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Perfluoroalkyl contaminants in eggs from backyard chickens reared in Italy
Abstract
Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent and bioaccumulative compounds with adverse impacts on the environment and human health. Diet is one of the main sources of exposure to PFASs. Recently, the EFSA established a tolerable weekly intake (TWI) limit (4.4 ng/kg b.w.) for a mixture of the four major PFASs. Eggs and egg products can contribute to this intake, with their contamination possibly dependent on the husbandry system. Monitoring Italian eggs from backyard chickens revealed a relatively uniform PFAS contamination, with perfluoro-1-octanesulfonate being the most abundant. Contamination was detected to be significantly higher in eggs from backyard chickens than in eggs from commercial laying hens, consistent with a previous Italian study. According to the recently set TWI value, the consumption of eggs from backyard chickens could contribute significantly to dietary intake of PFASs (up to 29% of the TWI in children, considering the lower bound approach).
... Web of Science), resulting hits for only 20 publications become available. From those publications, only three articles report data of PFAS in homegrown food: three on homegrown eggs (D'Hollander et al., 2011;Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016) and only one on homegrown crops (Scher et al., 2018). Moreover, only very few of these studies take into account the factors that contribute to PFAS accumulation in the homegrown food, and if so, these are limited to the husbandry type (Gazzotti et al., 2021). ...
... From those publications, only three articles report data of PFAS in homegrown food: three on homegrown eggs (D'Hollander et al., 2011;Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016) and only one on homegrown crops (Scher et al., 2018). Moreover, only very few of these studies take into account the factors that contribute to PFAS accumulation in the homegrown food, and if so, these are limited to the husbandry type (Gazzotti et al., 2021). ...
... Previous studies on wildlife around this area also described this rapidly declining trend for PFOS (Dauwe et al., 2007;D'Hollander et al., 2014;Groffen et al., 2019a). Interestingly, the concentrations in HPE from buffer B and C were similar to those in other European studies, in which HPE were randomly collected without considering a distance gradient from a PFAS point source (Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016). Although PFOA and PFOS concentrations in HPE from buffer A were correlated, this was not the case for eggs in buffer B and C ( Fig. S2.4). ...
... PFAS are known to be ubiquitous forever chemicals that can come in contact with humans through contaminated environmental and food matrices such as drinking waters and eggs [4][5][6] and therefore the attention is constantly increasing at the scientific level and also outside the scientific community. For instance, companies are starting to use the "PFAS free" label on their products to demonstrate safety to consumers. ...
... For instance, companies are starting to use the "PFAS free" label on their products to demonstrate safety to consumers. The results of a search on Google Trends, Figure 2 PFAS are known to be ubiquitous forever chemicals that can come in contact with humans through contaminated environmental and food matrices such as drinking waters and eggs [4][5][6] and therefore the attention is constantly increasing at the scientific level and also outside the scientific community. For instance, companies are starting to use the "PFAS free" label on their products to demonstrate safety to consumers. ...
... Fluoropolymers Perfluoropolyethers PFAS are known to be ubiquitous forever chemicals that can come in contact with humans through contaminated environmental and food matrices such as drinking waters and eggs [4][5][6] and therefore the attention is constantly increasing at the scientific level and also outside the scientific community. For instance, companies are starting to use the "PFAS free" label on their products to demonstrate safety to consumers. ...
More than 7000 synthetic compounds known as per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are applied to food packaging and other materials to provide fat, fire, and/or water resistance properties. These compounds have exceptional environmental stability and persistence due to the strong C-F chemical bond, earning them the moniker “forever chemicals”. Emission of PFAS from industrial waste leads to water, air, and soil contamination. Due to this ubiquitous nature, combined with the fact that PFAS in humans are known to have carcinogenic and reprotoxic effects and to cause vaccine resistance and depression of the immunity system, PFAS may constitute a major threat to human health. For this reason, the attention of the scientific community and of control bodies is increasing and as a consequence legislation and the scientific literature on PFAS are constantly evolving. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the state of the art about current legislation addressing PFAS; targeted and screening method for identification, detection and quantification of PFAS; toxicity of PFAS; and contamination of environmental and food matrices and from food contact matrices. A comprehensive review of the latest scientific research and recent developments in the legislation of PFAS will provide insights into the current understanding of PFAS and its health implications. Moreover, it will serve as a valuable reference for further studies related to PFAS and could help in informing future policy decisions.
... In this regard, free-ranging chickens offer unique opportunities for monitoring human exposure, as they are the most prevalent birds on earth in terms of biomass and usually live in close contact with humans ( Bar-On et al., 2018;Scaramozzino et al., 2019). HPE have also been associated with higher concentrations of organic pollutants (Sioen et al., 2008;Waegeneers et al., 2009), including per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) (D'Hollander et al., 2011;Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016). ...
... However, PFAS intake exposures were mostly compared to outdated health guidelines derived from critical toxic endpoints, such as liver toxicity (Zafeiraki et al., 2016;Su et al., 2017), while recently established health guidelines point out that PFAS effects on more sensitive toxic endpoints, for instance immune toxicity, can occur at much lower intake levels (EFSA CONTAM Panel, 2020). These sensitive endpoints have rarely been evaluated and the additional contribution of home-produced food to the PFAS intake has only been considered to a limited extent in human health risk assessments (Gazzotti et al., 2021). ...
... Previous studies on wildlife around this area also described this rapidly declining trend for PFOS (Dauwe et al., 2007;D'Hollander et al., 2014;Groffen et al., 2019a). Interestingly, the concentrations in HPE from buffer B and C were similar to those in other European studies, in which HPE were randomly collected without considering a distance gradient from a PFAS point source (Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016). Although PFOA and PFOS concentrations in HPE from buffer A were correlated, this was not the case for eggs in buffer B and C (Fig. S4). ...
Humans are generally exposed to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) through their diet. Whilst plenty of data are available on commercial food products, little information exists on the contribution of self-cultivated food, such as home-produced eggs (HPE), to the dietary PFAS intake in humans. The prevalence of 17 legacy and emerging PFAS in HPE (N = 70) from free-ranging laying hens was examined at 35 private gardens, situated within a 10 km radius from a fluorochemical plant in Antwerp (Belgium). Potential influences from housing conditions (feed type and number of individuals) and age of the chickens on the egg concentrations was examined, and possible human health risks were evaluated. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were detected in all samples. PFOS was the dominant compound and concentrations (range: 0.13–241 ng/g wet weight) steeply decreased with distance from the fluorochemical plant, while there was no clear distance trend for other PFAS. Laying hens receiving an obligate diet of kitchen leftovers, exhibited higher PFOS and PFOA concentrations in their eggs than hens feeding only on commercial food, suggesting that garden produce may be a relevant exposure pathway to both chickens and humans. The age of laying hens affected egg PFAS concentrations, with younger hens exhibiting significantly higher egg PFOA concentrations. Based on a modest human consumption scenario of two eggs per week, the European health guideline was exceeded in ≥67% of the locations for all age classes, both nearby and further away (till 10 km) from the plant site. These results indicate that PFAS exposure via HPE causes potential human health risks. Extensive analysis in other self-cultivated food items on a larger spatial scale is highly recommended, taking into account potential factors that may affect PFAS bioavailability to garden produce.
... Comparative data on PFAS levels in food grown on fire stations or other occupational settings are unavailable, hence comparison was made with previous studies in household settings (Egeghy and Lorber, 2011;Trudel et al., 2008;Vestergren and Cousins, 2009;Tittlemier et al., 2007;Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016). PFOS was the most dominant type of PFAS in line with previous studies which showed that PFOS makes up 75 to 85 % of the total PFAS in eggs (Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016). ...
... Comparative data on PFAS levels in food grown on fire stations or other occupational settings are unavailable, hence comparison was made with previous studies in household settings (Egeghy and Lorber, 2011;Trudel et al., 2008;Vestergren and Cousins, 2009;Tittlemier et al., 2007;Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016). PFOS was the most dominant type of PFAS in line with previous studies which showed that PFOS makes up 75 to 85 % of the total PFAS in eggs (Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016). PFOS and PFHxS concentrations in food samples recorded here are considerably higher compared to the concentrations reported in home-produced foods (Egeghy and Lorber, 2011;Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016) even when the foods were irrigated with contaminated water (Bao et al., 2019). ...
... PFOS was the most dominant type of PFAS in line with previous studies which showed that PFOS makes up 75 to 85 % of the total PFAS in eggs (Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016). PFOS and PFHxS concentrations in food samples recorded here are considerably higher compared to the concentrations reported in home-produced foods (Egeghy and Lorber, 2011;Gazzotti et al., 2021;Zafeiraki et al., 2016) even when the foods were irrigated with contaminated water (Bao et al., 2019). For example, we recorded 618-fold higher PFOS and 202-fold higher PFHxS in eggs and up to 500-fold higher PFOS and PFHxS in vegetables compared to the median concentrations reported in foods grown around a fluorochemical industrial park in China (Bao et al., 2019). ...
Human exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances also known as PFAS is an ongoing occupational and environmental health problem. This study seeks to characterise multiple pathways for firefighters’ exposure to PFAS. PFAS were analysed in 688 environmental samples such as eggs, fruits, vegetables, dust, soil, surface swabs, appliance washes and water obtained from fire stations. Relevant exposure pathways were identified and daily intake levels were estimated using PFAS concentrations and exposure factors relevant to firefighters.
Five PFAS including perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTS), and 8:2 fluorotelomer sulfonic acid (8:2 FTS) were frequently detected in the samples. Based on the median concentrations in each sample type, PFOS was the most abundant contaminant in eggs (80%), fruits (52%), dust (81%), surface swab (66%), soil (83%) and appliance wash (31%) samples. On the other hand, PFHxS was most abundant in vegetables (77%) and 8:2 FTS in water (58%). The intake estimation results show that dietary exposure from ingestion of foods produced on fire stations was the predominant exposure pathway, representing 82% and 62% of firefighters’ total PFAS intake under typical and worst-case exposure scenarios, respectively. Incidental ingestion and dermal absorption of PFAS in dust contributed 15% for typical and 34% for worst-case exposure scenarios. The relative contributions from incidental ingestion and dermal absorption of PFAS in soil and appliance washes were insignificant. Overall, the study identifies multiple exposure pathways relevant to career firefighters including consumption of food grown on fire stations, which has not previously been recognised within the occupational exposure context. The results suggest exposure control strategies that target foods produced on fire stations could substantially reduce firefighters’ exposure to PFAS.
