacity in the liver and serum. The production of short‐chain fatty acids in the gut was promoted, the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria (Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, norank_f__Muribaculaceae and unclassified_f__Lachnospiraceae) increased, and the growth of some pathogenic bacteria (Helicobacter, Mucispirillum, and Alloprevotella) was inhibited.
CONCLUSION
These findings demonstrate that FAAP is rich in nutrients and has unique functional properties that promote host health and regulate the gut microbiota. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.
... dietary fibres up to 6.20% and ßglucan up to 14.30% (Wan Rosli et al., 2015). The BJM is also an excellent source of antioxidants and possesses antimicrobial properties (Pak et al., 2021). These findings are supported by Ahmad et al. (2020), who documented a reduction in microbial activity and an increase in DPPH value (48.24%SA) and total phenolic content (5.70 mgCE/g) by the sausages incorporated with oyster mushrooms. ...
Black jelly mushroom (BJM) is particularly low in fat, high in fibre, and packed with many antioxidants, antimicrobials and minerals while having unique soaking characteristics and a gel-like texture, while olive oil (OO) contains high monounsaturated fatty acids where both have the potential to be used as fat replacers in meat products. This study evaluated the effect of the replacement of chicken skin (CS) at various percentages (0%, 25%, 50% and 100%) of black jelly mushroom and olive oil on the physicochemical and microstructural properties of chicken meat emulsion. Emulsions with 100% CS (Control), 50% CS + 50% OO, 50% CS + 50% BJM, 50% CS + 25% OO + 25% BJM, 100% OO and 100% BJM were developed. The pH value, cooking loss, protein content, carbohydrate content, textural properties and shear force of all fat-replaced samples were comparable to the control. The most positive results were demonstrated in the emulsion with 100% BJM, which had lower fat content (1.31±0.84%) and better emulsion stability (%TEF:7.97±4.16%, %EFAT:12.97±6.53%), water-holding capacity (86.67±3.06%), and moisture content (76.69±2.13%). The colour profiles of the BJM-incorporated samples had higher redness and the OO-incorporated sample had higher lightness and yellowness. The micrographs revealed a harmonious distribution of fat droplets and mushroom particles in all samples' protein matrices. In conclusion, the black jelly mushroom is capable to be used as a fat replacer in producing low-fat meat emulsion, and its incorporation at 100% level has the highest potential.
... A. auricula-judae has been recorded as the oldest edible mushroom being cultivated by humans, and its cultivation in China using logs as substrate dates back to 300 BC (Sánchez Vázquez et al., 2018). It is now largely cultivated in several countries, including China, Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Russia, and is considered as four major cultivated edible mushrooms in the world Pak et al., 2021). According to Zhao et al., (2019), A. auricula-judae is cultivated on a large scale in northern China, making it the fourth large producer globally. ...
... Mw reflects the polymerization of polysaccharides, whose detailed elucidation is crucial to study the physiological properties of polysaccharides (79). Conventionally, size exclusion chromatography (SEC), GFC, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) were used to determine the Mw of LPs (52,59,62,74). ...
Lotus is a famous plant of the food and medicine continuum for millennia, which possesses unique nutritional and medicinal values. Polysaccharides are the main bioactive component of lotus and have been widely used as health nutritional supplements and therapeutic agents. However, the industrial production and application of lotus polysaccharides (LPs) are hindered by the lack of a deeper understanding of the structure–activity relationship (SAR), structural modification, applications, and safety of LPs. This review comprehensively comments on the extraction and purification methods and structural characteristics of LPs. The SARs, bioactivities, and mechanisms involved are further evaluated. The potential application and safety issues of LPs are discussed. This review provides valuable updated information and inspires deeper insights for the large scale development and application of LPs.
... Approximately 10% was composed of the sum of the xylose, galactose, fucose, arabinose and rhamnose. All measured monomers are characteristics for the acidic heteropolysaccharides with mannopyranosyl backbones and branches of D-glucopyranosyluronic acid, D-mannopyranose, D-glucopyranose, D-xylopyranose, D-galactopyranose residues and O-acetyl groups, as well as for some other neutral sugars reported in Auricularia mushrooms earlier [33][34][35][36]. The acidic heteropolysaccharides are claimed to be responsible for the gel-forming properties of the Auricularia [1,6,37], as well as other jelly fungi, such as different Tremella species [5] or encapsulated yeast Cryptococcus [38]. ...
The ear- to shell-shaped fruiting bodies of the genus Auricularia are widely used as food and in traditional medicinal remedies. This study was primarily focused on the composition, properties and potential use of the gel-forming extract from Auricularia heimuer. The dried extract contained 50% soluble homo- and heteropolysaccharides, which were mainly composed of mannose and glucose, acetyl residues, glucuronic acid and a small amount of xylose, galactose, glucosamine, fucose, arabinose and rhamnose. The minerals observed in the extract included approximately 70% potassium followed by calcium. Among the fatty and amino acids, 60% unsaturated fatty acids and 35% essential amino acids could be calculated. At both acidic (pH 4) and alkaline (pH 10) conditions, the thickness of the 5 mg/mL extract did not change in a temperature range from −24 °C to room temperature, but decreased statistically significantly after storage at elevated temperature. At neutral pH, the studied extract demonstrated good thermal and storage stability, as well as a moisture retention capacity comparable to the high molecular weight sodium hyaluronate, a well-known moisturizer. Hydrocolloids that can be sustainably produced from Auricularia fruiting bodies offer great application potential in the food and cosmetic industries.
... Auricularia heimuer, commonly known as tree-ear, is one of the most widely cultivated and consumed edible mushrooms in Asia [1], with the second largest production among all edible mushrooms worldwide. The fruiting body of A. heimuer has an ear-like structure and is rich in gelatin along with a variety of bioactive substances, including polysaccharides, polyphenols, vitamins, and melanin [2]. Cap color is an important commercial characteristic for A. heimuer, with consumers preferring mushrooms with a blacker cap. ...
Auricularia heimuer is a traditional edible and medicinal mushroom, which is widely used in biochemical research and is regarded as a good dietary supplement. The color of the ear-like fruiting body is an important indicator of its commercial quality. However, the mechanism by which light intensity influences the melanin synthesis of A. heimuer remains unclear. Here, we show that fruiting body color is significantly affected by light intensity. Transcriptional profiles of the fruiting bodies of A. heimuer grown in different light intensities were further analyzed. More differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified with a greater light intensity difference. A total of 1388 DEGs were identified from six comparisons, including 503 up-regulated genes and 885 down-regulated genes. The up-regulated genes were mainly associated with light sensing via photoreceptors, signal transduction via the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, and melanin synthesis via the tyrosine metabolic pathway. Therefore, the genes involved in these processes may participate in regulating melanin synthesis under high light intensity. This insight into the transcriptional regulation of A. heimuer to light intensity should help to further comprehensively elucidate the underlying mechanism of light-induced melanin synthesis.
... Fungal melanin can enhance the functional value of food by exerting biological activities, for example, A. auricular melanin is a widely used food color additive. It is commonly used in preparing yogurt to enhance its prebiotic properties or to improve the antioxidant and free radical scavenging properties of food (Pak et al. 2021). In order to improve the diversity of food culture, fungal melanin may be used as a food additive to develop a variety of novel food products, such as black vermicelli, black soybean curd skin, and black caviar (Mesías and Delgado-Andrade 2017). ...
Melanin is a secondary metabolite composed of complex heterogeneous polymers. Fungal melanin is considered to be a sustainable and biodegradable natural pigment and has a variety of functional properties and biological activities. On one hand, due to its own specific properties it can play the role of antioxidant, anti-radiation, adsorption, and photoprotection. On the other hand, it has good biological activities such as hepatoprotective effect, hypolipidemic effect and anti-cancer. Therefore, it is widely used in various fields of daily life, including dyeing, food, biomedical and commercial industry. It is conducive to environmental protection and human health. However, the insolubility of fungal melanin in water, acids and organic solvents has been an obstacle to its commercial applications. Thus, the chemical modification methods of fungal melanin are summarized to increase its solubility and expand the application fields. Although fungal melanin has been used in many industries, as the structure and function of fungal melanin and modified melanin are further studied, more functional properties and bioactivities are expected to be discovered for a wide range of applications in the future.
Graphic abstract
... 3 Edible mushrooms can be sourced as either wild or cultivated mushrooms and they are consumed widely around the world for their abundance. 4 Because edible mushrooms have a complete amino acid profile and grow faster than other animals and plants, it is more feasible to obtain high-quality protein from edible mushrooms. 5 As a type of edible mushroom, Auricularia auricula is abundant in nutrient substances, and most of it has been studied as a result of its biological activities. ...
BACKGROUND
Auricularia auricula (A. auricula) is one of the most abundant sources of plant protein in edible fungi. Problems of low protein yield exist in traditional methods of protein extraction such as alkali extraction and ultrasonic‐assisted alkali after pretreatment with enzymes. Thus, the protein extraction process was investigated and optimized using a definitive screening design from A. auricula to improve the protein yield under practical operating conditions of temperature, the concentration of NaCl, meal/water ratio, extraction time and pH.
RESULTS
The yield of protein isolates of the isoelectric‐ammonium sulfate precipitation (9.34% w/w) was obtained almost three times and the protein content (55.23% w/w) was approximately 1.6 times that of the traditional extraction method of isoelectric precipitation. Next, the optimized method was successfully applied to the analysis of the functional properties of the protein. A. auricula protein isolate (AAPI) had better solubility, emulsification and foaming capacity than soy protein isolate (SPI) and pea protein isolate (PPI), and the oil holding capacity of AAPI exhibited extremely well, which was approximately five times that of SPI and six times that of PPI. The texture properties of AAPI gel were similar to those of PPI gels.
CONCLUSION
AAPI extracted by the optimized method had a satisfactory yield and had the potential to substitute plant‐originated proteins in food processing. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.
... In the literature, though there are very many compilations of research majorly focussing on USAE of bioactive components [10,11], a combination of methodologies employed along with ultrasound to improve extraction [12,13] factors affecting extraction like temperature, solvent medium, etc., [14,15] and optimization of process variables during ultrasonication to improve yield and mass transfer are less [16,17]. Only a few discussions and sources of in-depth compilations are available on USAE bioactives and their bio-analytical assessments with application to non-invasive biomedical benefits [18,19]. Also, the little available information is only limited to a single bioactive component and its bioactivities [20,21]. ...
Foods incorporated with bioactive compounds, called nutraceuticals, can fight or prevent or alleviate diseases. The contribution of nutraceuticals or phytochemicals to non-invasive biomedical applications is increasing. Although there are many traditional methods for extracting bioactive compounds or secondary metabolites, these processes come with many disadvantages like lower yield, longer process time, high energy consumption, more usage of solvent, yielding low active principles with low efficacy against diseases, poor quality, poor mass transfer, higher extraction temperature, etc. However, nullifying all these disadvantages of a non-thermal technology, ultrasound has played a significant role in delivering them with higher yield and improved bio-efficacy. The physical and chemical effects of acoustic cavitation are the crux of the output. This review paper primarily discusses the ultrasound-assisted extraction (USAE) of bioactives in providing non-invasive prevention and cure to diseases and bodily dysfunctions in human and animal models. The outputs of non-invasive bioactive components in terms of yield and the clinical efficacy in either in vitro or in vitro conditions are discussed in detail. The non-invasive biomedical applications of USAE bioactives providing anticancer, antioxidant, cardiovascular health, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial benefits are analyzed in-depth and appraised. This review additionally highlights the improved performance of USAE compounds against conventionally extracted compounds. In addition, an exhaustive analysis is performed on the role and application of the food bioactives in vivo and in vitro systems, mainly for promoting these efficient USAE bioactives in non-invasive biomedical applications. Also, the review explores the recovery of bioactives from the less explored food sources like cactus pear fruit, ash gourd, sweet granadilla, basil, kokum, baobab, and the food processing industrial wastes like peel, pomace, propolis, wine residues, bran, etc., which is rare in literature.
