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Abstract

Plastics are ubiquitously used by societies, but most of the plastic waste is deposited in landfills and in the natural environment. Their degradation into submillimetre fragments, called microplastics, is a growing concern due to potential adverse effects on the environment and human health. Microplastics are present in the air and may be inhaled by humans, but whether they have deleterious effects on the respiratory system remain unknown. In this study, we determined the presence of microplastics in human lung tissues obtained at autopsies. Polymeric particles (n =33) and fibres (n=4) were observed in 13 of 20 tissue samples. All polymeric particles were smaller than 5.5 µm in size, and fibres ranged from 8.12 to 16.8 µm. The most frequently determined polymers were polyethylene and polypropylene. Deleterious health outcomes may be related to the heterogeneous characteristics of these contaminants in the respiratory system following inhalation.

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... Increasing evidence of MPFs in the atmosphere has recently been reported. Flying inhaled MFs can be deposited in the lung tissue [66] and may lead to tumours. According to Cole [47], nanoscopic and microscopic fibrous materials can be carcinogenic and fibrotic, whereas particles with the same content are comparatively benign. ...
... Studies [143][144][145] have revealed that most airborne fibres are smaller than 1000 μm, creating potential inhalation hazards. Recent research indicates that atmospheric microfibres can cause respiratory issues and have been detected in human lung tissues [66]. ...
... Several studies have shown that regular and prolonged exposures can cause respiratory inflammation, pulmonary fibrosis, and cancer [31]. Evidence of inhalation in a few studies has also found that human lung tissues contain MPs/MFs [66,159]. There is also growing evidence of MPs/MFs being identified in different parts of humans and animals, such as the placenta [65], stool [160,161], liver [162], and blood [163]. ...
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The textile industry faces challenges caused by microplastic fibre (MPF) pollution. Urgent measures and interventions are needed to mitigate the release of MPFs throughout the textile lifecycle. Obstacles arise when implementing action plans that impede stakeholders from taking the appropriate steps. Standardised test methodologies to support the control of release are still in their infancy for application in the broader industry. The contribution of domestic and industrial wastewater to microfibre pollution is ambiguous, so considering natural fibres alongside synthetic alternatives has amplified the complexity. Instead of awaiting perfect solutions, the industry should prioritise implementing effective mitigation strategies without delay, including raising public awareness, fostering collaboration, integrating policies, improving wastewater treatment infrastructure, and supporting technological advancement. Selected sustainability initiatives that align with this agenda are utilised to generate insights and expedite actions.
... and their toxicity to the human body. The disposed plastic wastes go through photodegradation, physical degradation, and fragmentation to form MPs. The existence of MPs in the brain, heart, lung, liver, kidney, pancreas, and testis was reported recently [6][7][8][9]12]. ...
... The summary of the MPs' generation from the environment and its effect on environmental sources and their effects on human health were related to toxicology research papers as cited [6][7][8][9]12]. The MP's cellular toxicity was discussed in the section. ...
... Microplastics (MPs) have been identified in 15 different parts of the human body, with varying concentrations in specific areas, including the lungs [7], liver [8], and placenta. This suggests that MPs not only traverse the food chain but also have the potential to accumulate within the human body [6,9,12]. ...
Article
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The long-term and excessive utilization of plastic significantly contribute to environmental degradation and potential contamination. Notably, plastic undergoes various degradation processes, including photodegradation, thermo-oxidative degradation, and mechanical fragmentation, ultimately resulting in the generation of microplastics (MPs). Recent studies pointed out that MPs could accumulate in multiple human organs, such as the lungs, liver, and pancreas, leading to oxidative stress and cellular toxicity. Our investigation with indicators such as GDP, education, pricing, and cultural attitudes revealed that price as the predominant factor influencing the recycling of plastic bags. We analyzed the relationship between price and recycling rates through a linear regression model with the R packages broom and dplyr, which aims to inform the formulation of new regulatory measures designed to enhance plastic reuse and plastic waste mitigation.