... Data on the occurrence of PFASs in eggs are scarce or lacking, as in the case of Poland. There are some studies from other countries raising the PFAS eggs contamination issue (Gazzotti et al., 2021;Hlouskova et al., 2013;Petrlik et al., 2020Petrlik et al., , 2021Su et al., 2017;Wang et al., 2008;Zafeiraki et al., 2016). This is why the aim of the study was to conduct research on these levels in one of the most popular food commodities which is eggs, to compare levels found in eggs from three production systems, and to assess the risk for consumers in relation to the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) limit (4.4 ng/kg b. w.). ...
... Similar PFOS concentration was found in Norwegian eggs (0,120 μg/kg w. w.) (Hloušková et al., 2013). About 4-5 times higher levels of PFOS were detected in Italian eggs (0.49-0.79 μg/kg w. w.) (Gazzotti et al., 2021) and several times higher concentrations were observed in eggs from China (34.7-107 μg/kg w. w) (Wang et al., 2008) and in egg yolks from the Netherlands (median 3.5 μg/kg w. w.) and Greece (median 1.1 μg/kg w. w.) (Zafeiraki et al., 2016). Based on EFSA data, there is a decreasing trend for PFOS and PFOA in eggs. ...
... PFOA was detected in only one sample of the organic eggs (0.046 μg/ kg w. w.) (Table 1). This concentration is less than half of the European mean lower bound (0.106 μg/kg w. w.) (EFSA, 2020) but almost five times higher than data from Italy (0.01 μg/kg w. w.) (Gazzotti et al., 2021). PFOA was more frequently detected in Dutch eggs (27%) with a median concentration of 1.1 μg/kg w. w. (Zafeiraki et al., 2016). ...
Poultry eggs from cage, ecological and free range production were analyzed in terms of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Taking into account all fourteen analyzed compounds, perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) reach the highest concentrations (mean 0.23, 0.24, 0.27 μg/kg wet weight (w.w) for organic, cage and free range eggs respectively. Taking into account the lower bound sum of four PFASs: PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS which according to EFSA, made up half of the lower bound exposure to PFASs, organic eggs were the most contaminated (0.10 μg/kg wet weight) followed by free range (0.04 μg/kg wet weight) and battery cage (0.00 μg/kg wet weight). The percentage share in the lower bound concentration indicates the dominant role of PFOS (37–100%). Linear PFOS accounted for 71–92% of the sum of linear and branched PFOS. Estimates of PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS intake via eggs based lower-bound concentrations were 0.00–0.65 ng/kg b.w for children and 0.00–0.21 ng/kg b.w for adults which corresponds to 0–15% of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) and 0–5% TWI for children and adult respectively.
... Worldwide studies investigate PFASs in foods of animal origin (5,7,45). There are few papers regarding PFASs in eggs and animal liver in Poland (31,41), while much associated research has been carried out around the world (18,22,32,34,36,42,50). Previous preliminary research on PFASs in eggs from different types of husbandry in Poland revealed that regardless of the husbandry system, Polish eggs do not contribute significantly to consumers' PFAS intake (31). ...
... Exposure related to ∑PFOSs was three-fold lower than the European average (0.27 µg/kg) (15). Higher concentrations of PFOSs were determined in other European countries (18,50). However the highest contamination of eggs was reported from places where hens were in contact with a polluted environment (plastic disposal and recycling sites) (32,36) and where nearby industry used fluorochemicals (1,4). ...
Introduction
This study focuses on perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) content in chickens’ eggs and the livers of farm animals.
Material and Methods
Chickens’ eggs (n = 25) and the livers of cows (n = 10), chickens (n = 7) and horses (n = 3) were collected from various regions of Poland. Samples were analysed using the isotope dilution technique with liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).
Results
The mean lower bound (LB) sum of four PFAS (∑4 PFAS) concentrations (perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS)) were the highest in cows’ livers (0.52 μg/kg) and much lower in chickens’ (0.17 μg/kg) and horses’ livers (0.13 μg/kg) and chickens’ eggs (0.096 μg/kg). The ratio of ∑4 PFASs to the limits set by Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 was <7% for liver and <6% for eggs. Linear PFOS was the compound with the highest detection frequency (8% in eggs and 48% in all livers). In cows’ livers it was detected in 80% of samples. The estimated exposure to LB ∑4 PFASs via consumption of liver tissue from farm animals (assuming 50 g and 100 g portions) was <52% of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) for children and <17% of the TWI for adults. Dietary intake via the average portion of three eggs led to low exposure of <15% for children and <5% for adults.
Conclusion
Neither eggs nor the livers of chickens or horses as analysed in this study are significant sources of PFASs, while cows’ livers might contribute significantly to a child’s overall dietary intake. Further investigation of PFOS in farm animal livers should be conducted.
... Free-ranging laying hens are geophageous animals that can be directly exposed to pollutants through ingestion of contaminated soil particles (Kijlstra, 2004), which can make up to 40% of their diet (Jurjanz et al., 2015). Homegrown eggs from free-ranging laying hens have been shown to contain elevated PFAA concentrations compared to commercial eggs (Zafeiraki et al., 2016) and eggs from hens housed primarily in indoor conditions (Gazzotti et al., 2021;Mikolajczyk et al., 2022). Grazing of laying hens in outdoor conditions can result in significantly increased soil levels of organic matter, electrical conductivity and CEC (Soares et al., 2022). ...
... The homegrown egg concentrations of the present study were among the highest ever reported in homegrown chicken eggs (Gazzotti et al., 2021;Su et al., 2017;Wang et al., 2019), especially for PFOS, which was the dominant compound in the eggs with concentrations ranging between 0.860 and 571 ng/g ww ( Table 2). The current European regulatory limits for PFOS (=1.0 ng/g ww), PFOA (=0.30 ng/g ww) and PFNA (=0.70 ng/g ww) concentrations in commercial eggs (EC, 2022) were exceeded in 94%, 76% and 25% of the egg samples. ...
... EFSA reports that the European average concentration of PFOS is 0.27 µg kg −1 w. w. [11], Mikolajczyk et al., 2022 [21] found 0.13 µg kg −1 w. w. as the highest PFOS concentration, which is in line with what was reported for Norway by Hlouskova et al., 2013 [18] 0.12 µg kg −1 w. w., i.e., lower than the European average. In contrast, differences are reported for Italian backyard hens (0.49-0.79 µg kg −1 w. w. [19]), for China (34.7-107 µg kg −1 w. w.; [16]), and from data from the Netherlands (median µg kg −1 w. w., on egg yolk) and Greece (median of 3.5 and 1.1 µg kg −1 w. w., on egg yolk, respectively; [15])). In the present study, the average PFOS concentration detected was 0.05 ± 0.00 ng g −1 , which is lower than that reported by Gazzotti et al., 2021 [19]; however, this study was conducted on backyard hens, which are more prone to possible PFAS contamination. ...
... The European average concentration for PFOA reported by EFSA Is 0.11 µg kg −1 w. w. [11], in the study by Mikolajczyk et al., 2022 [21] it is instead 0.046 µg kg −1 w. w. The value found by Mikolajczyk et al., 2022 [21] is five times higher than the value reported by [19] for Italy (0.01 µg kg −1 w. w.). Data from the present study and Mikolajczyk et al., 2022 [21] agree with the concerns regarding PFHxs and PFBA. ...
Eggs play an important role in a balanced diet; however, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recognizes eggs as a major source of poly and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). In this study, the presence of PFASs was analysed in eggs produced by hens from Northern Italian regions, a PFASs-contaminated area. Sixty-five samples were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry. The greatest presence of PFASs was found in eggs from Veneto and Emilia Romagna, and the most detected PFASs were perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) (mean concentrations 0.30 ± 0.15 and 0.05 ± 0.00 ng g−1). Considering the most recent updates for the sum of the main four PFASs, the highest concentration found in the analysed samples was 0.05 ng g−1, well below the maximum limit set by the European Union. The PFAS intake evaluation confirmed that egg consumption does not represent a risk for Italian consumers.
... Uptake studies have revealed that hens foraging in countryside are exposed to a complex mixture of environmental pollutants, posing a possible threat for human health due to their toxicological properties [3,4]. Thus, diet is one of the main sources of exposure to PFAS [5,6]. However, there is insufficient data regarding the level of PFAS in eggs from household sources, as their consumption is typically restricted to the producer's family or local consumers. ...
... PFAS contaminants determined in foods in chronological order (2020-2023) are shown in Table 1. [32] fish, cephalopods, shellfish, seaweed, and shrimp samples ionic COF (TPB-BFBIm-iCOF) followed by UPLC-MS/MS ---Fish: 0.1239 to 0.9912 ng/g; shrimp: PFOA (0.0872 ng/g), PFOS (0.8977 ng/g) and PFTeA (0.0491 ng/g) [34] eggs isotope dilution followed by UPLC-HRMS 0.05 ng/g --- [31] fresh, frozen, and ready-to-eat vegetables LC-MS 0.05-0.5 ng/g PFOS, PFOA, and PFNA concentrations exceeded the attention limits recommended by the European Commission for Vegetables [33] 3. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 3. ...
Food quality and safety are critical public health concerns, with approximately 600 million people worldwide being affected by foodborne diseases each year due to contamination. These diseases not only lead to a notable number of deaths but also impose substantial economic burdens, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Given the severe health risks posed by food contaminants, developing advanced, sensitive analytical methods to detect such contaminants is essential. Contemporary food safety challenges include detecting contaminants at trace levels and managing cumulative risks from simultaneous exposure to multiple chemicals. Liquid chromatography, particularly in combination with high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC/MS), has proven indispensable for detecting key contaminants such as perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, veterinary residues, packaging-derived contaminants, mycotoxins, and pyrrolizidine alkaloids in various food matrices. The present article reviews recent studies on the subject published between 2020 and 2023.
... It has been detected in surface water around the world. [4][5][6][7][8] PFOA can bioaccumulate and biomagnify and has been detected in various types of food (e. g., aquatic products, fruit, vegetables, eggs, and milk), [9][10][11][12] human tissues, and other animal tissues (e. g. serum, liver, bone, brain, lung, and kidney). [13][14][15] It has been found in numerous studies that exposure to PFOA may negatively affect immunity and fertility, induce cancer, increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, and cause developmental neurotoxicity. ...