Ergosterol and Auricularia auricula attenuates high fat diet-induced obesity and cognitive impairment in mice by regulating gut microbiota and inhibiting the activation of microglia.
Frozen dough is widely used in bread-making process, but it is prone to accelerate deterioration of gluten network due to the extrusion of ice crystallization. The study investigated the glass transition features of frozen dough regulated by lentinan molecular weight (Mw) and explored their correlation with dough structural and processing properties. Results indicated that the incorporation of high Mw lentinan could elevate the glass transition temperature Tgm2' of dough, from −29.93 °C to −20.59 °C. This was attributed to the limited molecular mobility and strengthened water absorption, as evidenced by a 25.53% decrease in ice melting enthalpy and a 5.51% increase in non-freezing water (NFW) content. Through the Pearson correlation analysis, Tgm2' of frozen dough had a significant positive correlation with the water states (NFW, A21), structural features (average pore size, β-sheet content), rheological properties and textural properties (hardness, chewiness and springiness). High Mw lentinan tended to offer multiple hydrophilic sites to build hydrogen bond network and promote gluten protein cross-linked, resulting in the raised elasticity and hardness of dough. These findings exploratively underscore the positive influence of regulating glass transition temperature on the formation of homogeneous and compact gluten network. https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1kcxh,65-xnS6L
Food 3D printing brings food processing technology into the digital age. This is a vast field that can provide entertainment experience, personalized food and specific nutritional needs. However, the limited availability of suitable food raw materials has restricted the extensive use of 3D food printing processing technique. The search for novel nutritious and healthy food materials that meet the demand for 3D food printing processing technology is core of the sustainable development of this emerging technology. The printing mechanism, precise nutrition, future outlooks and challenges of 3D food printing technology application in hybrid plant and animal food materials are also analyzed.The results demonstrate that selecting suitable animal and plant materials and mixing them into 3D food printing ingredients without adding food additives can result in printable inks, which can also improve the nutritive value and eating quality of 3D food printed products. Sustainability of novel food materials such as animal cell culture meat and microbial protein mixed with conventional food materials to realize 3D printed food can be a potential research direction. Some other issues should also be considered in future research, such as evaluation of the nutritional efficacy of the product, product stability, shelf life, production efficiency and convenience of process operation.
Fungi polysaccharides are nutraceutical-rich compounds with bioactive properties, offering promising applications in food formulation. This study examined the non-covalent complexation of commercial polysaccharides derived from the fruiting bodies of Auricularia auricula-judae (AA) and Ganoderma lucidum (GL) and soy protein isolate to enhance emulsifying properties. Complexes were examined across protein-to-polysaccharide ratios (0:1 to 1:0), pH levels (3 to 7), and heat treatment conditions. Results indicated a maximum insoluble association at pH 4 for both SPI-AAP and SPI-GLP complexes, with SPI-AAP complexes remaining soluble at pH 3, while SPI-GLP complexes exhibited insolubility. Heat treatment had a limited effect on electrostatically driven complexation but resulted in larger particles through a protein-denaturation-induced increase of hydrophobic interactions. In terms of emulsifying properties, individual GLPs demonstrated superior performance compared to individual AAPs. The GLPs engaged in competitive adsorption at the oil–water interface alongside SPI, resulting in larger emulsion droplet sizes compared to either component alone. The association of either AAPs or GLPs with SPI enhanced the emulsion stability against coalescence and Ostwald ripening. Commercial fungal polysaccharides demonstrate substantial potential for incorporation into manufactured food products, particularly in colloidal formulations.
Mushrooms are the healthiest, safest, most nutritious foods and are vital to human well-being. In historical contexts, religious teachings influenced the treatment of diseases, with ethnomycological knowledge suggesting that mushrooms held divine clues due to their unique appearances. The use of mushrooms was often linked to the "doctrine of signatures," where their morphological resemblance to human organs, such as the ear, kidney, and lungs, prompted researchers to theorize that products derived from mushrooms might be effective in treating health concerns. A wide variety of edible and wild mushrooms are now recognized for their bioactive compounds, which are valuable in biopharmaceuticals and dietary supplements. The compounds exhibit a range of therapeutic properties, encompassing immune enhancement, antioxidant effects, anti-inflammatory actions, antiviral capabilities, and anti-neoplastic activities. Modern science has corroborated many of these traditional insights, revealing mushrooms as sources of bioactive compounds with therapeutic potential. The intertwined filamentous mycelium of mushrooms is also attracting interest for its biocomposite uses in sustainable and environmentally friendly businesses. Biocomposite materials suitable for construction and building applications can be produced by creating a mycelial matrix or a self-forming adhesive using non-food fungal mycelia flour. This review explores the ethnomycological background, therapeutic potential, and innovative uses of mushroom mycelium in biocomposites, highlighting their role in health, wellness, and sustainable development.
Glycoproteins are special proteins and important nutrients for hypoglycemic activity. However, the structure of Auricularia Auricula glycoprotein (AAG) and the stability of its hypoglycemic activity during simulated digestion (including saliva, gastral and intestine digestion) in vitro are still unknown. In this study, AAG-3 was isolated from Auricularia Auricula. SDS-PAGE, UV spectrum, FTIR, amino acid composition, dichroic spectrum and SEM were used to characterize its structure. The hypoglycemic activity of AAG-3 during in vitro digestion was investigated via inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities, as well as glucose consumption, glycogen content and related enzyme activity in insulin-resistant HepG2 cells. Structural characterization showed that AAG-3 with a Mw of 18.21 kDa had an O-type glycopeptide bond and typical functional groups of glycoproteins. AAG-3 contained 18 kinds of amino acid and many α-helixes and β-turns, and its microstructure was sheet-like. With the simulated digestion of AAG-3 in vitro, the inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity as well as the glucose consumption, glycogen content and HK and PK enzyme activities in insulin-resistant HepG2 cells were significantly increased. Therefore, AAG-3 has a potential role in reducing blood glucose levels and improving insulin resistance and can be used as a potential micronutritional supplement for diabetic patients.
Auricularia auricular (A. auricula), a nutritious fungus and traditional medicinal resource, is known for melanin. This review aims to summarize the research progress on melanin in A. auricula, specifically focusing on biosynthesis, fermentation production, extraction processes, physicochemical characterization, biological functions, and applications. The biosynthesis of melanin in A. auricula primarily involves the oxidative polymerization reaction of phenolic compounds. To enhance melanin production, strategies such as deep fermentation culture, selection of optimal fermentation materials, and optimization of the culture medium have been employed. Various extraction processes have been compared to determine their impact on the physicochemical properties and stability of melanin. Moreover, the antioxidant and antibiofilm activities of A. auricula melanin, as well as its potential beneficial effects on the human body through in vivo experiments, have been investigated. These findings provide valuable insights into the application of A. auricula melanin and serve as a reference for future research in this field.
In this study,a novel polysaccharide, AAP-2S, was extracted from Auricularia auricula, and the anti-glycosylationeffect of AAP-2S and its underlying mechanisms were investigated using an in vitro BSA-fructose model anda cel-lular model. The results demonstrated the inhibiting formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) invitro by AAP-2S. Concurrently, it attenuated oxidative damage to proteins in the model, preserved proteinsulfhydryl groups from oxidation, reduced protein carbonylation, prevented structural alterations in proteins,and decreased the formation ofβ-crosslinked structures. Furthermore, AAP-2S demonstrated metal-chelating ca-pabilities. GC–MS/MS-based metabolomics were employed to analyze changes in metabolic profiles induced byAAP-2S ina CML-induced HK-2 cell model. Mechanistic investigations revealed that AAP-2S could mitigate gly-cosylation and ameliorate cell fibrosis by modulating the RAGE/TGF-β/NOX4 pathway. This study providesafoundational framework for further exploration of Auricularia auricular polysaccharide asa natural anti-AGEsagent, paving the way for its potential development and application asa food additive.
Polysaccharides are promising biomolecules with lowtoxicity and diverse bioactivities in food processing and clinical drug development. However, an essential prerequisite for their applications is the fine structure characterization. Due to the complexity of polysaccharide structure, partial degradation is a powerful tool for fine structure analysis, which can effectively provide valid information on the structure of backbone and branching glycosidic fragments of complex polysaccharides. This review aims to conclude current methods of partial degradation employed for polysaccharide structural characterization, discuss the molecular mechanisms, and describe the molecular structure and solution properties of degraded polysaccharides. In addition, the effects of polysaccharide degradation on the conformational relationships between the molecular structure and bioactivities, such as antioxidant, antitumor, and immunomodulatory activities, are also discussed. Finally, we summarize the prospects and current challenges for the partial degradation of polysaccharides. This review will be of great value for the scientific elucidation of polysaccharide fine structures and potential applications.
Interest in edible and medicinal macrofungi is millennial in terms of their uses in health and food products in Central Asia, while interest in inedible and medicinal macrofungi has grown in popularity in recent years. Edible and inedible medicinal basidiomycetes were collected during field surveys from different regions of Uzbekistan. The morphological characters and similarity assessment of rDNA-Internal Transcribed Spacer sequence data were used to measure diversity and habitat associations. A number of 17 species of medicinal macrofungi of ethnomycological and medicinal interest was found associated with 23 species of trees and shrubs belonging to 11 families and 14 genera. Polyporaceae and Hymenochaetaceae were represented by the highest number of species followed by Ganodermataceae, Fomitopsidaceae, Auriculariaceae, Cerrenaceae, Grifolaceae, Phanerochaetaceae, Laetiporaceae, Schizophyllaceae, and Stereaceae. The highest number of medicinal basidiomycete species was reported in the following host genera: Acer, Betula, Celtis, Crataegus, Juglans, Juniperus, Lonicera, Malus, Morus, Platanus, Populus, Prunus, Quercus, and Salix. An updated list of edible and inedible medicinal mushrooms identified in Uzbekistan, their morphological characteristics, and phylogenetic placement are given for the first time. Information is provided on their uses in traditional and modern medicine. Their bioactive compounds and extracts can be applied as medicines, as well as food and cosmetic ingredients.