... MNPLs (micro-and nanoplastics) can be detected analytically throughout the environment, including both terrestrial and marine environments, and humans may be exposed to MNPLs [7,16]. Recently, MPs have been reported in human stool samples and colon, intestine, and various other tissues [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. Human exposure to MNPLs may occur through the ingestion of food or drinking water [5,8,33] and via the inhalation of indoor and outdoor air [1,5,34]. ...
... Health 2020, 17,1509. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051509. Figure A2. ...
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With the rise in global plastic production and the presence of plastic waste in the environment, microplastics are considered an emerging environmental contaminant. Human exposure and the impact of microplastics on human health are not well studied. Recent studies have observed the presence of microplastics in human tissues and several studies have noted toxicity in in vitro and in vivo mammalian models. We examined the impact of polystyrene nano- and microplastics in increasingly complex intestinal cell models. Using an undifferentiated Caco-2 mono-culture model, we assessed particle association, cytotoxicity, and particle clearance/retention, whereas in differentiated mono- and tri-culture transwell models, we assessed membrane integrity and particle translocation. Only 50 nm and 500 nm particles were internalized in the undifferentiated cells; however, no signs of cellular toxicity were observed at any concentrations tested. Additionally, polystyrene particles had no impact on barrier integrity, but the 50 nm particles were able to cross to the basolateral side, albeit attenuated in the tri-culture model that had a mucus layer. This study reduced some of the variability common to MNPL testing across various in vitro models, but further testing is needed to fully understand the potential effects of human MNPL exposure.
... Some studies have pointed out that Shanghai citizens absorb about 21 microplastic particles per day from the outdoor environment (Liu et al., 2019). In addition, previous studies have also found microplastic particles in human lung tissue (Amato-Lourenço et al., 2021) and in the lower respiratory tract (Baeza-Martínez et al., 2022). Therefore, it is urgent to further explore the distribution and potential ecological risk of AMPs. ...
Article
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The sources of atmospheric microplastics (AMPs) are complex and widely distributed. Microplastic pollution is particularly severe in urban areas. In this study, the abundance of AMPs was investigated at ten representative sampling points, with three points at an experimental building, and seven sample points at a residential district, an industrial area, a park, a farmland, a roadside, a river, and a seaside, respectively. The results show that the average abundance of AMPs is 2.22 n/m³, with a range from 1.31 to 4.5 n/m³. Human activities significantly contribute to the release of MPs. Furthermore, the abundance of AMPs decreases with increasing altitude. The predominant colors of AMPs are black and transparent, and particle sizes predominantly range from 50 to 200 µm. The micro-Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (µ-FTIR) analysis indicates that AMPs are primarily composed of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), with fibrous shapes being predominant. In the principal component analysis (PCA), it was observed that AMPs exhibit a positive correlation with temperature and a negative correlation with humidity. This research may shed new light on future policy-making in microplastic control.
... Over the last half-century, there has been a staggering increase in the production, utilization, and disposal of plastic. Microplastics have emerged as a pervasive pollutant, detected in locations as diverse as remote Arctic ice, the deepest ocean trenches, and even human lung tissue [1][2][3]. Micro (<5 mm) and nano (<1 µm) plastics enter the environment via (i) direct primary anthropogenic sources, or (ii) secondary generation via environmental weathering [4]. Tire rubber particles (TPs) constitute a substantial source of irregularly shaped micro/nanoplastic pollution, detected in all environmental compartments including air, soil, freshwater, and marine ecosystems [5,6]. ...
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Rubber materials enter aquatic environments by stormwater runoff via sources such as playground mulch, athletic fields, and roadway surfaces. Tire rubbers are considered plastics as they comprise a substantial portion of synthetic polymers. Rubber particles are complex and variable depending on the type, source, and age of rubber. In this study, zebrafish embryos and daphnids were exposed to nano-scale or micro-scale particles, or leachate from recycled rubber (RR), crumb rubber (CR), and cryo-milled tire tread (CMTT). Zebrafish embryos were evaluated for lethal and sub-lethal effects over a 120 h exposure, while daphnids were tested over a 48 h period. Nano-scale RR, CR, and CMTT particles elicited a hatch delay in zebrafish embryos with similar EC50 values (1.3 × 109–1.4 × 109 particles/mL). Micro-scale particles did not elicit any significant effects in developing zebrafish. Nano-scale particles of all rubber materials significantly increased hatch delay compared to leachate, suggesting an adverse nanoparticle effect unexplained by chemical leaching alone, indicating tire particle-specific effects. Daphnia RR micro- and nanoparticle exposures resulted in mortality, with LC50 values of 9.8 × 105 microparticles/mL and 5.0 × 108 nanoparticles/mL, respectively. Leachate exposures did not elicit significant Daphnia mortality. Sublethal micro- and nano-TP exposures significantly decreased microalgae ingestion by Daphnia after 24 h. The effects of tire-derived exposures observed pose a risk to aquatic organism survival at environmentally relevant concentrations.