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is currently one of the most important chemicals posing environmental risks, and there is an urgent need to find methods to efficiently remove PFOA from environmental media. Here, two decaamino‐pillar[5]arene‐based fluorine‐rich polymer networks, called FA2P‐P and FA6P‐P, were constructed using a convenient method. FA6P‐P had an excellent ability to take up PFOA, and had a capacity of 1423 (mg PFOA) (g FA6P‐P)⁻¹, which is the second highest adsorption capacity reported for any PFOA sorbent. FA6P‐P removed >99 % of the PFOA from a solution and decreased the PFOA concentration from 1000 μg L⁻¹ in 5 min at an exceedingly low adsorbent loading of 0.7 mg L⁻¹, giving a final PFOA concentration <4 ng L⁻¹, which is lower than the most recent enforceable maximum concentration set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. A high rate constant (kobs) of 55.8 g mg⁻¹ h⁻¹ was observed. Pillar[5]arene gives the material hydrophobic properties and also amino sites and hydrophobic chains, which are synergistic PFOA binding sites. The polymer was very stable and readily regenerated. The results indicated that pillar[5]arene‐based porous organic polymer sorbents are excellent candidates for capturing PFOA.
... However, its high stability makes it prone to significant residues in animals, plants, and the environment. PFOA residues have been detected in both commercially captive and backyard free-range laying hens, possibly originating from contaminated soil and feed [3]. More seriously, the deposition of PFOA in the body has varying degrees of toxic effects on humans and animals, inevitably leading to damage to various tissues and organs [4]. ...
Itaconic acid (IA) is recognized for its potential application in treating intestinal diseases owing to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) can accumulate in animals and result in oxidative and inflammatory damages to multi-tissue and organ, particularly in the intestinal tract. This study aimed to explore whether IA could mitigate intestinal damage induced by PFOA exposure in laying hens and elucidate its potential underlying mechanisms. The results showed that IA improved the antioxidant capacity of laying hens and alleviated the oxidative damage induced by PFOA, as evidenced by the elevated activities of T-SOD, GSH-Px, and CAT, and the decreased MDA content in both the jejunum and serum. Furthermore, IA improved the intestinal morphological and structural integrity, notably attenuating PFOA-induced villus shedding, length reduction, and microvillus thinning. IA also upregulated the mRNA expression of ZO-1, Occludin, Claudin-1, and Mucin-2 in the jejunum, thereby restoring intestinal barrier function. Compared with the PF group, IA supplementation downregulated the gene expression of Keap1 and upregulated the HO-1, NQO1, SOD1, and GPX1 expression in the jejunum. Meanwhile, the PF + IA group exhibited lower expressions of inflammation-related genes (NF-κB, IL-1β, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-6) compared to the PF group. Moreover, IA reversed the PFOA-induced imbalance in gut microbiota by reducing the harmful bacteria such as Escherichia-Shigella, Clostridium innocuum, and Ruminococcus torques, while increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria like Lactobacillus. Correlation analysis further revealed a significant association between gut microbes, inflammatory factors, and the Keap1/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway expression. In conclusion, dietary IA supplementation could alleviate the oxidative and inflammatory damage caused by PFOA exposure in the intestinal tract by reshaping the intestinal microbiota, modulating the Keap1/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and reducing oxidative stress and inflammatory response, thereby promoting intestinal homeostasis.
... The most significant pathways for human exposure to PFASs include food, drinking water, skin contact, indoor dust, and outdoor air, with food being the primary route [22,23]. Consuming contaminated food and drinking water, such as vegetables, crops, fish, meat, or processed food affected by PFAS, as well as drinking PFAS-contaminated water, can lead to exposure [19,[24][25][26][27]. Additionally, contact with food packaging materials containing PFASs (e.g., food packaging paper and non-stick cookware) also poses a risk [28,29]. ...
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) represent a class of persistent synthetic chemicals extensively utilized across industrial and consumer sectors, raising substantial environmental and human health concerns. Epidemiological investigations have robustly linked PFAS exposure to a spectrum of adverse health outcomes. Altered metabolites stand as promising biomarkers, offering insights into the identification of specific environmental pollutants and their deleterious impacts on human health. However, elucidating metabolic alterations attributable to PFAS exposure and their ensuing health effects has remained challenging. In light of this, this review aims to elucidate potential biomarkers of PFAS exposure by presenting a comprehensive overview of recent metabolomics-based studies exploring PFAS toxicity. Details of PFAS types, sources, and human exposure patterns are provided. Furthermore, insights into PFAS-induced liver toxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, cardiovascular toxicity, glucose homeostasis disruption, kidney toxicity, and carcinogenesis are synthesized. Additionally, a thorough examination of studies utilizing metabolomics to delineate PFAS exposure and toxicity biomarkers across blood, liver, and urine specimens is presented. This review endeavors to advance our understanding of PFAS biomarkers regarding exposure and associated toxicological effects.
... As in the previous study, the greater level of PFASs in home-produced eggs can be attributed to ingestion of contaminated soil particles and small organisms by free-range home-kept laying hens. Significant levels of PFASs were monitored by Gazzotti et al. [95] in eggs from backyard chickens (EBCs) raised in Italy. The yolk samples were extracted using alkaline digestion followed by SPE. ...
Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs) are a group of anthropogenic chemicals used in a range of industrial processes and consumer products. Recently, their ubiquitous presence in the environment as well as their toxicological effects in humans have gained relevant attention. Although the occurrence of PFASs is widely investigated in scientific community, the standardization of analytical method for all matrices still remains an important issue. In this review, we discussed extraction and detection methods in depth to evaluate the best procedures of PFAS identification in terms of analytical parameters (e.g., limits of detection (LODs), limits of quantification (LOQs), recoveries). Extraction approaches based on liquid–liquid extraction (LLE), alkaline digestion, and solid phase extraction (SPE), followed by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis are the main analytical methods applied in the literature. The results showed detectable recoveries of PFOA and PFOS in meat, milk, vegetables, eggs products (90.6–101.2% and of 89.2–98.4%), and fish (96–108%). Furthermore, the low LOD and LOQ values obtained for meat (0.00592–0.01907 ng g−1; 0.050 ng g−1), milk (0.003–0.009 ng g−1; 0.010–0.027 ng g−1), fruit (0.002–0.009 ng g−1; 0.006–0.024 ng g−1), and fish (0.00369–0.017.33 ng g−1; 0.05 ng g−1) also confirmed the effectiveness of the recent quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe method (QuEChERS) for simple, speedy, and sensitive ultra-trace PFAS analysis.
... In the eggs, up to 16 compounds could be detected (Table S4) including PFHpA, PFHxS and PFDS, whereas these compounds were <LOQ in the chicken soil. The egg concentrations of the present study were among the highest ever reported in homegrown chicken eggs (Gazzotti et al., 2021;Su et al., 2017;Wang et al., 2019), especially for PFBS and PFOS (Table S4). This confirms earlier findings that homegrown egg consumption can be a major PFAS exposure source presenting potential health risks to humans (Lasters et al., 2022). ...
... Positive associations between PFHxS body burdens and egg consumption are less frequently reported, though shown to be a determinant in pregnant Chinese women and to contribute to roughly 20% of the PFHxS intake from food in an adult Spanish population (Arrebola et al., 2018). For heńs eggs, PFOS concentrations likely differ between production systems, since evidence, although limited, suggests much higher concentrations in home-produced compared to conventionally produced eggs (D'Hollander et al., 2011;Zafeiraki et al., 2016;Su et al., 2017;Fillol et al., 2021;Gazzotti et al., 2021). As with fish consumption, no association between br-PFOS and egg consumption was observed among the RMA participants, which might be attributable to lin-PFOS enrichment in heńs eggs compared to other PFOS isomers . ...
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl acids (PFAS) is a group of anthropogenic substances, with some suspected to cause adverse health effects in humans. Little is known about adolescent exposure to PFAS, thus this thesis focuses on exposure sources and demographical exposure patterns of PFAS in a nationally representative Swedish adolescent (age 10-21 years) population (Riksmaten Adolescents 2016-17). Legacy PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA), perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) were detected in serum from 70-100% of the participants (n=1098). Concentrations of PFOA, PFHxS and PFOS in serum increased with increased concentrations in drinking water (DW). Even though median PFAS concentrations in DW were as low as <1 ng/L, DW appeared as an important exposure source. Participants adhering to a diverse and healthy diet had higher PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA and PFOS concentrations in serum than those that did not. This association was likely driven by a higher seafood consumption as a part of the healthy diet, supporting the notion that diet, apart from DW, is an important exposure source. Serum PFAS levels were on average highest among participants born in countries with high per capita income as compared to those born in low income countries. Conclusively, PFAS are chemicals of the industrialised world, with DW and seafood emerging as important exposure sources for adolescents. The findings of this thesis are important to consider in future risk assessments, as well as in studies of PFAS exposure and adolescent health.
... The eggs were collected back in 2013-14, but if collected today, parts of the population would exceed TWI from egg consumption alone. Gazzotti et al. (2021) detected PFAS in 58 of 78 home-produced eggs sampled in 2018-19 at 26 locations across Italy and found a median PFOS concentration of 1.29 ng/g egg yolk and a maximum of 3.47 ng/g in quantifiable samples. They found higher concentrations of ∑ 4PFAS in Northern Italy compared to Central and Southern Italy. ...
Chicken eggs can be a significant source of human PFAS exposure. A survey of PFAS in commercial eggs from larger farms across Denmark showed the absence or low contents of PFAS in free-range and barn eggs. However, organic eggs from eight farms collected in September 2022 had a similar profile of nine PFASs with a predominance of odd over even carbon length PFCAs. Farm 11-13 e.g. had egg yolk ng/g concentrations of PFOA 0.07±0.02; PFNA 0.37±0.04; PFDA 0.13±0.00; PFUnDA 0.22±0.04; PFDoDA 0.06±0.02; PFTrDA 0.15±0.04; PFTeDA 0.02±0.02; PFHxS 0.10±0.04; PFOS 2.62±0.11. Normalized to PFOS, the relative sum of other PFAS showed no difference between the eight organic egg samples, but significant differences between mean individual PFASs (p=1.4E-25), reflecting a similar profile. The PFAS found in two fishmeal samples with the same origin as the fishmeal used for the organic feed production, could account for the contents in the eggs via estimated transfer from the feed. Furthermore, the estimated transfer from concentration in feed to concentration in egg increased with the carbon length of the PFCA. Exposure (95th percentile) of ∑4PFAS (PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS, PFOS) solely from consumption of 311 g ~ 5-6 organic eggs/week was for children 4-9 years 10.4 ng/kg bw, i.e. a significant exceedance of the tolerable weekly intake of 4.4 ng/kg bw established by the European Food Safety Authority.. Based on the PFAS exposures from organic egg consumption, the organic egg producers decided voluntarily to cease adding fishmeal to the feed. Since the feed-to-egg half-lives are ≤ 1 week for PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS, the removal of fishmeal as a feed ingredient should eliminate PFAS after 1-2 months. This was demonstrated in analyses of ten organic egg samples collected by the authorities without PFAS in eight and with 0.1 and 0.4 ng/g ∑4PFAS in two samples.