Obesity has emerged as a crucial factor impacting people's lives, and gut microbiota disorders contribute to its development and progression. Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) polysaccharides (AAPs), a traditional functional food in Asia, exhibit potential anti-obesity effects. However, the specific mechanism still needs to be further confirmed. This study investigated the beneficial effects and specific mechanisms of AAPs on obesity. Firstly, AAPs showed significant improvements in overweight, insulin resistance, glucose and lipid metabolism disorders, and liver damage in obese mice. Additionally, AAPs ameliorated gut microbiota disorders, promoting the proliferation of beneficial bacteria like Lactobacillus and Roseburia, resulting in increased levels of SCFAs, folate, and cobalamin. Simultaneously, AAPs inhibited the growth of harmful bacteria, thereby protecting intestinal barrier function, improving endotoxemia, and decreasing the levels of inflammatory factors such as TNF-α and IL-6. Furthermore, AAPs can inhibit the TLR4/JNK signaling pathway while promoting the activation of AKT and AMPK. Importantly, our study underscored the pivotal role of gut microbiota in the anti-obesity effects of AAPs, as evidenced by fecal microbiota transplantation experiments. In conclusion, our findings elucidated that AAPs improve obesity by regulating gut microbiota and TLR4/JNK signaling pathway, offering novel perspectives for further conclusion the anti-obesity potential of AAPs.
In order to find a degradable biofilm，edible films of Auricularia auricula polysaccharide (AAP) were prepared and characterized optically, morphologically, and mechanically in terms of barrier, bactericidal, and antioxidant properties and evaluated for their potential application in cold meat packaging. The results showed that films prepared from 40 % AAP had the best mechanical properties, with smooth and homogeneous surfaces, good water barrier properties and also good preservation of cold meat. Thus, Auricularia auricula polysaccharide is a composite membrane additive with great potential for application.
his book, as part of the "Natural Products Chemistry of Global Plants" series, describes in detail the health promoting wild edible and medicinal mushrooms specific to the Himilayas region. The focus of the book is to draw on the rich culture, folklore, and environment of the Upper Himilayas, which represents a scientifically significant region. The Himilayas has rich plant resources and a large diversity of plants and mushrooms, which can provide important health benefits as detailed throughout the text. Drawing attention to these mushrooms with detailed scientific descriptions may help in the awareness and in developing sustainable growth of these important resources.
Features:
Provides an opportunity to describe the wild edible and medicinal mushrooms from this scientifically significant region.
Represents a wider variety of mushrooms than previously published in other books.
Presents more content related to traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, distribution, processing, toxicology, conservation and future prospective of individual mushrooms.
The plants and mushrooms of the region are valuable resources not only to local populations but to those living outside the region.
Scientists are monitoring the rich Himalayan plant resources and the consequences of climate change on this precarious ecosystem.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of different pH conditions on the properties of heat-induced composite gels of Auricularia auricula-judae polysaccharide (AP) and whey protein isolate (WPI). The color, hydration properties, texture, thermal stability, rheological properties, sulfhydryl content, surface hydrophobicity, and microstructure of the gels were evaluated. Due to the Maillard reaction, the color of the gel changed from white to brown with increasing pH. In contrast to the trend observed for color, the gels formed at pH 8 had better water holding capacity, springiness, hardness, thermal stability compared to pH 4, pH 6, and pH 10. Furthermore, rheological measurements showed that the gels after different pH treatments maintained their morphology by non-covalent interactions (hydrophobic interactions and electrostatic interactions), the gels exhibited shear thinning behavior. The free sulfhydryl content and surface hydrophobicity of the gels further confirmed the contribution of hydrophobic interactions in the gel network. The observation of the microstructure showed that the gel changed from a granular gel with rough surface to a gel with uniform and smooth surface with the increase of pH. This study provides some basic data references for improving the properties of AP-WPI composite gels and developing new gel-type products.
Background
Compared to those from other sources, polysaccharides from medical molds with unique structural features have long been reported for a wide range of bioactivities. However, their structure-activity relationships have not been systematically summarized.
Scope and approach
This review focuses on both exopolysaccharides (EPS) and mycelia polysaccharides (MPS) from different sources of medicinal molds. The culture conditions, structural characteristics and bioactivities are reviewed. Some crucial genes involved in microbial polysaccharides synthesis are highlighted. Their food and pharmaceutical applications are also discussed.
Key findings and conclusions
Medicinal mold polysaccharides are mainly sourced from molds in the orders of Penicillum spp., Paecilomyces spp., Aspergillus spp., Rhizopus spp., Trichoderma spp. And others. Different structural features, including glucans, mannans, chitosan, galactomannan, mannoglucan, etc. Are all reported. Immunomodulatory and anti-tumor/anticancer activities are the most prominent biological activities of mold polysaccharides, which are claimed to be associated with the presence of 5-Galf and T-Galf in their molecules. Overall, this review helps to extend the application potential for mold polysaccharides in both food and pharmaceutical areas.
To control endogenous formaldehyde (EFA) from Auricularia auricula and preserve its nutritional properties, we selected various non-thermal treatments and evaluated their effects on the removal of EFA, inhibition of γ-glutamyl transpeptidase and l-cysteine sulfoxide lyase activities, and bioactive ingredients (i.e., principal nutrients, including vitamins and taste substances). The results showed that single and co-non-thermal treatments (US-EW, IPL-EW) reduced the EFA content of A. auricula to varying degrees. Correlation and principal component analyses showed that synergistic treatment with ultrasound and electrolyzed water (US-EW) significantly reduced EFA (removal rate = 40.54%), with relatively small losses of other chemical components. The second best was treatment with intense pulsed light and electrolyzed water (IPL-EW) (removal rate = 36.27%). We constructed and validated a kinetic model for EFA removal using the US–EW treatment, and fitted a second-order kinetic equation. The optimal process parameters were as follows: ultrasound (US) frequency: 50 kHz, US power: 100 W, and available chlorine concentration of EW: 35 mg/L. These results were verified and can serve as a reliable technical reference to improve safety during the processing and preservation of edible fungi.
Pleurotus spp. and Auricularia spp. are popular species consumed by the Malaysian community. Recently, due to increased awareness, both mushrooms are also being consumed for their bioactive compounds, ergothioneine, and antioxidant properties and has been used since earlier ages as therapeutic remedies. The bioactive compounds such as phenol, flavonoid and ergothioneine found in both Pleurotus and Auricularia mushrooms were explored. Differences in heat treatments (microwave, hot air drying, and solar drying) and cooking methods may affect the content of bioactive compounds and their properties. Similarly, sensory acceptance by consumers may be affected too. Antioxidant properties using DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl) radical and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) assay of both raw and heat-treated mushrooms are included. Microwave drying retained color characteristics and bioactive compounds in both mushrooms. To add value to this review, a survey on the consumption pattern of Pleurotus and Auricularia species among Malaysians has been conducted online and concluded that Pleurotus species is the most considered species compared to Auricularia mushroom and almost half of the respondents were not aware that heat may deplete nutritional contents in mushroom despite agreeing both gave beneficial health in diets.
Ultrasonic disruption extraction (UDE) and heat reflux extraction (HRE) were used to extract polysaccharides (PNFPs) from Panax notoginseng flower, and the yield, physicochemical characteristics, structural characteristics, functional properties and biological activities were evaluated and compared. Results indicated that UDE changed the above properties of PNFPs. Compared with HRE (H-PNFPs), the yields, uronic acid contents, total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, water-solubility, water holding capacity, and oil holding capacity of the polysaccharides (U-PNFPs) extracted by UDE increased by 48.63%, 47.36%, 39.98%, 7.41%, 2.26%, 15.56%, and 1.34%, respectively. In comparison, the molecular weight and protein content decreased by 43.53% and 16.46%. Results demonstrate that UDE could effectively improve the physicochemical and functional properties, and bioactivities. These findings are helpful for better understanding the relationship between the physicochemical properties and bioactivities of U-PNFPs, especially U-PNFP-2 exhibited the most significant antioxidant activity, which can prevent oxidative stress, applications in food and pharmaceutical industries.
Black fungus is a homologous fungus of medicine and food. Its nutrient content determines the health value, and the accumulation of nutrients is easily affected by the substitute materials. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of corn stalks as a cultivation substitution material for sawdust on macronutrients, micronutrients, and functional components of black fungus. The results reported that corn stalks could significantly increase the content of ash, protein, copper, and iron in black fungus, but reduce the content of zinc, magnesium, manganese, and colloidal substances; corn stalks had less effect on melanin and polyphenols; its effect on water, total sugar, reducing sugar, crude fiber, and total flavonoids was insignificant. Therefore, the study provided a theoretical basis for the cultivation of black fungus with corn stalks.
Background
“Western” style dietary patterns are characterized by a high proportion of highly processed foods rich in fat and low in fiber. This diet pattern is associated with a myriad of metabolic dysfunctions, including neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment. β-glucan, the major soluble fiber in oat and barley grains, is fermented in the lower gastrointestinal tract, potentially impacting the microbial ecosystem and thus may improve elements of cognition and brain function via the gut-brain axis. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of β-glucan on the microbiota gut-brain axis and cognitive function in an obese mouse model induced by a high-fat and fiber-deficient diet (HFFD).
Results
After long-term supplementation for 15 weeks, β-glucan prevented HFFD-induced cognitive impairment assessed behaviorally by object location, novel object recognition, and nesting building tests. In the hippocampus, β-glucan countered the HFFD-induced microglia activation and its engulfment of synaptic puncta, and upregulation of proinflammatory cytokine (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) mRNA expression. Also, in the hippocampus, β-glucan significantly promoted PTP1B-IRS-pAKT-pGSK3β-pTau signaling for synaptogenesis, improved the synaptic ultrastructure examined by transmission electron microscopy, and increased both pre- and postsynaptic protein levels compared to the HFFD-treated group. In the colon, β-glucan reversed HFFD-induced gut barrier dysfunction increased the thickness of colonic mucus (Alcian blue and mucin-2 glycoprotein immunofluorescence staining), increased the levels of tight junction proteins occludin and zonula occludens-1, and attenuated bacterial endotoxin translocation. The HFFD resulted in microbiota alteration, effects abrogated by long-term β-glucan supplementation, with the β-glucan effects on Bacteroidetes and its lower taxa particularly striking. Importantly, the study of short-term β-glucan supplementation for 7 days demonstrated pronounced, rapid differentiating microbiota changes before the cognitive improvement, suggesting the possible causality of gut microbiota profile on cognition. In support, broad-spectrum antibiotic intervention abrogated β-glucan’s effects on improving cognition, highlighting the role of gut microbiota to mediate cognitive behavior.
Conclusion
This study provides the first evidence that β-glucan improves indices of cognition and brain function with major beneficial effects all along the gut microbiota-brain axis. Our data suggest that elevating consumption of β-glucan-rich foods is an easily implementable nutritional strategy to alleviate detrimental features of gut-brain dysregulation and prevent neurodegenerative diseases associated with Westernized dietary patterns.
AjkSibdLgdri37HmKZmSwKVideo Abstract
Background
GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) with exenatide b.i.d. first approved to treat type 2 diabetes in 2005 have been further developed to yield effective compounds/preparations that have overcome the original problem of rapid elimination (short half-life), initially necessitating short intervals between injections (twice daily for exenatide b.i.d.).
Scope of review
To summarize current knowledge about GLP-1 receptor agonist.