... Detection of the MP poses a significant challenge due to their small size, and studies should be conducted rigorously to avoid misleading conclusions and ensure accurate assessment of potential impacts (Shumway et al. 2023). However, MP continues to be discovered from almost everywhere in the world from Arctic to Antarctica, table salt to drinking water, eggs to marine crabs, infant food mixes to beer, and human lungs to breastmilk (Bergmann et al. 2023;Jiang 2018;Karbalaei et al. 2018;Ragusa et al. 2021Ragusa et al. , 2022Lim 2021;Amato-Lourenço et al. 2021;Liu et al. 2023Liu et al. , 2022Qian et al. 2024;Li et al. 2022a, b;Rabari et al. 2023;Zhang et al. 2023). ...
Article
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Seaweeds contribute to the energy input in marine communities and affect the chemical makeup, species composition, nutrient availability, pH, and seawater oxygen levels. However, the annual introduction of 28.5 million tons of plastic waste into oceans makes up 85% of marine litter, which is expected to grow fourfold in the next 25 years, causing a rise in concern for human health and the environment. Microplastics are small plastic particles of 1–5 mm that are either manufactured or formed due to the degradation of large plastic materials. This study analyzes the prevalence of microplastics in marine environments, their interaction with marine macro- and microalgae, environmental implications, genetic responses to microplastic exposure, and potential strategies for mitigating microplastic pollution. The leading causes identified were high plastic production rate (390 million tons annually), increased usage, inefficient waste management, meager recycling (9% is recycled), slow degradation (up to 1200 years), easy distribution via oceanic currents, and industrialization that has led to the accumulation of microplastics in the marine ecosystems. Therefore, it is recommended that the waste management system be strengthened, focusing on recycling, repurposing, reducing single-use plastics, and redirecting plastic waste away from water bodies. Developing reliable detection technologies, studying the long-term effects of microplastics in marine ecosystems, and collaborating with the public and private sectors may be encouraged. Further investigations on microplastic-seaweed interaction, the bioremediation potential of various species, and the involved molecular mechanisms may lead to new strategies for reducing microplastic loads in marine ecosystems.
... Environmental MPs can affect the human body through the food chain, which has been demonstrated in various studies (Mercogliano, 2020;Lehel and Murphy, 2021;van Raamsdonk, 2020). MPs have been detected in various organs and body fluids of the human body, including the heart, lungs, placenta, blood, and milk (Amato-Lourenco, 2021;Leslie, 2022;Ragusa, 2022;Ragusa, 2021;Leonard et al., 2024;Yang, 2023). As the use of plastic increases, the amount of MPs produced in the environment is expected to increase, which may negatively impact human health. ...
... There is considerable evidence that reported the presence of microplastics in fish which finds its way directly to human through fish consumption and raises concern over public health risks. The presence of microplastics have been reported in various human samples, including blood, breast milk, urine , faecal matter (Lehner et al., 2019), and human lung tissues (Amato-Lourenço et al., 2021). In the Northeastern region of India, about 90% of population consumed fish thereby posing direct or indirect risks to human health (Makhdoumi et al., 2023;Singh et al., 2017). ...