... They did not include in the study home-produced eggs and report uniform very low contamination levels for the typologies analysed, confirming the results found in this study, although the LOQs of the method adopted in the analysis by Ghelli et al. were 2.5 times higher than the LOQs of the here presented method. Gazzotti et al. [42] in 2021 focused their attention only on backyard hen eggs sampled in different locations in Italy. They analysed the four regulated PFAS in egg yolk, reporting that home-grown eggs are generally more contaminated than those distributed in supermarkets, with PFOS being the most abundant substance measured, confirming what found in the present study ( Fig. 3 and Table S5). ...
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are synthetic, stable, fluorinated molecules widely used in consumer products. They are non-biodegradable, persistent and bio-accumulating. In 2020 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) lowered the Tolerable Weekly Intake (TWI) for the four PFASs (PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFHxS) and in 2022, the EU issued a Recommendation asking to monitor twenty-one PFASs in food. Since 1st January 2023 limits in food were set. Here we report a sensitive, straightforward and robust procedure enabling the determination of 19 PFAS in food matrices using a liquid chromatography mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS). Few are the published methods applicable to the different food matrices and covering the molecules listed in Recommendation 2022/1431, fulfilling the LOQs requested. The method was satisfactory validated (UNI CEI EN ISO/IEC 17025:2018 and Regulation (EU) 2022/1428) and used to investigate hen egg samples, highlighting home-produced eggs as the more critical egg farming process for PFAS accumulation.
... Over the past years, several methods dedicated to the quantitative determination of PFAS in food were published in the literature, most of them based upon LC-MS/MS even if liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) appears as an attractive alternative to consider for improving the sensitivity (Taylor and Sapozhnikova 2022). Some of these methods exhibit a restricted scope in terms of matrices with a single one validated, such as milk (Zafeiraki et al. 2016;Gazzotti et al. 2021), vegetables (Zhou et al. 2019;Meng et al. 2022) or infant food (Ullah et al. 2012), while others offered more diversity in the application with two matrices in the scope at least (Berendsen et al. 2020) up to three materials that consist of meat and fish in combination with either vegetables (Rawn et al. 2022) or egg (Taylor and Sapozhnikova 2022). As regard to the number of compounds, method scopes differ significantly from 3 (Sadia et al. 2020) to 45 substances (Meng et al. 2022). ...
To enable the monitoring of a wide scope of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the ng/kg level in foodstuffs, an LC-MS/MS method comprising 57 analytes was developed and validated in seven different matrices (milk powder, milk-based infant formula, meat-based baby food puree, fish and fish oil, fresh egg, and soluble coffee). The analytical approach was based on an acetonitrile:water extraction followed by solid phase extraction clean-up with subsequent quantification of the extracted analytes either by isotope dilution (55 compounds) or by standard addition (2 compounds) mass spectrometry. The validation criteria followed the guidance document for the analysis of PFAS issued by the European Union Reference Laboratory for Halogenated Persistent Organic Pollutants. The lowest limits of quantification (LOQs) for the four recently regulated compounds (L-PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, L-PFHxS) were set at 0.010 µg/kg in baby and infant foods (as sold) but also in dairy ingredients. Exception was for PFOA in milk powder due to too large variability in the repeatability. Applicability of the method was further demonstrated in 37 commodity check matrices. Overall validation data demonstrated the robustness of the method for most of the compounds and the LOQs achieved were low enough to ensure compliance with Commission Regulation EU 2022/2388 but also to support future collection of occurrence data in ng/kg level in food.
... Hen eggs from backyard production are becoming increasingly popular among consumers, who expect that the food has high nutritional value and is free from toxic substances (Di Pillo et al. 2019;Rajkumar et al. 2021). However, because freerange hens spend most of their lives outdoors, they are much more likely to be exposed to environmental contaminants, such as PCDD/Fs and PCBs (Hsu et al. 2010;Roszko et al. 2014;Pajurek et al. 2019), heavy metals (Cowie and Gartrell 2019;Atamaleki et al. 2020;Yazdanparast et al. 2022), and perfluorinated or brominated compounds (Pajurek et al. 2019;Gazzotti et al. 2021;Mikolajczyk et al. 2022). PCDD/ Fs and PCBs are toxic substances that are commonly found in the environment, belonging to the group of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (Stockholm Convention 2001). ...
Free-range hens spend most of their lives outdoors, resulting in their heavy exposure to environmental pollutants such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin, dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs), and non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs). We present a case of contamination of free-range eggs that is previously unreported in the literature. The aim of our study was a source investigation after finding a high level of PCDD/Fs in samples of eggs from one of the inspected farms. Samples of hens’ eggs, muscles, and livers and the feeds and soils were analyzed. The results showed that the soil samples taken from the paddock contained high concentrations of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs expressed as toxic equivalents (TEQ) (72.9 ± 18.2 pg WHO-TEQ g ⁻¹ dry mas (d.m.)) and a high concentration of NDL-PCBs (207 ± 46.9 ng g ⁻¹ d.m.). The investigation found that the cause of the soil contamination was oil leaking from the farm’s tractor engine. The oil contained very high concentrations of PCDD/F and DL-PCBs (1013 ± 253 pg WHO-TEQ g ⁻¹ oil) and 5644 ng g ⁻¹ of NDL-PCBs. The source of the contamination was confirmed by the similarity of the PCDD/F and PCB profiles in the hen eggs and the soil contaminated by engine oil. The dietary intake of toxins resulting from consumption of the eggs is provided. For children, the consumption of contaminated eggs would result in an intake of double the tolerable weekly intake (TWI), while for adults, it would be approx. 60–70% of TWI.
... Hen eggs from backyard production are becoming increasingly popular among consumers, who expect that the food has high nutritional value and is free from toxic substances (Di Pillo et al. 2019;Rajkumar et al. 2021). However, because freerange hens spend most of their lives outdoors, they are much more likely to be exposed to environmental contaminants, such as PCDD/Fs and PCBs (Hsu et al. 2010;Roszko et al. 2014;Pajurek et al. 2019), heavy metals (Cowie and Gartrell 2019;Atamaleki et al. 2020;Yazdanparast et al. 2022), and perfluorinated or brominated compounds (Pajurek et al. 2019;Gazzotti et al. 2021;Mikolajczyk et al. 2022). PCDD/ Fs and PCBs are toxic substances that are commonly found in the environment, belonging to the group of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (Stockholm Convention 2001). ...
Backyard production of chicken eggs is becoming more popular among consumers, who expect that the food has high nutritional value. Unfortunately, eggs from free-range production tend to be contaminated by toxic substances such PCDD/Fs and PCBs. The aim of our study was source investigation after finding high level of dioxins in samples of free-range eggs (4.02 ± 0.66 pg WHO-TEQ g ⁻¹ fat) from one of the inspected farms. Concentrations exceeding EU maximum permissible levels (1259/2011/EU) were found in all sampled hen eggs and muscles from the farm. Feed was not a source of contamination because a low level, below LOQ, was found. Soil samples taken from the backyard contained 72.91 ± 18.21 pg PCDD/F/DL-PCB-WHO-TEQ g ⁻¹ dry mas and 206.77 ± 46.88 ng NDL-PCB g ⁻¹ dry mas. It was found that the soil was contaminated by oil which came from a tractor engine. Analysis of the engine oil showed a high concentration of PCDD/F/DL-PCB 1013 ± 253 pg WHO-TEQ g ⁻¹ oil, and NDL-PCB 5644 ± 1279 ng g ⁻¹ oil. The dioxin profiles in the hen eggs and soil showed similarity to the oil. Consumption of the eggs resulted in the TWI dose (2 pg WHO-TEQ kg ⁻¹ body weight) being exceeded in children.
... The main contaminants in this study were determined as follows: the total average value of PFOA was 0.051 ng/g with a range of ND-3.3 ng/g; the total mean value of PFOS was 0.054 ng/g with a range of ND-1.9 ng/g, which were considered to be at a low level compared to other studies in China (Zhang et al. 2010;Su et al. 2017;Bao et al. 2019;Qi et al. 2019;Wang et al. 2019Wang et al. , 2021. In fact, PFOA and PFOS are also major PFAAs contaminants in poultry eggs in other countries but compared with other countries and regions, the contamination levels of PFOA and PFOS in eggs from 10 major producing provinces of China in this study were at a low level, especially lower than those of Belgium (Cornelis et al. 2012), Greece, Netherlands (Noorlander et al. 2011;Zafeiraki et al. 2016) and EU (EFSA Panel Contaminants Food Chain 2012, slightly higher than those of Sweden (Faxneld et al. 2016), significantly different from Spain (Domingo et al. 2012), Turkey (Sungur et al. 2018) and Italy (Gazzotti et al. 2021) (Figure 5). The pollution of the poultry egg farming environment may be related to increasing industrial development and the use of fluorine-related supplies; moreover, there may be a lag in the implementation of the POPs amendment and related pollution management in some regions. ...
To study the contamination levels of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in Chinese eggs and the effects of persistent organic pollutant (POP) amendments to the Stockholm Convention blacklist, 3200 eggs from 10 major producing areas were collected from June 2013 to May 2017. Seventeen PFAAs in eggs were analysed. Perfluorooctane sulphonic acid (PFOS), perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were the main PFAAs in eggs. Perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and short-chain PFAAs levels in eggs decreased after the amendment was implemented in China (p < .05), but no significant difference was observed in PFOS. The average ΣPFAAs of eggs from 10 major producing areas was 0.23 ng/g (<LOD-5.4 ng/g), with samples from Hunan, Hubei and Henan being above this threshold, indicates the need for more stringent evaluation and regulation on pollutant management practices. The detection rate of eggs with PFOS risk was very low and no consumption-related health risk was identified.