Major conclusions
At present, GLP-1 RAs are injected twice daily (exenatide b.i.d.), once daily (lixisenatide and liraglutide), or once weekly (exenatide once weekly, dulaglutide, albiglutide, and semaglutide). A daily oral preparation of semaglutide, which has demonstrated clinical effectiveness close to the once-weekly subcutaneous preparation, was recently approved. All GLP-1 RAs share common mechanisms of action: augmentation of hyperglycemia-induced insulin secretion, suppression of glucagon secretion at hyper- or euglycemia, deceleration of gastric emptying preventing large post-meal glycemic increments, and a reduction in calorie intake and body weight. Short-acting agents (exenatide b.i.d., lixisenatide) have reduced effectiveness on overnight and fasting plasma glucose, but maintain their effect on gastric emptying during long-term treatment. Long-acting GLP-1 RAs (liraglutide, once-weekly exenatide, dulaglutide, albiglutide, and semaglutide) have more profound effects on overnight and fasting plasma glucose and HbA1c, both on a background of oral glucose-lowering agents and in combination with basal insulin. Effects on gastric emptying decrease over time (tachyphylaxis). Given a similar, if not superior, effectiveness for HbA1c reduction with additional weight reduction and no intrinsic risk of hypoglycemic episodes, GLP-1RAs are recommended as the preferred first injectable glucose-lowering therapy for type 2 diabetes, even before insulin treatment. However, GLP-1 RAs can be combined with (basal) insulin in either free- or fixed-dose preparations. More recently developed agents, in particular semaglutide, are characterized by greater efficacy with respect to lowering plasma glucose as well as body weight. Since 2016, several cardiovascular (CV) outcome studies have shown that GLP-1 RAs can effectively prevent CV events such as acute myocardial infarction or stroke and associated mortality. Therefore, guidelines particularly recommend treatment with GLP-1 RAs in patients with pre-existing atherosclerotic vascular disease (for example, previous CV events). The evidence of similar effects in lower-risk subjects is not quite as strong. Since sodium/glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitor treatment reduces CV events as well (with the effect mainly driven by a reduction in heart failure complications), the individual risk of ischemic or heart failure complications should guide the choice of treatment. GLP-1 RAs may also help prevent renal complications of type 2 diabetes. Other active research areas in the field of GLP-1 RAs are the definition of subgroups within the type 2 diabetes population who particularly benefit from treatment with GLP-1 RAs. These include pharmacogenomic approaches and the characterization of non-responders. Novel indications for GLP-1 RAs outside type 2 diabetes, such as type 1 diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and psoriasis, are being explored. Thus, within 15 years of their initial introduction, GLP-1 RAs have become a well-established class of glucose-lowering agents that has the potential for further development and growing impact for treating type 2 diabetes and potentially other diseases.
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are one of the most important causes for mortality worldwide. Elevated levels of total cholesterol, and particularly LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) are the main risk factor for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and ischemic heart disease. The risk of CVDs could be reduced by decreasing the elevated cholesterol levels. β-hydroxy β-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCoAR) is the primary and rate-limiting enzyme in the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway. Recently, the crucial role of nutraceuticals in maintaining normal physiological function was established. Nutraceuticals play an important role in preventing several non-communicable diseases such as obesity, CVDs, cancer, diabetes, and reducing hyperlipidemia. Although the effect of nutraceuticals and herbal medicine on CVDs and dyslipidemia was previously investigated thoroughly, the effect of these natural products on HMGCoAR as one of the important enzymes involved in CVDs etiopathogenesis has not yet been investigated. Therefore, the major aim of this paper was to review the effects of nutraceuticals and medicinal plants on HMGCoAR. Results indicate that different types of natural foods, isolated nutrients, herbal products, and dietary supplements as nutraceuticals decrease the expression and activity of HMGCoAR. This review shows that medicinal plants and nutraceuticals could be used to decrease HMGCoAR activity as accessible and convenient and economical natural compounds to prevent dyslipidemia and CVDs. © 2020 International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
C-peptide measurement may represent a better index of pancreatic β-cell function compared to insulin. While insulin is mainly cleared by liver, C-peptide is mainly metabolized by kidneys. The aim of our study was to evaluate the association between baseline plasma C-peptide level and the development of type 2 diabetes independent of glucose and insulin levels and to examine potential effect-modification by variables related to kidney function. We included 5176 subjects of the Prevention of Renal and Vascular End-Stage Disease study without type 2 diabetes at baseline. C-peptide was measured in plasma with an electrochemiluminescent immunoassay. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to evaluate the association between C-peptide level and type 2 diabetes development. Median C-peptide was 722 (566-935) pmol/L. During a median follow-up of 7.2 (6.0-7.7) years, 289 individuals developed type 2 diabetes. In multivariable-adjusted Cox regression models, we observed a significant positive association of C-peptide with the risk of type 2 diabetes independent of glucose and insulin levels (hazard ratio (HR): 2.35; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.49-3.70). Moreover, we found significant effect modification by hypertension and albuminuria (p < 0.001 and p = 0.001 for interaction, respectively), with a stronger association in normotensive and normo-albuminuric subjects and absence of an association in subjects with hypertension or albuminuria. In this population-based cohort, elevated C-peptide levels are associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes independent of glucose, insulin levels, and clinical risk factors. Elevated C-peptide level was not independently associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in individuals with hypertension or albuminuria.
Adaptive antitumor immune responses, either cellular or humoral, aim at eliminating tumor cells expressing the cognate antigens. There are some instances, however, where these same immune responses have tumor-promoting effects. These effects can lead to the expansion of antigen-negative tumor cells, tumor cell proliferation and tumor growth, metastatic dissemination, resistance to antitumor therapy and apoptotic stimuli, acquisition of tumor-initiating potential and activation of various forms of survival mechanisms. We describe the basic mechanisms that underlie tumor-promoting adaptive immune responses and try to identify the variables that induce the switching of a tumor-inhibitory, cellular or humoral immune response, into a tumor-promoting one. We suggest that tumor-promoting adaptive immune responses may be at the origin of at least a fraction of hyperprogressive diseases (HPD) that are observed in cancer patients during therapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) and, less frequently, with single-agent chemotherapy. We also propose the use of non-invasive biomarkers allowing to predict which patients may undergo HPD during ICI and other forms of antitumor therapy. Eventually, we suggest possibilities of therapeutic intervention allowing to inhibit tumor-promoting adaptive immune responses.
Auricularia auricula (A. auricula ) has been reported to have positive health effects. Therefore, this study was conducted to explore possible mechanisms of A. auricula‐induced anticancer activity in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. First, using proliferative assay including MTT assay and real‐time cell electronic sensing technique, we founded that A. auricula has an antiproliferative effect on various cancer cell lines. Among five cancer cell lines, we focused on huh‐7 cell line, HCC cell line, due to that A. auricula has most dramatic antiproliferative effects on huh‐7 cell line. Following experiments, we founded that its antiproliferative effects was related with apoptosis‐inducing activities. For more investigation, a two‐dimensional electrophoresis based‐proteomic analysis (2DE‐GE) was employed for identification of possible target‐related proteins of A. auricula‐induced apoptosis. Among seven identified proteins, we focused on peroxiredoxin1 (PRDX1), which has been known as an anti‐oxidative enzyme. We confirmed downregulation of expression of PRDX1 following A. auricula treatment in mRNA and protein level. In order to obtain a more validation of the correlation of A. auricula‐induced cell death and anti‐oxidative enzyme. We investigated the level of anti‐oxidative enzymes, total glutathione (GSSG/GSH), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels in treated cells and PRDX1 gene‐silenced cells. GSH and SOD levels were decreased in the treated cells and PRDX1 gene‐silenced cells. Our findings suggest that A. auricula is a potent inducer of apoptosis in HCC cells via PRDX1‐inhibition pathways.
Practical applications
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among the leading causes of cancer‐related mortality. The principal treatment is surgical resection or liver transplantation. However, in most patients with HCC the diagnosis is often late, thereby excluding the patients from definitive surgical resection. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are generally ineffective. Newer treatments are needed with several being in development. In this research article, we provide regulation mechanism of PRDX1 in HCC. PRDX1 has a proliferative effect and play a role in cancer development or progression. Overexpression of PRDX1 in cancer cells implies the role of PRDX1 in the cancer therapy. PRDX1 is currently being investigated as a new target for gene therapy in cancer. A. auricula is an apoptotic inducer of HCC cells through PRDX1 pathway. Regulation of PRDX1 in HCC may contribute to cancer treatment. Therefore, the potentials of targeting apoptosis would be a viable therapeutic strategy to improve the outcome of HCC patients.
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic intestinal disease, which was commonly found in westerners whereas is increasingly prevalent in Asia because of the changing eating habits. In previous research, we found that a water‐soluble polysaccharide isolated from Auricularia auricular‐judae (Bull.)—a kind of edible mushroom (Aap)—is composed of β‐1,3 glycosidic bonds, which is regarded as therapeutic or protective substance in enteritis. We therefore aimed to find the preventing effect of Aap on IBD. Here, we reported that pre‐administration of Aap not only ameliorated weight loss, colon damage, and mucosal inflammation in colitis mice, but also prevented the damage of intestinal barrier by reducing the D‐lactic acid and diamine oxidase level in plasma. Through high‐throughput sequencing, we found that Aap changed gut microbiota composition. Furthermore, the preventing effect was transmissible via horizontal feces transfer from Aap‐treated mice to normal mice. Our results indicated that oral administration of Aap is a promising protective substance of IBD.
Practical Application
Our study proved that Auricularia auricula polysaccharide had substantial preventing effect on DSS‐induced colitis in mice. This research might lay the theoretical foundation and technical support for the development of related functional foods. People could also enhance their gut immunity by eating Auricularia auricular in their daily life. Auricularia auricular as a highly nutritious agricultural product showed the broad significance in nutrition and food function.
It is well known that Auricularia auricula (A. auricula) and Auricularia auricula polysaccharide (AAP) have anti-hyperlipidemia effects, but their mechanism and the relationship with the gut microbiota structure of the subjects were barely reported. In this study we found that A. auricula intervention could reduce the levels of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol of hyperlipidemia rats by 44.03% and 66.21%, while AAP intervention by 31.38% and 41.38%, respectively. High-throughput sequencing analysis further indicated that A. auricula and AAP interventions could modulate gut microbiota structure. While, the difference was that A. auricula upregulated the high-abundance SCFA-producing genus Bacteroides and Paraprevotella related to dietary fiber-rich diet, while AAP could better enrich several lower-abundance SCFA-producing bacteria such as Flavonifractor and Clostridium IV. The results implied that the different anti-hyperlipidemia effects of A. auricula and AAP interventions might have a potential link with the diverging modulation of gut microbiota structure.
As a food with low content of saturated fats, wood-ear mushroom can be utilized to be meat replacer of conventional sausages. The product, however, probably characterize differently compared to meat-based sausages. This research was aimed to evaluate the effect of carrageenan on texture and organoleptic properties of wood-ear mushroom sausage. Five different concentrations of carrageenan (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10%) were preliminary assessed by using hedonic test to determine three of the most preferred samples which were sausage formulated with carrageenan 2, 6 and 8%. The results showed that different concentration of carrageenan altered texture attributes and overall liking of wood-ear mushroom sausage, with 2% carrageenan formulation as the most accepted sample. The proximate composition determination resulted 8.85% moisture, 12.27% ash, 8.58% protein, 11.03% fat, and 59.27% carbohydrate. Furthermore, it was characterized by texture attributes including 7849.78 ±3 66.382 g, 0.69 ± 0.036, 0.36 ± 0.012, 2858.95 ± 57.110, 1984.08 ± 122.868 for its hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness respectively.