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In the present study, the occurrence of MPs in herbivore, omnivore and carnivore fishes has been evaluated from beel, a freshwater wetland. A total of 90 fishes were collected and MPs detected in all the samples. Glossogobius giuris, a carnivorous fish had the highest number of MP mean abundance of 5.50 ± 0.60 numbers per individual. Carnivorous fishes exhibited the highest number of average MP abundance compared to omnivorous and herbivorous fishes. Fibre-shaped MPs were most abundantly found. Smaller MPs in the size range of 100-500µm were dominant and transparent MPs followed by blue colored MPs were mostly found. The predominant polymer was polyethylene in the case of carnivores followed by omnivore while Nylon was mostly found in omnivores. A positive relationship was found between the trophic levels and MPs abundance which indicates that MPs may transfer along the food chain and accumulate in higher trophic levels.
... Microplastic particles in the air may enter the lungs through breathing and be deposited in the lungs [46][47][48]. Long-term exposure to high concentrations of microplastic particles may cause damage to lung cells, which in turn increases the risk of lung cancer. ...
Article
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Microplastics, as an emerging environmental pollutant, have received widespread attention for their potential impact on ecosystems and human health. Microplastics are defined as plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in diameter and can be categorized as primary and secondary microplastics. Primary microplastics usually originate directly from industrial production, while secondary microplastics are formed by the degradation of larger plastic items. Microplastics are capable of triggering cytotoxicity and chronic inflammation, and may promote cancer through mechanisms such as pro-inflammatory responses, oxidative stress and endocrine disruption. In addition, improved microplastics bring new perspectives to cancer therapy, and studies of microplastics as drug carriers are underway, showing potential for high targeting and bioavailability. Although current studies suggest an association between microplastics and certain cancers (e.g., lung, liver, and breast cancers), the long-term effects and specific mechanisms still need to be studied. This review aimed at exploring the carcinogenicity of microplastics and their promising applications in cancer therapy provides important directions for future research and emphasizes the need for multidisciplinary collaboration to address this global health challenge.
... These MPs, due to their small size (1μm to 5mm) and various physical properties (Lawrie et al., 2009;Niari et al., 2023), may penetrate deeper lung regions, exerting mechanical effects on respiratory tissues (Shahsavaripour et al., 2023;Torres-Agullo et al., 2023). Some studies suggest that MPs may be induced in respiratory cells and tissues, altering cellular processes (Amato-Lourenço et al., 2021;Goodman et al., 2021;Niari et al., 2024a;Vattanasit et al., 2023). Additionally, these particles may induce inflammatory reactions in the lungs upon entry into the respiratory system, potentially leading to respiratory issues (Méndez Rodríguez et al., 2023;Shahsavaripour et al., 2023;Soo et al., 2023). ...
Article
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Face masks serve as protective measures against pathogens and environmental pollutants. However, microplastic and phthalate pollutants present in the structure of masks may enter the nasal passages, potentially leading to health issues. In this study, we quantified microplastics and phthalate acid esters in masks used by hospital employees in various departments and in the nasal lavage fluid of these personnel before and after mask use. There were 200 participants, and the number of used masks was 160. The results indicated that the highest levels of microplastics (861.21 MP/mask) and Σ phthalate acid esters (3578.99ng/mL) were found in used masks from the laboratory. The amount of microplastics and phthalate acid esters in both masks and nasal lavage samples in the hospital departments were ranked as Laboratory > Physiotherapy > Emergency > Endoscopy. In nasal lavage samples, the amounts of these two pollutants decreased after mask use compared to the no-mask condition. Among the target phthalate acid esters, DEHP was the most prevalent in all mask and nasal lavage samples. These findings can be used for health risk assessment purposes.
... Once inhaled, the human respiratory system attempts to combat these particles using mechanisms such as mucociliary clearance; however, smaller particles are more likely to evade these defenses [24]. Studies have detected trace amounts of MPs throughout the respiratory system, along with inflammation associated with the inhalation of these particles, highlighting this as a potential route of exposure [8,33,34]. ...