... Positive associations between PFHxS body burdens and egg consumption are less frequently reported, though shown to be a determinant in pregnant Chinese women (Yang et al., 2019) and to contribute to roughly 20% of the PFHxS intake from food in an adult Spanish population (Arrebola et al., 2018). For heńs eggs, PFOS concentrations likely differ between production systems, since evidence, although limited, suggests much higher concentrations in home-produced compared to conventionally produced eggs (D'Hollander et al., 2011;Zafeiraki et al., 2016;Su et al., 2017;Fillol et al., 2021;Gazzotti et al., 2021). As with fish consumption, no association between br-PFOS and egg consumption was observed among the RMA participants, which might be attributable to lin-PFOS enrichment in heńs eggs compared to other PFOS isomers . ...
Food is an important source of perfluoroalkyl acid (PFAA) exposure for the general adult population, but few data exist for adolescents. Healthy food habits established during adolescence may positively influence health later in life. Associations between serum PFAA concentrations and a healthy eating index (SHEIA15), as well as a diet diversity score (RADDS), were determined in a nationally representative adolescent population from Sweden (Riksmaten Adolescents 2016–2017, RMA). Using consumption data from food registrations and frequency questionnaires, we additionally analyzed associations with commonly consumed food groups. Associations were analyzed by fitting a cumulative probability model using ordinal regression. Among the seven PFAAs detected in ≥70% of the 1098 participants (age 10–21 years), median concentrations ranged from <1 ng/g serum of perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perflurorundecanoic acid (PFUnDA), linear (lin-) perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS) and branched (br-) perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) to 1–2 ng/g serum of lin-perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and lin-PFOS. PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA and lin-PFOS concentrations were positively associated with both SHEIA15 and RADDS, a finding most likely driven by higher consumption of seafood. PFDA, PFUnDA and lin-PFOS concentrations were positively related to commonly consumed fish/shellfish groups, such as lean marine fish and shellfish. Inverse associations between PFAA concentrations and dairy consumption suggest an underlying factor behind dairy consumption that similarly affects adolescent exposure to the different PFAAs. Isomeric differences in dietary exposure between lin-PFOS and br-PFOS were suggested, as br-PFOS concentrations, in contrast to lin-PFOS, were not associated with SHEIA15, RADDS and consumption of different food groups. We conclude that Swedish adolescents, adhering to a diverse and healthy diet, appears to be more highly exposed to legacy PFAAs than those eating less healthy. Additional research is necessary for a better understanding of the health implications of healthy eating from a PFAA exposure perspective.
Per- and poly-fluoroalkylated substances (PFAS) are a large group of chemicals that persist both in the environment and in the body. Legacy PFAS, e.g., perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, are implicated as endocrine disruptors and reproductive and developmental toxicants in epidemiological and animal model studies. This review describes female reproductive outcomes of reported studies and includes where associative relationships between PFAS exposures and female reproductive outcomes have been observed as well as where those are absent. In animal models, studies in which PFAS are documented to cause toxicity and where effects are lacking are described. Discrepancies exist in both human and animal studies and are likely attributable to human geographical contamination, developmental status, duration of exposure, and PFAS chemical identity. Similarly, in animal investigations, the model used, exposure paradigm, and developmental status of the female are important and vary widely in documented studies. Taken together, support for PFAS as reproductive and developmental toxicants exists, although the disparity in study conditions and human exposures contribute to the variation in effects noted.
Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is a widespread technology used for the quantitative determination of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in foodstuffs. Specifically, LC-MS/MS offers attractive performance combining the sensitivity and selectivity required by the European Union for testing perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) with maximum limits of quantification (LOQs) in the sub part-per-billion (μg/kg) or the part-per-trillion (ng/kg) domains. In this article we highlight the important diversity in LOQ definitions applied in LC-MS/MS methods described in the literature that raise concerns about the capability of some of those to generate reliable data requested by the European regulation. Here, we point the risk of false response or misquantification if criteria for assessing LOQ suffer from a lack of rigor. We emphasize the need to use PFAS-free samples spiked with the analyte(s) of interest and the application of identification criteria according to official documents for a sound measurement of the LOQ.
Exposure to environmental toxicants and hyperthermia can hamper reproduction in female mammals including swine. Phenotypic manifestations include poor quality oocytes, endocrine disruption, infertility, lengthened time to conceive, pregnancy loss, and embryonic defects. The ovary has the capacity for toxicant biotransformation, regulated in part by the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase signaling pathway. The impacts of exposure to mycotoxins and pesticides on swine reproduction and the potential for an emerging chemical class of concern, the per- and polyfluoroalkylated substances, to hamper porcine reproduction are reviewed. The negative impairments of heat stress (HS) on swine reproductive outcomes are also described and the cumulative effect of environmental exposures, such as HS, when present in conjunction with a toxicant is considered.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have been mass-produced and widely applied in consumer and industrial products, resulting in their widespread presence in the environment. Features such as environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and high toxicity even at low doses have made PFASs an increasing concern. This brief review focuses on soil PFASs, especially the effect of soil PFASs on other environmental media and their potential threats to human health through daily diet. Specifically, soil PFASs contamination caused by different pathways was first investigated. Soil pollution from application of aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) is generally more severe than that from fluorochemical manufacturing plants, followed by biosolid land use, landfill, and irrigation. Factors, such as carbon chain length of PFASs, wastewater treatment technology, geographical conditions, and regional development level, are related to soil PFASs' pollution. Then, the migration, bioaccumulation, and toxicity characteristics of soil PFASs were analyzed. Short-chain PFASs have higher solubility, mobility, and bioavailability, while long-chain PFASs have higher bioaccumulation potential and are more toxic to organisms. Factors such as soil texture, solution chemistry conditions, enzymes, and fertilization conditions also influence the environmental behavior of PFASs. The risk of human exposure to PFASs through agricultural and animal products is difficult to control and varies depending on living region, age, eating habits, lifestyle, ethnicity, etc. Soil PFASs threaten drinking water safety, affect soil function, and enter food webs, threatening human health. Knowledge gaps and perspectives in these research fields are also included in current work to assist future research to effectively investigate and understand the environmental risks of soil PFASs, thereby reducing human exposure.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants with the ability to uptake to food and feed. Among food, fish, fruits and eggs are considered as major contributors to human dietary exposure. A new method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of 18 PFASs in eggs using isotope dilution followed by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry. The analysis of 132 samples (organic, barn and caged eggs) was performed. Levels were always close to the detection limits and no significant difference emerged among the 3 groups. The highest PFAS concentration in eggs was used to estimate the dietary exposure of different Italian population groups. As expected, children were more highly exposed than adults due to lower body weight. This data suggests that the recent tolerable weekly intake of 4.4 ng kg⁻¹ b.w. could be exceeded when the cumulative intake arising from other food products is considered.
Background
Human exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has been primarily attributed to contaminated food and drinking water. However, additional PFAS exposure pathways have been raised by a limited number of studies reporting correlations between commercial and industrial products and PFAS levels in human media and biomonitoring. Systematic review (SR) methodologies have been widely used to evaluate similar questions using an unbiased approach in the fields of clinical medicine, epidemiology, and toxicology, but the deployment in exposure science is ongoing. Here we present a systematic review protocol that adapts existing systematic review methodologies and study evaluation tools to exposure science studies in order to investigate evidence for important PFAS exposure pathways from indoor media including consumer products, household articles, cleaning products, personal care products, plus indoor air and dust.
Objectives
We will systematically review exposure science studies that present both PFAS concentrations from indoor exposure media and PFAS concentrations in blood serum or plasma. Exposure estimates will be synthesized from the evidence to answer the question, “For the general population, what effect does exposure from PFAS chemicals via indoor media have on blood, serum or plasma concentrations of PFAS?” We adapt existing systematic review methodologies and study evaluation tools from the U.S. EPA’s Systematic Review Protocol for the PFBA, PFHxA, PFHxS, PFNA, and PFDA IRIS Assessments and the Navigation Guide for exposure science studies, as well as present innovative developments of exposure pathway-specific search strings for use in artificial intelligence screening software.
Data Sources
We will search electronic databases for potentially relevant literature, including Web of Science, PubMed, and ProQuest. Literature search results will be stored in EPA’s Health and Environmental Research Online (HERO) database.
Study eligibility and criteria
Included studies will present exposure measures from indoor media including consumer products, household articles, cleaning products, personal care products, plus indoor air and dust, paired with PFAS concentrations in blood, serum or plasma from adults and/or children in the general population. We focus on a subset of PFAS chemicals including perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA).
Study appraisal and synthesis methods
Studies will be prefiltered at the title and abstract level using computationally intelligent search strings to expedite the screening process for reviewers. Two independent reviewers will screen the prefiltered studies against inclusion criteria at the title/abstract level and then full-text level, after which the reviewers will assess the studies’ risk of bias using an approach modified from established systematic review tools for exposure studies. Exposure estimates will be calculated to investigate the proportion of blood, serum or plasma) PFAS concentrations that can be explained by exposure to PFAS in indoor media.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are of concern because of their high persistence (or that of their degradation products) and their impacts on human and environmental health that are known or can be deduced from some well-studied PFAS. Currently, many different PFAS (on the order of several thousands) are used in a wide range of applications, and there is no comprehensive source of information on the many individual substances and their functions in different applications. Here we provide a broad overview of many use categories where PFAS have been employed and for which function; we also specify which PFAS have been used and discuss the magnitude of the uses. Despite being non-exhaustive, our study clearly demonstrates that PFAS are used in almost all industry branches and many consumer products. In total, more than 200 use categories and subcategories are identified for more than 1400 individual PFAS. In addition to well-known categories such as textile impregnation, fire-fighting foam, and electroplating, the identified use categories also include many categories not described in the scientific literature, including PFAS in ammunition, climbing ropes, guitar strings, artificial turf, and soil remediation. We further discuss several use categories that may be prioritised for finding PFAS-free alternatives. Besides the detailed description of use categories, the present study also provides a list of the identified PFAS per use category, including their exact masses for future analytical studies aiming to identify additional PFAS.