Polysaccharides are considered to be the most important active substances in Goji. However, the structure of polysaccharides varies according to the extraction methods applied, and the solution used to prepare Goji polysaccharides (LBPs) were limited. Thus, it is important to clarify the connection between extraction methods and structure of Goji polysaccharide. In view of the complex composition of cell wall polysaccharides and the various forms of interaction, different extraction methods will release different parts of the cell wall. The present study compared the effects of different extraction methods, which have been used to prepare different types of plant cell wall polysaccharides based on various sources, on the structure of cell-wall polysaccharides from Goji, by the single separate use of hot water, hydrochloric acid (0.4%) and sodium hydroxide (0.6%), at both high and low temperatures. Meanwhile, in order to explore the limitations of single extraction, sequential extraction methods were applied. Structural analysis including monosaccharide analysis, GPC-MALLS, AFM and 1H-NMR suggested the persistence of more extensively branched rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I) domains in the procedures involving low-temperature-alkali, while procedures prepared by high-temperature-acid contains more homogalacturonan (HG) regions and results in the removal of a substantial part of the side chain, specifically the arabinan. A kind of acidic heteropolysaccharide was obtained by hot water extraction. SEC-MALLS and AFM confirmed large-size polymers with branched morphologies in alkali-extracted polysaccharides. Our results provide new insight into the extraction of Goji polysaccharides, which differ from the hot water extraction used by traditional Chinese medicine.
The effect of Auricularia auricula aqueous extract (AAE) on the survival of Lactobacillus acidophilus La‐5 and Bifidobacterium bifidum Bb‐12, and on chemical and sensory properties of yogurt was investigated during 28 days of storage at 4°C. The use of 0.05% of AAE improved the survival of L. acidophilus La‐5 and B. bifidum Bb‐12 about 0.35 and 0.58 log CFU/g, respectively. However, AAE in 0.1% concentration enhanced the survival of L. acidophilus La‐5 and B. bifidum Bb‐12 about 0.43 and 0.51 log CFU/g, respectively. Moreover, 0.1% concentration of AAE drastically increased antioxidant activity and total phenolic content to 115.30 mg BHT eq./kg and 1,057.6 mg Gallic acid/kg after 28 days, respectively. Addition of AAE to the yogurt significantly decreased sensorial acceptance while increased syneresis compared to the control group (p < .05). In conclusion, the results of this study showed that addition of AAE improved probiotic protection and functional properties of the yogurt recommending its application in symbiotic yogurt. The use of Auricularia auricula extract in probiotic yogurt improved the viability of probiotics and increased the antioxidant activity and total phenolic content.
β-Glucan exhibits many biological activities and functions such as stimulation of the immune system and anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-infective, anti-viral, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant, anti-coagulant, cholesterol-lowering, radio protective, and wound healing effects. It has a wide variety of uses in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and chemical industries as well as in food processing units. However, due to its dense triple helix structure, formed by the interaction of polyhydroxy groups in the β-d-glucan molecule, it features poor solubility, which not only constrains its applications, but also inhibits its physiological function in vivo. One aim is to expand the applications for modified β-glucan with potential to prevent disease, various therapeutic purposes and as health-improving ingredients in functional foods and cosmetics. This review introduces the major modification methods required to understand the bioactivity of β-glucan and critically provides a literature survey on the structural features of this molecule and reported biological activity. We also discuss a new method to create novel opportunities to exploit maximally various properties of β-glucan, namely ultrasound-assisted enzymatic modification.
Dictyophora indusiata (Vent. Ex. Pers.) Fischer or Phallus indusiatus is an edible member of the higher mushroom phylum of Basidiomycetes. Known for its morphological elegance that gave it the names bridal veil fungus, veiled lady or queen of the mushrooms, it has numerous medicinal values that are beginning to be acknowledged through pharmacological efficacy studies. In an attempt to promote research on this valuable natural resource, the present communication aims to provide a comprehensive review of the chemistry, pharmacology and potential therapeutic applications of extracts and compounds isolated from D. indusiata. Of the bioactive compounds, the chemistry of the polysaccharides as major bioactive components primarily the β-(1 → 3)-D-glucan with side branches of β-(1 → 6)-glucosyl units are discussed, while small molecular weight compounds include terpenoids and alkaloids. Biochemical and cellular mechanisms of action from general antioxidant and anti-inflammatory to more specific signaling mechanisms are outlined along with potential applications in cancer and immunotherapy, neurodegenerative and chronic inflammatory diseases, etc. Further research areas and limitations of the current scientific data are also highlighted.
Purpose
Western diet, rich in carbohydrates and fat, is said to be a major factor underlying metabolic syndrome. Interventions with prebiotics, the key modulators of the gut microbiota, have paramount impact on host-associated metabolic disorders. Herein, we investigated the effect of fungus-derived (1,3)/(1,6)-β-glucan, a highly soluble dietary fiber, on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced metabolic distress.
Methods
Male C57BL/6 J mice were fed with different diet groups (n = 11): control diet, HFD, 3 g/kg or 5 g/kg of β-glucan-incorporated HFD. At the end of experimental study period (12th week), body weight, feces weight and fecal moisture content were observed. Further, colonic motility was measured using activated charcoal meal study. Proteins extracted from liver and intestine tissues were subjected to western blot technique. Paraffin-embedded intestinal tissues were sectioned for histochemical [Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) and Alcian blue (AB) staining] analysis. Fecal microbiota analysis was performed using MOTHUR bioinformatic software.
Results
β-glucan consumption exhibited anti-obesity property in mice groups fed with HFD. In addition, β-glucan ameliorated HFD-induced hepatic stress, colonic motility and intestinal atrophy (reduction in colon length, goblet cells, and mucosal layer thickness). Further, β-glucan incorporation shifted bacterial community by increasing butyrate-producing bacteria such as Anaerostipes, Coprobacillus, and Roseburia and decreasing reportedly obesity-associated bacteria such as Parabacteroides and Lactococcus.
Conclusion
Altogether, the outcomes of this present pre-clinical animal study show β-glucan to be a promising therapeutic candidate in the treatment of HFD-induced metabolic distress. Further comprehensive research has to be conducted to brace its clinical relevance, reproducibility and efficacy for aiding human health.
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In order to promote the comprehensive utilization of the Auricularia auricula waste residue, the extraction process and the physicochemical properties of melanin from A. auricula waste residue were studied. Furthermore, the chemical antioxidant activity of waste residue melanin and its protective effect on cell oxidative injury induced by H2O2 were investigated. The results indicated that the ultrasonic‐assisted extraction process could be used to extract the melanin from A. auricula waste residue. Melanin had a good solubility in alkali solution and exhibited a certain stability to thermal. There was no significant difference between A. auricula melanin control group and waste residue melanin on ABTS, DPPH, and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. Waste residue melanin significantly inhibited the cell death caused by H2O2, and the cell viability was restored to 98.09 ± 5.97% when the melanin concentration was 1.6 mg/ml. Cell morphology observation confirmed that the melanin ameliorated the morphological changes of cells induced by oxidative stress. Melanin, one of the main components of Auricularia auricula, still remains in the waste residues of A. auricula fruit body after extracting polysaccharides and other active substances. In order to promote the comprehensive utilization of the A. auricula waste residue, we studied the extraction technology, physicochemical properties of melanin from the waste residue of A. auricula, and its protective effect on oxidative damage of cells. The results showed that the ultrasonic‐assisted extraction process could improve the extraction rate of melanin from A. auricula waste residue; the residue melanin had good antioxidant activity and could protect cells from oxidative stress damage.
Auricularia auricula-judae is an important culinary-medicinal mushroom. The A. auricula-judae polysaccharides (AAPs) were prepared from A. auricula-judae in the early stage through alkali extraction and deproteination with the Sevag method, and optimal acid hydrolysis conditions were established by Box−Behnken to prepare the degraded polysaccharides (AAPs-F) from AAPs. In this study, a nonenzymatic glycosylation reaction system was used for the evaluation of the inhibitory effects on the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs). In addition, high glucose resistance was assessed by glucose consumption of HepG2 cells and the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans under high sugar stress. It was found that both 0.5 mg·mL-1 AAPs and 0.2 mg·mL-1 AAPs-F could significantly inhibit AGE formation in short- and long-term glycosylation (P < .05) in a dose-dependent manner, determined by ultraviolet and fluorospectrophotometry. It indicated activity against AGE formation for different concentrations of AAPs and AAPs-F. AAPs-F at 0.5 mg·mL-1 significantly enhanced the glucose absorption of HepG2 cells by 24.4% (P < .05) in a dose-dependent manner at 24 h, and markedly extended the lifespan of C. elegans by 32.9% (P < 0.05) under high sugar stress conditions. This study demonstrated that the derived hydrolysates produced by the hydrolysis of acid had a prominent effect on the inhibition of AGE formation and relieved the stress state caused by high sugar levels.
Osteoporosis is a common metabolic bone disease that is often seen in bedridden patients and astronauts. Long‐term bed rest and nonweight bearing tend to induce disuse osteoporosis. Calcium supplements are commonly used to help treat disuse osteoporosis along with medications, most of which are calcium carbonate based, but they have poor absorption effects. In this study, we prepared a novel Auricularia auricula peptide–calcium complex (AP–Ca) and evaluated its protective effects on disuse osteoporosis. In vitro assays showed that AP–Ca significantly increased the contents of calcium (P < 0.05) and the activity of alkaline phosphatase (AKP; P < 0.05) of osteoblasts cultured in a two‐dimensional‐rotating wall vessel. Meanwhile, supplementation with AP–Ca also inhibited the production of pro‐inflammatory factors induced by the loss of stress, especially TNF‐α (P < 0.05). In vivo, a mouse tail suspension (TS) model was established, and the results showed that AP–Ca helped to improve bone mineral density, bone mineral content, and bone organic content in TS mice and effectively alleviated the alteration of enzymes related to bone metabolism, including AKP (P < 0.05) and serum tartrate‐resistant acid phosphatase (P < 0.05), to avoid more serious bone loss induced by TS. Furthermore, we found that AP–Ca downregulated the bone resorption‐associated pro‐inflammatory genes interleukin‐1 (IL‐1), tumor necrosis factor‐α, and IL‐6 by 59.53 ± 3.55%, 48.01 ± 5.68%, and 40.00 ± 5.89%, respectively (P < 0.05). In conclusion, AP–Ca showed potential to suppress bone loss induced by disuse and might be considered a new alternative to reduce the risk of disuse osteoporosis.
Practical Application
This peptide–calcium complex supplement exhibited protective effects on the bone loss induced by disuse, which provided a new alternative for patients and astronauts to reduce the risk of disuse osteoporosis.