The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific evaluation on the risks to human health related to the presence of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in food. Based on several similar effects in animals, toxicokinetics and observed concentrations in human blood, the CONTAM Panel decided to perform the assessment for the sum of four PFASs: PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS and PFOS. These made up half of the lower bound (LB) exposure to those PFASs with available occurrence data, the remaining contribution being primarily from PFASs with short half-lives. Equal potencies were assumed for the four PFASs included in the assessment. The mean LB exposure in adolescents and adult age groups ranged from 3 to 22, the 95th percentile from 9 to 70 ng/kg body weight (bw) per week. Toddlers and ‘other children’ showed a twofold higher exposure. Upper bound exposure was 4- to 49-fold higher than LB levels, but the latter were considered more reliable. ‘Fish meat’, ‘Fruit and fruit products’ and ‘Eggs and egg products’ contributed most to the exposure. Based on available studies in animals and humans, effects on the immune system were considered the most critical for the risk assessment. From a human study, a lowest BMDL10 of 17.5 ng/mL for the sum of the four PFASs in serum was identified for 1-year-old children. Using PBPK modelling, this serum level of 17.5 ng/mL in children was estimated to correspond to longterm maternal exposure of 0.63 ng/kg bw per day. Since accumulation over time is important, a tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 4.4 ng/kg bw per week was established. This TWI also protects against other potential adverse effects observed in humans. Based on the estimated LB exposure, but also reported serum levels, the CONTAM Panel concluded that parts of the European population exceed this TWI, which is of concern.
Perfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs) are a wide cluster of fluorinated molecules largely engaged industrially and commercially for many purposes. Because of the strength of the fluorine-carbon bond, PFASs show a firm tenacity against thermal degradation, hydrolysis, photolysis and biodegradation. On the other hand, such chemical stability gives them persistent environmental pollutant feature. In 2012, EFSA published a scientific report on PFASs in food, mentioning their adverse effects on health. Based on observational studies evidences, EFSA has recommended a tolerable daily intake (TDI) for the two most known PFASs, i.e. PFOS 150 ng/kg b.w./day and PFOA 1500 ng/kg b.w./day. The aim of this study was to monitor, for the first time, the level of contamination of PFASs in chicken eggs laid in Northern Italy. The eggs were collected from different rearing systems, in order to search a correlation between this variable and the contamination of PFASs. In this study four PFASs [perfluoro-nnonanoic acid (PFNA), perfluoro-noctanoic- acid (PFOA), sodium perfluoro-1- hexanesulfonate (PFHxS) and sodium perfluoro- 1-octanesulfonate (PFOS)] were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS). 132 eggs were analyzed, split up in 11 groups according to the geographical origin and rearing system. Results accord with literature data available for chicken eggs: almost all the samples show a PFASs contamination level under the limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.25 ng/mL. No significant difference results from the rearing system, attesting an equal distribution and a concentration of PFASs detectable under the limit of quantification.
This Guidance document describes harmonised risk assessment methodologies for combined exposure to multiple chemicals for all relevant areas within EFSA's remit, i.e. human health, animal health and ecological areas. First, a short review of the key terms, scientific basis for combined exposure risk assessment and approaches to assessing (eco)toxicology is given, including existing frameworks for these risk assessments. This background was evaluated, resulting in a harmonised framework for risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals. The framework is based on the risk assessment steps (problem formulation, exposure assessment, hazard identification and characterisation, and risk characterisation including uncertainty analysis), with tiered and stepwise approaches for both whole mixture approaches and component-based approaches. Specific considerations are given to component-based approaches including the grouping of chemicals into common assessment groups, the use of dose addition as a default assumption, approaches to integrate evidence of interactions and the refinement of assessment groups. Case studies are annexed in this guidance document to explore the feasibility and spectrum of applications of the proposed methods and approaches for human and animal health and ecological risk assessment. The Scientific Committee considers that this Guidance is fit for purpose for risk assessments of combined exposure to multiple chemicals and should be applied in all relevant areas of EFSA's work. Future work and research are recommended.
The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific evaluation on the risks to human health related to the presence of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in food. Regarding PFOS and PFOA occurrence, the final data set available for dietary exposure assessment contained a total of 20,019 analytical results (PFOS n = 10,191 and PFOA n = 9,828). There were large differences between upper and lower bound exposure due to analytical methods with insufficient sensitivity. The CONTAM Panel considered the lower bound estimates to be closer to true exposure levels. Important contributors to the lower bound mean chronic exposure were ‘Fish and other seafood’, ‘Meat and meat products’ and ‘Eggs and egg products’, for PFOS, and ‘Milk and dairy products’, ‘Drinking water’ and ‘Fish and other seafood’ for PFOA. PFOS and PFOA are readily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, excreted in urine and faeces, and do not undergo metabolism. Estimated human half‐lives for PFOS and PFOA are about 5 years and 2–4 years, respectively. The derivation of a health‐based guidance value was based on human epidemiological studies. For PFOS, the increase in serum total cholesterol in adults, and the decrease in antibody response at vaccination in children were identified as the critical effects. For PFOA, the increase in serum total cholesterol was the critical effect. Also reduced birth weight (for both compounds) and increased prevalence of high serum levels of the liver enzyme alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (for PFOA) were considered. After benchmark modelling of serum levels of PFOS and PFOA, and estimating the corresponding daily intakes, the CONTAM Panel established a tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 13 ng/kg body weight (bw) per week for PFOS and 6 ng/kg bw per week for PFOA. For both compounds, exposure of a considerable proportion of the population exceeds the proposed TWIs.
Purpose of review:
We reviewed and summarized the epidemiological evidence for the influence that pre- and postnatal exposures to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) may have on health outcomes in offspring, with a particular focus on birth outcomes and postnatal growth, immunomodulatory effects and neurodevelopment.
Recent findings:
PFASs are persistent organic pollutants that have been widely produced and used in a range of commercial products since the 1950s. Human exposures to PFASs are nearly ubiquitous globally, but studies that addressed potential health effects of PFASs have only begun to accumulate in recent years. Animal studies suggest adverse effects resulting from developmental encompasses prenatal exposures to PFASs. In humans, the developing fetus is exposed to PFASs via active or passive placenta transfer, while newborns might be exposed via breastfeeding or PFAS in the home environment. Overall, epidemiological findings are consistent and suggest possible associations with fetal and postnatal growth and immune function, while the findings on neurodevelopmental endpoints to date are rather inconclusive. Methodological challenges and future directions for PFASs-focused research are discussed.
Dietary intake is a major route of human exposure to perfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs). However, the available information on PFAS levels in food, including chicken eggs, is limited. In the present study, home produced and commercially produced eggs (organic, battery and free range eggs) were collected from the Netherlands (n = 95) and Greece (n = 76). The egg yolks were analysed for 11 PFASs by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry using isotope dilution. PFAS levels in yolk were higher in home produced eggs from the Netherlands (median 3.1, range < LOQ - 31.2 ng g(-1)) and Greece (median 1.1, range < LOQ - 15.0 ng g(-1)) compared to the eggs collected from supermarkets. In these eggs, all PFAS levels were below the LOQ of 0.5 ng g(-1), except for a small amount of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in 1 sample in each country (1.1 ng g(-1) and 0.9 ng g(-1) for the Netherlands and Greece respectively). PFOS was the predominant PFAS, making up on average 85% of ∑PFASs. The highest PFOS concentration was detected in a Dutch home produced egg sample (24.8 ng g(-1)). The contamination pattern was similar in both countries with the long-chain PFASs (C ≥ 8) being most frequently detected, while short-chain PFASs were rarely found. The most likely cause of the contamination of home produced eggs is ingestion of soil through pecking. Although regular consumption of home produced eggs will lead to an increased PFOS exposure, it is not expected that it will lead to exceedance of the tolerable daily intake established by EFSA.
This study summarises the results of the levels of 21 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in 50 selected pooled samples representing 15 food commodities with the special focus on those of animal origin, as meat, seafood, fish, milk, dairy products and hen eggs, which are commonly consumed in various European markets, e.g. Czech, Italian, Belgian and Norwegian. A new, rapid sample preparation approach based on the QuEChERS extraction procedure was applied. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) employing electrospray ionisation (ESI) in negative mode was used for the quantification of target analytes. Method quantification limits (MQLs) were in the range of 1-10 ng kg(-1) (ng l(-1)) for fish, meat, hen eggs, cheese and milk, and in the range of 2.5-125 ng kg(-1) for butter. Only 16 of the group of 21 PFASs were found in at least one analysed sample. From 16 PFASs, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) was the most frequently detected analyte present in approximately 50% of samples (in the range of 0.98-2600 ng kg(-1)). PFCAs with a C8-C14 carbon chain were presented in approximately 20% of samples. The concentration ranges of individual compounds in the respective groups of PFASs were: 2.33-76.3 ng kg(-1) for PFSAs (without PFOS), 4.99-961 ng kg(-1) for PFCAs, 10.6-95.4 ng kg(-1) for PFPAs, and 1.61-519 ng kg(-1) for FOSA. The contamination level in the analysed food commodities decreased in the following order: seafood > pig/bovine liver > freshwater/marine fish > hen egg > meat > butter. When comparing the total contamination and profiles of PFASs in food commodities that originated from various sampling countries, differences were identified, and the contents decreased as follows: Belgium > Norway, Italy > Czech Republic.
The primary aim of this article is to provide an overview of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) detected in the environment, wildlife, and humans, and recommend clear, specific, and descriptive terminology, names, and acronyms for PFASs. The overarching objective is to unify and harmonize communication on PFASs by offering terminology for use by the global scientific, regulatory, and industrial communities. A particular emphasis is placed on long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids, substances related to the long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids, and substances intended as alternatives to the use of the long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids or their precursors. First, we define PFASs, classify them into various families, and recommend a pragmatic set of common names and acronyms for both the families and their individual members. Terminology related to fluorinated polymers is an important aspect of our classification. Second, we provide a brief description of the 2 main production processes, electrochemical fluorination and telomerization, used for introducing perfluoroalkyl moieties into organic compounds, and we specify the types of byproducts (isomers and homologues) likely to arise in these processes. Third, we show how the principal families of PFASs are interrelated as industrial, environmental, or metabolic precursors or transformation products of one another. We pay particular attention to those PFASs that have the potential to be converted, by abiotic or biotic environmental processes or by human metabolism, into long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic or sulfonic acids, which are currently the focus of regulatory action. The Supplemental Data lists 42 families and subfamilies of PFASs and 268 selected individual compounds, providing recommended names and acronyms, and structural formulas, as well as Chemical Abstracts Service registry numbers.
Concentrations of perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) were measured in surface waters and sediments from the Coosa River watershed in northwest Georgia, USA, to examine their distribution downstream of a suspected source. Samples from eight sites were analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Sediments were also used in 28-d exposures with the aquatic oligochaete, Lumbriculus variegatus, to assess PFC bioaccumulation. Concentrations of PFCs in surface waters and sediments increased significantly below a land-application site (LAS) of municipal/industrial wastewater and were further elevated by unknown sources downstream. Perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs) with eight or fewer carbons were the most prominent in surface waters. Those with 10 or more carbons predominated sediment and tissue samples. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) was the major homolog in contaminated sediments and tissues. This pattern among sediment PFC concentrations was consistent among sites and reflected homolog concentrations emanating from the LAS. Concentrations of PFCs in oligochaete tissues revealed patterns similar to those observed in the respective sediments. The tendency to bioaccumulate increased with PFCA chain length and the presence of the sulfonate moiety. Biota-sediment accumulation factors indicated that short-chain PFCAs with fewer than seven carbons may be environmentally benign alternatives in aquatic ecosystems; however, sulfonates with four to seven carbons may be as likely to bioaccumulate as PFOS.
The current paper aims to present the main results of the Italian National Food Consumption Survey INRAN-SCAI 2005-06.
A cross-sectional study was performed. Households were randomly selected after geographical stratification of the national territory. Food consumption was assessed on three consecutive days through individual estimated dietary records.
Italy.
The final study sample comprised 3323 subjects (1501 males and 1822 females) aged 0.1 to 97.7 years belonging to 1329 households: fifty-two infants (0-2.9 years), 193 children (3-9.9 years), 247 teenagers (10-17.9 years), 2313 adults (18-64.9 years) and 518 elderly (65 years and above).
Participation rate was 33 %. The mean ratio of estimated energy intake to estimated BMR was 1.41 in adults. Indicators of mean and high individual consumption are presented for fifteen large categories and fifty-one subcategories of foods and beverages, in the total population and in consumers, by age and sex categories. The overall consumption of fruit and vegetables was 418 g/d. The consumption of red meat was approximately 700 g/week, expressed as raw weight. Some specific aspects of the Italian food consumption pattern were confirmed: a large contribution from bread, pasta and pizza to cereals, from olive oil to fats and from wine to alcoholic beverages.
The database obtained from the survey will be the key reference for Italian food consumption during the coming years and will be utilized for a variety of purposes including the assessment of nutrient intakes and risk analysis.
The group of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) comprises thousands of chemicals, which are used in various industrial applications and consumer products. In this study, a feeding experiment with laying hens and feed grown on a contamination site was conducted, and PFAS were analyzed in the feed and eggs to assess the transfer of PFAS into eggs. A targeted analysis of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and different sulfonamides was performed. Additionally, the total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay was modified by fully oxidizing small amounts of the samples instead of oxidizing their extracts in order to overcome potential losses during extraction. Targeted analysis showed the presence of known PFAAs and four sulfonamides in the feed and egg yolk samples. In the plant-based feed, short-chain PFAAs, methyl and ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoacetic acid (Me- and EtFOSAA), and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) were the most abundant PFAS. In the eggs, PFOS, FOSAA, and its alkylated homologues showed the highest concentrations. The TOP assay revealed the presence of substantial amounts of precursors with different chain lengths from C4 to C8. The highest relative increase of PFOA after oxidation was observed in egg yolk from the end of the exposure period (828%). The results of this study demonstrate the transfer of PFAAs and their precursors into hens' eggs and emphasize the contribution of (known and unidentified) precursors to the overall PFAS burden in edible products. The modified TOP assay approach was shown to be a powerful tool to better assess the total burden of samples with PFAS.
Regardless of the country or region of the world, poultry eggs are one of the most important components of the human diet. Nutritional value is derived from them, but chicken eggs can be contaminated with POPs. The aim of the study was to compare the impact of different types of chicken husbandry system on bioaccumulation of selected POPs. The HRGC/HRMS method was used for determination of 58 congeners of chlorinated and brominated halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons. The influence of the farm rearing system on concentration and congener profile was seen for most groups of tested contaminants, of which the eggs were a source. Human exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like compounds as a result of consumption of contaminated eggs should be a subject of concern. The occurrence of PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PBDEs, and PBDD/Fs in commonly consumed foodstuffs such as eggs supports the need for further research on environmental pollutants and for determination of exposure as the result of their occurrence in different food categories.
https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1YcHLAOM9pFxx
Here, we review present understanding of sources and trends in human exposure to poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and epidemiologic evidence for impacts on cancer, immune function, metabolic outcomes, and neurodevelopment. More than 4000 PFASs have been manufactured by humans and hundreds have been detected in environmental samples. Direct exposures due to use in products can be quickly phased out by shifts in chemical production but exposures driven by PFAS accumulation in the ocean and marine food chains and contamination of groundwater persist over long timescales. Serum concentrations of legacy PFASs in humans are declining globally but total exposures to newer PFASs and precursor compounds have not been well characterized. Human exposures to legacy PFASs from seafood and drinking water are stable or increasing in many regions, suggesting observed declines reflect phase-outs in legacy PFAS use in consumer products. Many regions globally are continuing to discover PFAS contaminated sites from aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) use, particularly next to airports and military bases. Exposures from food packaging and indoor environments are uncertain due to a rapidly changing chemical landscape where legacy PFASs have been replaced by diverse precursors and custom molecules that are difficult to detect. Multiple studies find significant associations between PFAS exposure and adverse immune outcomes in children. Dyslipidemia is the strongest metabolic outcome associated with PFAS exposure. Evidence for cancer is limited to manufacturing locations with extremely high exposures and insufficient data are available to characterize impacts of PFAS exposures on neurodevelopment. Preliminary evidence suggests significant health effects associated with exposures to emerging PFASs. Lessons learned from legacy PFASs indicate that limited data should not be used as a justification to delay risk mitigation actions for replacement PFASs.
Data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 2013-2014 for children aged 3-11 years (N = 639) were analyzed to evaluate the contribution of diet and other factors in variability associated with the observed levels of seven perfluoroalkyl acids in serum, namely, 2(N-methyl-perfluorooctane sulfonamide) acetic acid (MPAH), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDE), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perflurorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), linear isomer of PFOA (NPFOA), linear isomer of PFOS (NPFOS), and monomethyl isomer of PFOS (MPFOS). Diet accounted for a low of 18.6% of the total explained variance in the adjusted levels of NPFOA and a high of 72.3% for PFNA. Consumption of meat other than fish and poultry was associated with increased levels of NPFOS (β = 0.00035, p < 0.01) and MPFOS (β = 0.00027, p=0.02). However, consumption of fish was associated with decreased levels of PFDE (β = - 0.00058, p=0.01). Consumption of eggs was associated with higher levels of PFDE (β = 0.00105, p=0.04). Higher levels of PFHxS were associated with consumption of fruits and juices (β = 0.00019, p = 0.03). Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in indoor environments other than home was associated with 12.6% increase in the levels of NPFOA. Boys had higher adjusted geometric mean (AGM) than girls for MPAH (0.88 vs. 0.70ng/mL, p = 0.04) and NPFOS (2.73 vs. 2.27ng/mL, p = 0.04). Non-Hispanic white had higher AGMs than Hispanics for MPAH (0.15 vs. 0.07, p < 0.01), for NPFOA (1.98 vs. 1.64ng/mL, p < 0.01), and MPFOS (1.39 vs. 1.18ng/mL, p = 0.03). Non-Hispanic white also had higher AGM than non-Hispanic Asians and others for PFHxS (0.99 vs. 0.63ng/mL, p < 0.01) and NPFOA (1.98 vs. 1.53ng/mL, p < 0.01).
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) contain one or more carbon-bound hydrogens substituted by fluorine. Since the 1950s, these compounds have been used to manufacture fat- and water-resistant fabrics, paper and food containers, and to produce photographic films, firefighting foams, detergents and insecticides. The widespread use and global distribution of PFASs, have led to their accumulation in the environment. Food, particularly fish and other seafood, is considered the main route of human exposure to PFASs. Consequently, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommends that more data be collected, to build a database on the contamination levels of the individual PFASs in food, to evaluate a reliable chronic risk to the European consumers. This requires high-sensitivity analytical methods, to increase the number of quantifiable samples and, thereby, improve the credibility of exposure assessments. In this context, the aim of the present research is to develop and validate a sensitive and specific method based on high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS) analysis, to monitor the presence of 16 PFASs in Italian eels (Anguilla anguilla) from the Italian Lake Garda. The detection limits (CCα) and detection capability (CCβ) in the order of pg g(-1), the recoveries between 80 and 101% and the other validation parameters fulfilled the requirements of Commission Decision 657/2002/EC. The identification and quantification of PFASs, up to 11 in the same sample, showed a similar distribution among 90 eels. Perfluorooctane sulphonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) were the analytes more frequently found in the eel samples (94 and 82%, respectively).
Human exposure to perfluorochemicals (PFCs) has attracted mounting attention due to their potential harmful effects. Breathing, dietary intake, and drinking are believed to be the main routes for PFC entering into human body. Thus, we profiled PFC compositions and concentrations in indoor air and dust, food, and drinking water with detailed analysis of literature data published after 2010. Concentrations of PFCs in air and dust samples collected from home, office, and vehicle were outlined. The results showed that neutral PFCs (e.g., fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOHs) and perfluorooctane sulfonamide ethanols (FOSEs)) should be given attention in addition to PFOS and PFOA. We summarized PFC concentrations in various food items, including vegetables, dairy products, beverages, eggs, meat products, fish, and shellfish. We showed that humans are subject to the dietary PFC exposure mostly through fish and shellfish consumption. Concentrations of PFCs in different drinking water samples collected from various countries were analyzed. Well water and tap water contained relatively higher PFC concentrations than other types of drinking water. Furthermore, PFC contamination in drinking water was influenced by the techniques for drinking water treatment and bottle-originating pollution.
Dietary intake is considered to be a major pathway of human exposure to perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs). Chicken egg is an important contributor to the Chinese diet. In the present study, PFAAs in home produced eggs (HPEs) and commercially produced eggs (CPEs) surrounding a fluorochemical industrial park (FIP) in China were investigated. PFAAs in HPEs decreased with increasing distance from the FIP. HPEs were much more contaminated than CPEs, with PFAAs in CPEs comparable to or lower than those in HPEs from 20 km away from the FIP. PFOA concentrations in HPEs were higher than the levels of PFOA in eggs from other studies reported so far. For the first time, PFBA was reported in eggs and detected in all egg samples. PFOA and PFBA were the predominant forms in HPEs, while PFOA, PFBA and PFOS dominated in CPEs. For PFOA, estimated daily intakes (EDI) were 233 ng/kg·bw/day for adults and 657 ng/kg·bw/day for children who consume HPEs at households about 2 km away from the FIP. The EDI of PFOA for children via HPEs exceeded the reference dose value (333 ng/kg·bw/day) proposed by the Environmental Working Group.