Iron deficiency anemia has been a widespread disease. As an effective and stable iron supplement, the physiochemical properties of the polysaccharide iron complex have been widely studied. In this study, we characterized a novel polysaccharide-iron(III) complex extracted in an edible fungal species Auricularia auricular (AAPS-iron(III)). The highest iron content (28.40%) in the AAPS-iron(III) complex was obtained under the optimized preparation conditions including an AAPS to FeCl 3 ∙ 6H 2 O ratio of 2:3 (w/w), a pH value of 8.0 in solution, a reaction temperature of 50°C, and a reaction time of 3 h. The physical and chemical properties of the AAPS-iron(III) complex were characterized by qualitative and quantitative analyses using scanning electron microscope, particle size distribution, thermogravimetric analyzer, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, circular dichroism, and ¹ H nuclear magnetic resonance. Result showed that, although the iron was bound to the polysaccharide, it was released under artificial gastrointestinal conditions. The AAPS-iron(III) complex exhibited high stability (under 50-256°C) and water solubility. The AAPS-iron(III) complex also showed high antioxidant activity in vitro, demonstrating an additional health benefit over other typical nonantioxidant iron nutritional supplements. Furthermore, the AAPS-iron(III) complex showed high efficiency on the treatment of the iron deficiency anemia in the model rats. Therefore, the AAPS-iron(III) complex can be used as a nutritional fortifier to supply iron in industrial processing and to assist the treatment of iron deficiency anemia.
Current antifungal drugs present poor effectiveness and there is no available vaccine for fungal infections. Thus, novel strategies to treat or prevent invasive mycosis, such as cryptococcosis, are highly desirable. One strategy is the use of immunomodulators of polysaccharide nature isolated from mushrooms. The purpose of the present work was to evaluate the immunostimulatory activity of β-(1,3)-glucan-containing exopolysaccharides (EPS) from the edible mushrooms Auricularia auricula in phagocytes and mice infected with Cryptococcus neoformans. EPS triggered macrophages and dendritic cell activation upon binding to Dectin-1, a pattern recognition receptor of the C-type lectin receptor family. Engagement of Dectin-1 culminated in pro-inflammatory cytokine production and cell maturation via its canonical Syk-dependent pathway signaling. Furthermore, upon EPS treatment, M2-like phenotype macrophages, known to support intracellular survival and replication of C. neoformans, repolarize to M1 macrophage pattern associated with enhanced production of the microbicidal molecule nitric oxide that results in efficient killing of C. neoformans. Treatment with EPS also upregulated transcript levels of genes encoding products associated with host protection against C. neoformans and Dectin-1 mediated signaling in macrophages. Finally, orally administrated β-glucan-containing EPS from A. auricular enhanced the survival of mice infected with C. neoformans. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that EPS from A. auricula exert immunostimulatory activity in phagocytes and induce host protection against C. neoformans, suggesting that polysaccharides from this mushroom may be promising as an adjuvant for vaccines or antifungal therapy.
The prebiotic properties were investigated of seven edible mushrooms: Auricularia auricula-judae, Lentinus edodoes, Pleurotus citrinopileatus, Pleurotus djamor, Pleurotus ostreatus, Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.Fr.) Kummer and Pleurotus pulmonarius. All mushrooms were extracted using distilled water and ethanol at a ratio of 1:4 vol per volume, respectively, at 80 °C and shaken at 150 revolutions per minute for 1–4 hr before the total carbohydrates and total reducing sugar were determined. After 3 hr of extraction, P. ostreatus had the maximum yield of total carbohydrates (6.7325 ± 0.0261 mg/mL) and total reducing sugar (2.6737 ± 0.0027 mg/mL). Based on high performance liquid chromatography analysis, A. auricula-judae had the highest levels of galactose and maltrotriose (928.26 mM and 112.59 mM, respectively), while L. edodoes had a high lactulose level (229.64 mM). Each mushroom extract was supplemented in Man Rogosa Sharpe broth for cultivation of probiotic strains of L. acidophilus and L. plantarum. Next, the prebiotic properties were determined based on probiotic growth stimulation, pathogenic inhibition (against Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Samonella Paratyphi and Stapphylococcus aureus) and gastrointestinal tolerance (in amylase, bile extract and HCl). High probiotic growth stimulation resulted for L. acidophilus cultured with L. edodoes extract (1.9779 ± 0.0032), and for L. plantarum cultured with P. pulmonarius extract (1.9702 ± 0.0072). The widest inhibition zone of S. Paratyphi in the culture of L. acidophilus was 1.1500 ± 0.0707 cm with P. ostreatus extract. The highest survival percentage for gastrointestinal tolerance of probiotics after incubation for 2 hr with HCl was 13.64% for P. djamor extract cultured in L. acidophilus.
Background:
Auricularia auricular polysaccharides (AAPs) derived from the dried fruit body of A. auricular are valuable compounds with many bioactivities. This research aimed to investigate the antioxidant and anti- diabetic activities of these polysaccharides and their artificial gastrointestinal fluid hydrolysates (AAPHs).
Methods:
Artificially simulated gastrointestinal fluid was used to obtain polysaccharide-de- rived fragments, and a rat model of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) using a high-fat diet and low-dose streptozotocin (STZ) was established to assess their antioxidant and anti-diabetic effects.
Results:
It was found that AAPs and AAPHs were both heteropolysaccharides and were comprised of arab- inose, xylose, mannose, 2-deoxy-glucose, glucose and glucosamine, but at different mole ratios. AAPHs was purified by Sephadex G-100 chromatography to produce three fractions, namely, AAPHs1, AAPHs2, and AAPHs3. The molecular weights of these three fractions were 320, 169, and 62 kDa respectively. Both AAPs and AAPHs exhibited the evident ability to enhance the activities of antioxidant enzymes and the level of GSH, while increasing the content of liver glycogen and plasma C-peptide compared with the diabetic model group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, AAPHs could cause a marked improvement in glucose-stimulated GLP-1 secretion from 0 min to 30 min (p < 0.05).
Conclusions:
The possible mechanism was that AAPHs could partly restore the STZ-induced impairment of GLP-1 secretion, and inhibit the oxidative stress pathway, and thereby alleviate the progression of diabetes. This data demonstrated that the molecular mole ratio and molecular weight had a definite effect on antioxi- dant and anti-diabetic activities.
A model of type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) using high-fat diet and low-dose STZ was established to assess the antidiabetic effects of Auricularia auricular polysaccharides simulated hydrolysates (AAPHs) obtained from the dried fruiting body of A. auricular. AAPHs were administered intragastrically (i.g.) at the dose of 0.15 g/kg b. W. to diabetic Wistar rats for 4 weeks. Results show that AAPHs was demonstrated to exhibit significant diminution in T-CHO and LDL-C levels (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01) compared to the diabetic control group. In addition, the secretion level of GLP-1 were different with the diabetes model group from 0 to 30 min, and had a tendency to alleviate weight loss. The current study suggests that AAPHs might be incorporated as a supplement in diabetic agents or combined with other health-care foods.
In this study, Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) extract (AAE) had
potent antioxidant activity in vitro and promoted the biosynthesis of
procollagen, a precursor of collagen in HaCaT cells. In addition, the
expression of HAS-3 (hyaluronic acid synthase), which is a moisturizing
factor, was increased in HaCaT cells in response to AAE. Therefore,
this work suggests that AAE has the potential to exhibit antioxidant
activity and promote procollagen biosynthesis in HaCaT cells.
Hypercholesterolaemia is a complex condition with multiple causes, including both lifestyle and genetic aspects. It is also a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), which are responsible for 172 million deaths/year. Although the reasons for hypercholesterolaemia are known, there are many critical questions that remain to be answered so that new therapeutics can be developed. In order to elucidate the pathobiology of this condition, animal models can mimic the pathology of human hypercholesterolaemia. One example of an animal model is induced by the hypercholesterolaemic diet in Wistar rats. The present review first summarizes the current understanding of the metabolic profile involved in hypercholesterolaemia in humans. Next it comments about the lack of consensus as to which hypercholesterolaemia induction protocol should be used. The present work aimed to review experimental studies that induced hypercholesterolaemia in Wistar rats it was not intended to judge the “best” model, since they all achieved the goal of inducing an increase in serum cholesterol.
Glucuronoxylomannan (AAPS) from the edible wood ear mushroom Auricularia auricula-judae has been demonstrated to exhibit immunostimulatory properties through its binding to TLR4. However, the mechanisms of immune modulation by AAPS in mammalian cells remains unclear. In the present study, we demonstrated that AAPS induced immunostimulatory effects were regulated by reactive oxygen species, mitogen-activated protein kinases, protein kinase C-α and NF-κB. AAPS remarkably increased the phagocytosis and bactericidal activity of macrophages. In lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages, AAPS induced endotoxin tolerance like effect characterized by the downregulation of nitric oxide, interleukin-6 and TNF-α via the downregulation of NF-κB activation. Our findings provide firm scientific evidences for the immunoenhancing properties of wood ear mushroom, and the potential of AAPS to be strong candidates for the development of new carbohydrate-based nutraceutical supplements in the management of immunity related disorders in the future.
Auricularia auricula are rich source of bioactive polysaccharides. Three methods of extraction of polysaccharide from these fungi was studied. These methods included, water-based, ultrasonic-assisted, and enzyme-based extractions. The results showed that the enzyme-based extraction was better than ultrasonic-assisted extraction and water extraction. While abundance of polysaccharide concentration in A. auricula-judae and A. delicata were similar, their yield following enzyme-based extractions were higher than that of A. polytricha. The maximum A. auricula-judae polysaccharide concentration in enzyme-assisted extraction was obtained at a pH of 5.0, a temperature of 50°C and 3% cellulase concentration, and the polysaccharide concentration was 52.28 mg/g. The maximum A. delicata polysaccharide concentration (55.16 mg/g) was extracted at a pH of 5.0, a temperature of 50°C and 4% cellulase concentration.
The biodiversity of mushrooms Pleurotus spp. is impressive due to its complexity and diversity related to the composition of chemical structures such as polysaccharides, glycoproteins and secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids and betalains. Recent studies of polysaccharides and their structural elucidation have helped to direct research and development of technologies related to pharmacological action, production of bioactive foods and application of new, more sophisticated extraction tools. The diversity of bioactivities related to these biopolymers, their mechanisms and routes of action are constant focus of researches. The elucidation of bioactivities has helped to formulate new vaccines and targeted drugs. In this context, in terms of polysaccharides and the diversity of mushrooms Pleurotus spp., this review seeks to revisit the genus, making an updated approach on the recent discoveries of polysaccharides, new extraction techniques and bioactivities, emphasising on their mechanisms and routes in order to update the reader on the recent technologies related to these polymers.
Background:
Mushroom polysaccharides (MPs) act as a functional food and perform diverse biological activities. Significance of MPs in various health promoting products have been extensively reported by scientific community mainly on structural features, biological activities, potential uses and advances in their extraction, cultivation and biomolecular techniques which need to be reviewed for their better understanding and utilization.
Scope and approach:
From the perspective of how MPs were utilized in various nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals and cosmeceuticals (NPC) products as health promoting agents, this review aims to comprehensively discuss MPs phyto-pharmacology, structural features, advances and trends of utilization. Moreover, this review also highlights the challenges and future consideration for its holistic utilization in different NPC formulations.
Key findings and conclusions:
MPs were found to be effective against various disease conditions mainly through modulating cell surface receptors. Overall from the last ten years, the research on MPs has increased tremendously and countries like China ranked first. Among various biological activities, MPs are a better choice for antioxidant followed by immunomodulatory, anticancer and anti-inflammatory activity and its use been increased as functional food. Various advanced techniques for MPs extraction, biomolecular characterization and artificial synthesis for NPC formulations are currently in use, however, the study on its complex structure, better culture and extraction conditions need further research. Moreover, a holistic approach needs to be adopted for mushroom utilization for the production of MPs as functional food. This review presents a comprehensive discussion on MPs research as functional compounds utilized in food and medicine and could be beneficial for various NPC formulations.
Background
Polysaccharides are natural macromolecular polymers that are widely distributed in various food resources and have attracted much attention due to their significant bioactivities. Sulfated polysaccharides refer to polysaccharides containing sulfate groups on sugar units. A large number of studies have characterized and evaluated the biological relevance of sulfated polysaccharides, which shows great potential in terms of immunological activity.
Scope and approach
Through a critical analysis of current research literature regarding sulfated polysaccharides, this review will give an overview of the immunomodulatory properties and signaling mechanisms of natural or modified sulfated polysaccharides. The effects of the degree of substitution (DS), molecular weight, and structure on immunomodulatory effects will also be discussed.
Key findings and conclusions
The mechanisms by which sulfated polysaccharides exert their immunological activity is mainly due to the regulation of macrophage function, natural killer cells, and T/B lymphocytes, together with the stimulation of the immune responses of lymphocytes and the activation of the complement system. The immunological activity of sulfated polysaccharides depends not only on the source of the polysaccharide but also on structural characteristics, such as molecular weight and DS. Studies on the mechanisms of immune function have shown that the action of sulfated polysaccharides is a complex process that may be regulated by one or more pathways. Nevertheless, the link between the immunological mechanisms and structure of sulfated polysaccharides requires further exploration.
Caenorhabditis elegans is an important model organism for studying stress response mechanisms and identifying genetic pathways that influence longevity. The present study was designed to explore the in vivo -antioxidant potentials...
Despite the early loss of glycemic differences between the original intensive therapy group and conventional treatment in the DCCT/EDIC and UKPDS 80 trials, a continued reduction in microvascular risk and risk reductions for emergency myocardial infarction and all-cause death were observed 10-30 years after the end of these trials. These observations demonstrated that so-called "metabolic memory" could cause chronic abnormalities in diabetic vessels that are not easily reversed, even by subsequent improvement in blood glucose levels, thus suggesting a long-term beneficial influence of early metabolic control; that is, legacy effects on the risk of vascular complications and death in patients with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Formation and accumulation of advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) are known to progress at an accelerated rate under diabetes. Furthermore, AGEs are hardly degraded and remain for a long time in diabetic vessels even after glycemic control is improved. Therefore, AGEs could explain why former cumulative diabetic exposure could contribute to current progression of vascular complications in diabetes. Here, the clinical utility of measurement of serum and tissue accumulation levels of AGEs for evaluating the prevalence and severity of numerous types of cardiovascular disease is reviewed and novel therapeutic strategies that could target the AGE-RAGE axis in CVD are discussed.
Auricularia auricular-judae polysaccharides (AAPs) have been accepted as one important biological constituent. Quality analysis of A. auricular-judae is generally difficult due to technical issues in separating and detecting AAPs. Here, we describe a stepped chromatographic and mass spectrometric approach for discrimination and characterization of AAPs. HPSEC-MALLS-RID and GC-MS techniques have earlier been shown to be ineffective in evaluating wild and cultured AAPs based on molecular weight distributions and monosaccharide compositions. Nevertheless, direct ESI--MS oligosaccharide fingerprints coupled with PCA have the remarkable ability to discriminate wild and cultured ones. HILIC-UPLC-ESI--MS has indicated that wild and cultured AAPs have distinct peak number and intensities in mild acid hydrolysates. HILIC-UPLC-ESI--HCD-MS/MS was further applied in deducing interglycosidic linkages and sequence of monosaccharide residues in oligosaccharides. We demonstrate that linear GlcAw → Hexm → GlcAx → Hexn → GlcAy → Hexp → GlcAz → Hexq → (w, x, y, z = 0, 1; m, n, p, q ≥ 0; Hex1 → 6Hex, GlcA1 → 4Hex, Hex1 → 4GlcA) was constructed as the general skeleton of AAPs based on C- and B-type ions as well as cross-ring cleavage A-type series ions. The established workflow has been confirmed to be a feasible approach for comprehensive characterization of polysaccharides in foods and plants.
Auricularia auricula polysaccharide (AAP) were purified and degraded using ultrasonic wave with the degradation kinetics model fitted to 1/Mt – 1/M0 = k • t. Followed that the morphology, intrinsic viscosity, viscosity-average molecular weight, antioxidant activity of AAP and their degradation products were in vitro investigated. Results showed the intrinsic viscosity and viscosity-average molecular weight of AAP decreased significantly (p < 0.05) with increasing ultrasonic time and their microscopic sizes were reduced after degradation. In addition, ultrasonic wave destroyed the helix structure and changed the monosaccharide proportion of AAP. SEM analysis displayed some morphological difference existing in polysaccharides before and after degradation. More importantly, the antioxidant activities in vitro of AAP after degradation were significantly increased (p < 0.05) and AAPUD12h displayed the strongest antioxidant activity. These results indicate that ultrasonic degradation may be a suitable way to improve the antioxidant activity of natural polysaccharides.
Obesity is a metabolic syndrome worldwide that causes many chronic diseases. Recently, we found an antiobesity effect of flaxseed polysaccharide (FP), but the mechanism remains to be elucidated. In this study, rats were first developed to obesity by feeding high-fat diet. The obese rats were then fed a control diet AIN-93M (Group HFD) and 10% FP diet (Group FPD). The body weight, body fat, adipose tissue and liver sections, serous total triglycerides, the levels of fasting blood glucose in serum, serous insulin, inflammatory cytokines in serum, serous proteins within the leptin-neuropeptide Y (NPY) and AMPK signaling pathway were analyzed and determined. FP intervention significantly reduced body weight and abdominal fat from 530 ± 16 g and 2.15 ± 0.30% in Group HFD to 478 ± 10 g and 1.38± 0.48% in Group FPD, respectively. This effect was achieved by removing leptin resistance possibly by inhibiting inflammation and recovering satiety through the significant downregulation of NPY and the upregulation of glucagon-like peptide 1. Adiponectin was then significantly upregulated probably via the gut-brain axis and further activated the AMPK signaling pathway to improve lipid metabolism including the improvement of lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation and the suppression of lipogenesis. This is the first report of the proposed antiobesity mechanism of FP, thereby providing a comprehensive understanding of nonstarch polysaccharides and obesity.
The objective was to determine the contribution of A. auricular polysaccharides (AAP) in modulating the composition and diversity of the intestinal microbe in mice. AAP was extracted from A. auricula freeze-dried powder and different amounts of AAP (40, 80, 160 mg AAP/kg body weight) were administered to 6 week-old male ICR mice by gavage feeding over a five-week period. AAP feeding changed the intestinal environment in the mice. The pH value of the intestinal compartments decreased while SCFAs concentrations increased in AAP-fed groups, in a dose dependent manner, compared to the controls (P < .05). High throughput sequencing revealed an enrichment in the diversity and an alteration in the composition of the fecal microbiota in the AAP fed mice with a significant decrease in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio (P < .05). The relative abundances of Porphyromonadaceae and Bacteroidaceae also increased in the AAP fed mice which positively correlated with an increase in serum IgA and IgG concentrations (P < .05). The findings from this study show that AAP modulates the mouse gut microbiota and may contribute, at least in part, to some of the reported beneficial effects from the consumption of the mushroom, A. auricula.
The in vitro digestibility, prebiotic activity, and physicochemical properties of polysaccharides obtained from bamboo shoots (Chimonobambusa quadrangularis)using different extraction processes were investigated in this study. Five polysaccharide fractions were prepared by hot water-, accelerated solvent-, ultrasound-, microwave-, and enzyme-based extraction processes. First, the chemical and monosaccharide compositions, molecular weights, zeta potentials, and particle sizes of the five fractions were assessed using colorimetry, high-performance liquid chromatography, high-performance gel permeation chromatography, and dynamic light scattering. Next, digestibility was tested using artificial gastric juice and α-amylase. Finally, the five polysaccharide fractions were added to liquid cultures of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli strains to serve as carbon sources alternative to glucose for in vitro fermentation to evaluate their ability to promote the growth of probiotic bacterial species and stimulate short chain fatty acids (SCFAs)production. It was found polysaccharides obtained by ultrasound- and enzyme-assisted extraction had significantly (p < 0.05)higher total carbohydrate contents of 61.9% and 61.5%, lower medium-high MWs of 117.49 and 117.25 kDa, and smaller particle sizes of 116.8 and 190.73 nm, respectively. All of the polysaccharide fractions were resistant to hydrolysis by artificial gastric juice and α-amylase. Furthermore, the five polysaccharides significantly stimulated the growth of the tested probiotics and increased lactic, acetate, propionate, and butyrate acids production from fermentation for 48 h compared to the control (p < 0.05). The polysaccharides prepared using ultrasound- and enzyme-assisted extraction processes displayed better prebiotic activity than the other fractions as they induced notably more proliferation of probiotic bacteria and higher production of SCFAs.
Aging is a natural process that accompanied with progressive cognitive deficits and functional decline in organisms. Selenium (Se), an essential trace element, exhibits antioxidative and anti-inflammatory abilities. Here, our study aimed to investigate the protective effects of aqueous extracts of Se-enriched Auricularia auricular (AESAA) on aging mice induced by D-galactose (D-gal) and explore its potential mechanism. D-gal was administered (100 mg/kg) subcutaneously for 12 weeks to establish an aging mouse model. Morris water maze (MWM) test was conducted to assess the cognitive deficits of mice. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), catalase (CAT) activities and malondialdehyde (MDA) level in hippocampus were measured to evaluate oxidative stress. The contents of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in hippocampus were determined by ELISA method. Further, hippocampal levels of RAGE, p-Erk, p-JNK, p-P38 and p-NF-κB were detected by western blot and the RAGE expression was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. We found that AESAA supplementation significantly decreased D-gal-induced cognitive deficits, as evidenced by better performance in the MWM test. Furthermore, AESAA treatment attenuated oxidative stress and decreased the contents of pro-inflammatory cytokines in hippocampus. Importantly, AESAA inhibited the up-regulation of RAGE, p-Erk, p-JNK, p-P38 in the hippocampus of D-gal treated mice. Moreover, the results also indicated that AESAA inhibited p-NF-κB and p-IκBα expression. In conclusion, our findings suggest that AESAA effectively decreases cognitive impairment, alleviates oxidative damage and neuroinflammation in mice through s RAGE/MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway, which provides a potential therapy for delaying the aging process.
Background
β-Glucans are polysaccharides constructed of glucose monomers linked by β-glucosidic bonds, which mainly exist in cereals (barley and oat), yeast and mushrooms. Some physiological functionalities of β-glucans have been confirmed, consequently, their development and utilization in the biomedical, pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries have received increasing interest. Foods and dietary supplements containing β-glucans are very popular.