This chapter reviews the information available on the carcinogenic potential of perfluoroalkyl acids in both animals and humans. Historically, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) have been the most widely used members of this chemical class making these the subject of the largest proportion of the reported studies. Caution needs to be exercised in projecting the biological activities of any of the chemicals in this family based on results from others. For example, considering the three chemicals for which lifetime studies in rats are available, the outcomes were different with no increase in tumors seen with perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), liver adenomas seen with PFOS, and adenomas of the liver, testis, and pancreas seen with PFOA. Mechanistic studies suggest that the liver tumors seen with PFOA reflect the activation of PPARα while the mechanism for tumor formation in the testis and pancreas is less clear. Epidemiologic studies have been reported for several levels of population exposure. Limited evidence of associations with kidney and testicular cancer has been reported in studies among community members exposed to drinking water contaminated by PFOA. Studies in workers exposed to higher levels of both PFOA and PFOS have not shown consistent evidence for an association with any specific cancer type. Studies in populations exposed to low levels of PFOA and PFOS have shown equivocal results for a variety of cancers with no consistent associations. Based on the evidence reported to date, the prospect for developing a carcinogenic outcome following exposure to PFOA and PFOS is remote. For other perfluoroalkyl acids, there is not sufficient evidence regarding their potential carcinogenicity. It should be noted that human exposures to these chemicals is currently quite low and appears to be decreasing.
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a family of persistent pollutants of anthropic origin which can reach humans mainly through diet, causing potentially dangerous effects on health. Fish and fishery products are a major source of exposure, but intra- and inter-specific contamination can be extremely variable. In the present study a single species monitoring of the presence of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), the two main compounds of the family, was performed on 140 farmed and wild caught European sea basses (Dicentrarchus labrax) from different places in the Mediterranean area. The results highlight a strong correlation between the level of contamination and the origin of fishes, if wild or farmed: on average, wild caught sea basses (PFOS: 112-12,405 ng/kg, median 1345 ng/kg; PFOA: 9–487 ng/kg, median 28 ng/kg) showed higher levels than intensively farmed sea basses (PFOS: 11–105 ng/kg, median 32 ng/kg; PFOA: 9–51 ng/kg, median 21 ng/kg). Significant differences among the various rearing systems were also observed, with extensively-farmed subjects presenting relatively higher levels of both compounds compared to intensively farmed. Moreover, a certain variability among wild fish caught from different sampling sites was observed, confirming that PFASs contamination, which reached in some cases noticeable concentrations, might be influenced by the geographical origin.
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) such as perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (PFSAs) have become virtually ubiquitous throughout the environment, and, based on laboratory studies, have known toxicological consequences. Various national and international voluntary phase-outs and restrictions on these compounds have been implemented over the last 10 to 15 years. In the present study, we examine trends (1990/1991-2010/2011) in aquatic birds (ancient murrelet, Synthliboramphus antiquus [2009 only]; Leach's storm-petrels, Oceanodroma leucorhoa; rhinoceros auklets, Cerorhinca monocerata; double-crested cormorants, Phalacrocorax auritus; and great blue herons, Ardea herodias). The PFCA, PFSA, and stable isotope (δ(15) N and δ(13) C) data collected from these species from the Pacific coast of Canada, ranging over 20 to 30 years, were used to investigate temporal changes in PFAS coupled to dietary changes. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), the dominant PFSA compound in all 4 species, increased and subsequently decreased in auklet and cormorant eggs in line with the manufacturing phase-out of PFOS and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), but concentrations continuously increased in petrel eggs and remained largely unchanged in heron eggs. Dominant PFCA compounds varied between the offshore and coastal species, with increases seen in the offshore species and little or variable changes seen in the coastal species. Little temporal change was seen in stable isotope values, indicating that diet alone is not driving observed PFAS concentrations. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;9999:1-10. © 2015 SETAC.
© 2015 SETAC.
Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and related substances have been listed in Annex B of the Stockholm Convention. The implementation requires inventories of use, stockpiles, and environmental contamination including contaminated sites and measures for (risk) reduction and phase out. In most countries monitoring capacity is not available and therefore other approaches for assessment of contaminated sites are needed. Available informations about PFOS contamination in hot spot areas and its bio-accumulation in the food webs have been merged to build up a worst-case scenario We model PFOS transfer from 1 to 100ngL(-1) range in water to extensive and free-range food producing animals, also via the spread of contaminated sludges on agriculture soils. The modeling indicates that forages represented 78% of the exposure in ruminants, while soil accounted for >80% in outdoor poultry/eggs and pigs. From the carry-over rates derived from literature, in pork liver, egg, and feral fish computed concentration falls at 101, 28 and 2.7ngg(-1), respectively, under the 1ngL(-1) PFOS scenario. Assuming a major consumption of food produced from a contaminated area, advisories on egg and fish, supported by good agriculture/farming practices could abate 75% of the human food intake. Such advisories would allow people to become resilient in a PFOS contaminated area through an empowerment of the food choices, bringing the alimentary exposure toward the current Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) of 150ngkg(-1)bodyweightd(-1) proposed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).
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Bioaccumulation of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in a restricted terrestrial food chain was investigated with the omnivorous wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) on top of the studied food chain. The levels detected are very high compared with literature as a result of the presence of fluorochemical plant in the immediate vicinity of the study area. Soil, surface water, fruits of European elder and common blackberry, invertebrates, bank vole and wood mouse were collected at two sites, e.g. Blokkersdijk, adjacent to the fluorochemical plant, and Galgenweel, a reference site 2 km further away. In wood mouse, the highest PFOS concentrations were found in the liver followed by the pancreas, lungs and kidneys, with the spleen having the lowest levels. In the liver, the concentrations ranged from 787 to 22,355 ng/g ww at Blokkersdijk and these were significantly correlated with those detected in the kidneys (13.7-4,226 ng/g ww). If current results are compared to the findings of a previous study conducted in 2002 at the same sites, a significant decrease of PFOS in livers of wood mouse is observed. To the best of our knowledge, so far no studies reported levels of PFOS in terrestrial invertebrates under field conditions. At Blokkersdijk, PFOS was detected in all invertebrate species ranging from 28 to 9,000 ng/g. Soil and water were also contaminated with levels of respectively 68 ng/g and 22 ng/L. Biota-to-soil accumulation factors ranged from 0.11 to 68 for earthworms. Biomagnification factors (BMFs) of liver wood mouse/berries were as high as 302. BMFs for invertebrates were remarkably lower (up to 2).
Aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF) are used to extinguish hydrocarbon fuel fires. Certain AFFF products such as 3M Lightwater contain perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) as the active ingredient which is highly persistent in the environment and is thus globally prevalent. With thousands of tons of soils potentially contaminated with PFOS stockpiled at a number of sites in Australia, the lack of reliable information on bioavailability of this recalcitrant contaminant constrains the application of a risk-based strategy for managing such soils. In this study, the PFOS release pattern from soils collected from the contaminated sites of fire training areas and its bioaccumulation potential in earthworm were investigated. The study was conducted at two temperatures (25 and 37 °C) and 60 % of the maximum water-holding capacity of soils. The greatest release into water was found to occur from the soil having the highest PFOS concentration, 16.17 μg g(-1) (Tindal FTA064), thereby demonstrating the role of contaminant loading on release behaviour. The release could also be related to the soil physico-chemical properties. The maximum amount of PFOS was desorbed from the soil with the lowest clay and organic matter content. Bioaccumulation of PFOS in earthworms (Eisensia fetida) as expressed by the bioaccumulation factor (BAF) was found to be highest from soil with the lowest PFOS concentration (RBD soil). The range of BAF found in our study was 1.23 (spiked Tindal SS01 soil) to 13.9 (field contaminated RBD soil). Our study suggests that PFOS could indeed pose a potential risk to ecological safety of soil if present even at concentrations as low as 0.8 μg g(-1) since the highest bioaccumulation factor was found to be from such a soil (field contaminated RBD).
Despite the health risks associated with perfluorinated compounds (PFC) exposure and the detection of these compounds in many countries around the world, little is known on their occurrence in Italy. The results of a study on levels of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), analysed by HPLC-ESI-MS, in human milk and food samples from the city of Siena and its province (central Italy) are here reported. PFOS was found in 13 out of 49 breast milk samples (0.76±1.27ng/g), while PFOA was detected in one sample (8.04ng/g). Only PFOS was found in food samples. Fish were the most contaminated samples (7.65±34.2ng/g); mean concentrations in meat and milk and dairy products were similar (1.43±7.21ng/g and 1.35±3.45ng/g, respectively). In all cereal-based food, eggs, vegetables, honey and beverages PFOS concentration was <LOD. These data show that consumption of most breast milk analysed would not result in children exceeding their total daily intakes for perfluorinated compounds.
The sorption of anionic perfluorochemical (PFC) surfactants of varying chain lengths to sediments was investigated using natural sediments of varying iron oxide and organic carbon content. Three classes of PFC surfactants were evaluated for sorptive potential: perfluorocarboxylates, perfluorosulfonates, and perfluorooctyl sulfonamide acetic acids. PFC surfactant sorption was influenced by both sediment-specific and solution-specific parameters. Sediment organic carbon, rather than sediment iron oxide content, was the dominant sediment-parameter affecting sorption, indicating the importance of hydrophobic interactions. However, sorption also increased with increasing solution [Ca2+] and decreasing pH, suggesting that electrostatic interactions play a role. Perfluorocarbon chain length was the dominant structural feature influencing sorption, with each CF2 moiety contributing 0.50-0.60 log units to the measured distribution coefficients. The sulfonate moiety contributed an additional 0.23 log units to the measured distribution coefficient, when compared to carboxylate analogs. In addition, the perfluorooctyl sulfonamide acetic acids demonstrated substantially stronger sorption than perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). These data should prove useful for modeling the environmental fate of this class of contaminants.
Regulation (EU) 2019/1021 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on persistent organic pollutants
- European Parliament and Council
Screening of Polyfluorinated Organic Compounds at Four Fire Training Facilities in Norway; Nowegian Pollution Control Authority; Document Number TA-2444
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- European Efsa
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- European Efsa
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Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2020/784 of 8 April 2020 amending Annex I to Regulation (EU) 2019/1021 of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards the listing of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), its salts and PFOA-related compounds
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April 2020 amending Annex I to Regulation (EU) 2019/1021 of the European
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Regulation (EU) 2019/1021 of the European Parliament
- European Parliament
- Council
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Perfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs) in home and commercially produced chicken eggs from the Netherlands and Greece
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