Scope and approach
This review summarizes recent findings regarding the physiological functionalities of β-glucans and details the action mechanisms of β-glucans upon the present knowledge. The prospects for future research on these topics are also discussed.
Key findings and conclusions
β-Glucans are effective in many aspects of human health, including cancer prevention, reducing glycemia and serum cholesterol, anti-inflammation, as well as improving immunity. The modification of β-glucans contributes to better solubility, viscosity and gelation, which can change the bioactivities of β-glucans. The action mechanisms of β-glucans and their derivatives are considered to be mainly mediated by some cytokines and hormones in subjects. Human health is supported by various mechanism researches. Although certain action mechanisms remain unclear, the clarification of how β-glucans exhibit biological effects is beneficial for our understanding of complicated biochemical reaction in living organisms.
This study characterized the natural melanin from Auricularia auricula and investigated their hepatoprotective effect on acute alcoholic liver injury mice. The characterization of the melanin was analyzed based on elemental analysis, gel permeation chromatography (GPC), UV-visible spectroscopy (UV-visible), infrared spectrum (IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectra (NMR). To determine the liver protective effect of Auricularia auricula melanin, mice were administered with the melanin once daily for 3 weeks before ethanol induced liver injury. Biochemical parameters of liver function, histopathological sections, mRNA and protein expression of antioxidant enzyme were compared between with or without the melanin administrated mice. Results showed that A. auricula melanin was an eumelanin and the average molecular weight was 48.99 kDa. The melanin can protect the mice from ethanol-induced liver injury by extending the duration of righting reflex, and shortening the duration of the recovery. The liver index, serum alamine aminotransferase (ALT), aspertate aminotransferase (AST), γ-glutamyl transpeptidase (γ-GT) and liver malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in mice treated with the melanin were significantly decreased. At the same time, the levels of liver alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), and antioxidase such as catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) were increased. Its protective effect may be related to the activation of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its downstream antioxidant enzymes such as glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic (GCLC), glutamate cysteine ligase modifier (GCLM), and NADP(H) quinine oxidoreductase 1 (NQO-1). These results suggested that A. auricula melanin may be an effective strategy to alleviate alcohol-induced liver damage.
Melanin production was done using submerged cultures of the mushroom Auricularia auricula. It was found that 1% methanol, 0.25% peanut oil, 1.0% stearic acid or 0.5% palmitic acid were helpful for melanin bio-synthesis while Tween 80 significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the melanin formation. The inhibitory test and scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that the melanin consisted mostly of eumelanin with an amorphous structure. The melanin had strong antioxidant activity using the in vitro evaluation of its superoxide radical, 2, 2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, and showed good stability at 100 °C for 5 h, natural light for 10 days, ultraviolet light for 4 h and with conventional food additives such as sugar. The results suggested that a submerged culture of A. auricula is an effective method to produce melanin, which could potentially be used as a natural antioxidant in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries.
The objectives of this work were to investigate the protective effect of PPPK on damage caused by radiation in mice, and to test for its potential synergism with AAP. Male mice were administered for 30 days prior to radiation, and the combination index (CI) was used for the synergistic effect analysis. The results showed that PPPK exhibited significant radioprotective effects compared with radiation group (P < 0.01); PPPK in combination with AAP had higher anti‐radiation effects, as evident by improved white blood cells (P < 0.01), organ indexes (P < 0.05 or 0.01), splenic lymphocytes proliferation activity (P < 0.01), bone marrow DNA content (P < 0.01) and monocyte phagocytic activity (P < 0.05), relative to other groups; the combination also reduced bone marrow micronucleus rate (P < 0.01) and chromosome distortion rate (p < 0.01). These data for the first time demonstrated the radioprotective effect of PPPK and its synergistic effect with AAP.
Radiation‐protective effects of sulfated polysaccharides (SNAAP80) from Auricularia auricular were studied. Crude polysaccharides were extracted using ultrasound‐assisted water extraction. Bioactive polysaccharide fragments were screened using ethanol precipitation with an in vitro antioxidant activity test. The chlorosulfonic acid‐dimethylformamide method was used to obtain the sulfated polysaccharide. Monosaccharide composition and molecular weight were determined using GC‐MS and HPLC‐GPC, respectively. IR, UV, and SEM were used for structural characterization. The antiradiation effect of SNAAP80 was studied using a ⁶⁰Co‐γ radiation model in mice. The results showed that the SNAAP80, with a degree of substitution of 0.514, was composed of glucose and mannose. A bioactivity analysis showed that the SNAAP80 increased the organ indexes, phagocytosis index, stimulation index, and the superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and lactate dehydrogenase activity. The SNAAP80 decreased TBARS, IL‐2, IL‐12, INF‐γ, protein carbonyls, creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen. The results suggested that SNAAP80 had an effective radiation‐protective effect.
Practical applications
Auricularia auricula is a commonly cultivated commercial mushroom in East Asia; it is also called “wood ear” in China and “black fungus” in Russia. Many published studies regarding polysaccharides from A. auricula have shown their beneficial health effects for both humans and animals. A. auricula is acknowledged for its pharmaceutical effects such as inhibiting lipid peroxidation, decreasing liver damage, hypolipidemic properties and so on. Functional activity of polysaccharides is related to their solubility. The activities of polysaccharide NAAP80 from A. auricular were restricted because of its poor solubility. Therefore, it was modified by chlorosulphonic acid‐N,N dimethylformamide to obtain SNAAP80 which has a significantly higher solubility. Antiradiation effect of SNAAP80 has been studied in this paper, and its potential application in antiradiation may be relevant to space exploration, the military, daily health care, and therapeutic medications.
Pentacyclic triterpene derivatives possessing polyhydroxyl ring A exhibit many important pharmacological activities. (1β, 2α, 3β, 19β, 23)-1,2,3,19,23-pentahydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid (5), a new bioactive phytochemical with tetra-hydroxyl ring A isolated from Euphorbia sieboldiana in our laboratory, showed potential inhibition effects against several cancer cells previously. This study was performed to investigate the underlying mechanisms of action for its antitumor activity. The results showed that compound 5 inhibited dose-/time-dependently cell growth with low toxicity to normal cells and induced apoptosis in cervical cancer cells. Also, compound 5 inhibited the growth and proliferation of HeLa cells and resulted in G1 phase arrest. Furthermore, exposure of cells to compound 5 caused inactivation of the TNF-α-TAK1-IKK-NF-κB axis and inhibition of TNF-α-stimulated NF-κB activity, followed by down-regulation of NF-κB target genes involved in cell apoptosis (Bcl-2) and in the cell cycle and growth (Cyclin D, c-Myc). Additionally, compound 5 significantly suppressed the migration of HeLa cells. In addition, exposure of HeLa cells to compound 5 decreased the activity of NF-κB through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Collectively, these results suggested that compound 5 exerted potent anticancer effects on HeLa cells in vitro through targeting the ROS-dependent NF-κB signaling cascade and this compound may be a promising anticancer agent for cancer treatment.
Synergistic degradation of water-soluble Auricularia auricula polysaccharide (AAP) by solution plasma process (SPP) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was investigated. The effects of H2O2 concentration, AAP concentration and the distance between the electrodes on the degradation of AAP were evaluated. The results showed that higher H2O2 concentration, lower AAP concentration and narrower distance between the electrodes were favorable for the degradation effect. Particle size, congo red (CR), scanning electron micrographs (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) results confirmed that SPP irradiation with H2O2 improved significantly the flexibility of the conformation. The degraded AAPs exhibited greater metal chelating effects and DPPH radical scavenging effect than the original AAP. It concluded that the combined SPP/ H2O2 method could be used for preparation of low-molecular-weight AAP.
Melanins are well-known biopolymers that are ubiquitous in nature, distributed widely in microorganisms, plants, and animals, and play significant physiological roles. They are mostly biopolymers formed from phenolic compounds by polymerization via quinones. Poly(dopamine) (PDA), a melanin-like material, is similar in structure and properties to eumelanin and has attracted considerable interest for various types of biological applications. This review outlines the recent advances in the structure and synthesis of PDA and discusses applications of PDA in many biological fields, such as biological imaging, photothermal therapy, and drug delivery systems. The purpose of this review is to give a brief overview of the synthesized procedures, structure, biomedical applications, and prospects of melanin-like materials.
This study established the comprehensive repeating unit structure of immunologically-active glucuronoxylomannan (AAPS) from wood ear mushroom, Auricularia auricula-judae. We identified Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) as a critical receptor involved in AAPS-induced macrophage activation to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines. Molecular modeling data and chemical modifications of AAPS revealed that both carboxylic and acetyl moieties of AAPS are equally essential in TLR4 binding to exert in vitro immunostimulatory activity.
Submerged culture of Auricularia auricula-judae has been documented, but there have been few studies on the structural characterization and medicinal properties of its exopolysaccharides. In present study, two exopolysaccharides, named CEPSN-1 and CEPSN-2, were isolated from submerged culture of A. auricula-judae, and their structural features as well as immunomodulatory activity were analyzed. The two exopolysaccharides both had a backbone chain composed of (1 → 4)-α-d-glucose residues in glucopyranose type. At the tested concentration range of 50-200 μg/mL, CEPSN-1 and CEPSN-2 not only showed non-toxicity to RAW 264.7 cells, but also could promote the release of NO and cytokines (IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α) in the cells. The release of NO was significantly enhanced by the two exopolysaccharides at 100 μg/mL (p < 0.05). The IL-10 secretion was significantly increased by 1.80 and 1.61-fold, compared to the control after treatment with 50 μg/mL of CEPSN-1 and CEPSN-2, respectively (p < 0.05). These results demonstrated that, though their structural feature were different from that of polysaccharides from fruit body, exopolysaccharides of A. auricula-judae from submerged culture with the backbone of (1 → 4)-α-D-glucan could be explored as potential immunomodulatory agents for the application in complementary medicine or functional foods.
An efficient acid-hydrolysis method was developed and optimized for the hydrolyses of polysaccharide from Auricularia auricula with the ABTS· scavenging ability as the detective marker. Based on the single factor experimental results, Box-Behnken design (BBD) were applied for the optimization of acid-hydrolysis conditions. The possible antioxidant mechanism of the hydrolyses (AAPs-F) in vivo was performed using the C. elegans model. The acid-hydrolysis conditions were found to be the optimal hydrolyzing time 2.78 h (166.8 min), hydrolyzing temperature 95.04 °C and the acid concentration 14.03 mol/L, respectively. Under the optimal acid-hydrolysis conditions, the ABTS· scavenging ability of AAPs-H was 97.94 ± 0.87%, which was well matched with the predicted value (99.77%) of the BBD model. AAPs-F was the main fraction of AAPs-H separated through Sephadex G-10 as the stationary phase. AAPs-F was a kind of heteropolysaccharide and comprised of glucose, galactose and fucose with the molar ratio of 50:1:2. The molecular weight of AAPs-F was 143.15 kDa. AAPs-F showed a remarkable protective effect to the injury induced by hydrogen peroxide or paraquat (p < 0.01), and it could up-regulate stress-resistance related enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD) by 109.74% and CAT by 106.84% at concentration of 0.2 mg/mL in C. elegans.