Article
Micro- and nano-particles (MNPs) are man-made pollutants in the environment that have come about because of the breaking down of larger plastics. They are usually ingested or taken in through inhalation and skin exposure and often end up in tissues like the lungs, liver, and blood. Recent evidence suggests that they might also be instrumental in developing CVD, which includes promoting thrombosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and impairment in lipid metabolism. This review evaluates the available peer-reviewed literature related to the cardiovascular effects of MNPs with special emphasis on effects in humans, animals, and cellular models. Through contaminated food, airborne particles, or any other environmental means, MNPs enter the human body evidence, indicating that they reach the cardiovascular system. They cause cardiovascular injury through endothelial damage and detrimental effects to mitochondria in addition to altering lipid metabolism leading to the diseases of thrombosis, myocardial fibrosis, and plaque formation. It can activate platelets, unbalance coagulation, and damage blood vessels through inflammatory processes and signaling pathways like JAK1STAT3TF. Moreover, MNPs could alter gut microbiota leading to systemic inflammation and metabolic disturbances that ultimately affect cardiovascular health. MNPs are connected to aging and poor development of the fetal heart, as well as maternal cardiotoxicity. MNPs are associated with several cardiovascular conditions, including atherosclerosis, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, arrhythmias, and vascular dysfunction, suggesting extensive involvement in endothelial damage and compromised blood vessel integrity. Whereas MNPs are associated with cardiovascular risks, causation remains unproven, requiring much more research in humans.
... Studies have documented effects on vital organ systems, including the circulatory, nervous, digestive, respiratory, and reproductive systems [137,138]. Notably, the digestive and respiratory systems are primary exposure routes, leading to direct and potentially substantial impacts [22,139]. Following entry into the body, MPs can migrate into the circulatory system, dispersing to other organs and causing widespread effects [32]. ...
Article
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As the production, usage, and disposal of plastics increase, the microplastics generated—plastic particles smaller than 5 mm—increases, exacerbating environmental pollution. In turn, various organisms become increasingly exposed to contaminated environments, potentially affecting humans through the food chain. Crucial findings from in vivo experiments indicate histopathological changes caused by microplastics impact the morphology and physiological function of organisms. This study describes the histopathological changes induced by microplastics across the circulatory, nervous, digestive, respiratory, and reproductive systems and explains associated functional alterations. Except in the nervous system, the main morphological changes involve degenerative changes throughout the body, such as apoptosis, inflammation, and fibrosis. Most changes were induced by inflammatory responses to microplastics, leading to fibrosis and subsequent functional impairments. Various studies confirm that microplastics stimulate cells, leading to increased reactive oxygen species production, inflammation, and cell death. Consequently, these morphological changes impair related systemic functions. This review highlights fundamental morphological changes in organs and cells due to microplastics and discusses the limitations involving systems showing no changes.
... The presence of MPs in human breast milk analyzed using Raman spectroscopy implied the presence of MPs in 26 samples out of 34 containing polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, and polypropylene in a size range of 2-12µm [110]. Humans are exposed to MPs through a wide range of sources; the presence of MPs in the human lungs was analyzed using µFTIR spectroscopy revealed the presence of MPs in size range of 5µm mainly comprising polyethylene and polypropylene [111]. Treating human keratinocytes with NPs from face masks (cosmetics) suggested the internalization of NPs into the keratinocytes [100]. ...
Article
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Graphical Abstract TIJER || ISSN 2349-9249 || © June 2023 Volume 10, Issue 6 || www.tijer.org TIJER2306291 TIJER-INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL www.tijer.org 419 Abstract COVID-19 played a pivotal role in enhancing the accumulation of plastic in the surrounding and marine. The plastics in the bountiful amount of used and discarded Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) get disintegrated into microplastics (MP); microplastics are either accreted in the Arctic (temporary sink of MP)-affecting the formation of ice, inducing the melting of ice and climatic change, or ingested by fauna-makes its way to the next trophic level and causes survival risk in the fauna. The microplastic internalization pathways by the cell depend upon the nature of the cell and the size of the microplastics; the internalized microplastics induce or inhibit the expression of genes involved in apoptosis, mitochondrial damage, ROS generation, and inflammation. The ability of microplastics to cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, defective reproductive system, neuronal toxicity, and other metabolic disorders has been investigated in various organisms. Traces of the microplastic in different human samples have been analyzed. The manufacture of plastic is more cost-efficient than recycling (it requires fossil fuel); therefore, upcycling them is preferred. Recent research suggests various ways of plastics upcycling (utilizing waste plastics to manufacture a new product) like-thermal and sound insulation, building concrete, and manufacturing carbon nanotubules and waste plastic fuel. Bioremediation is the platform of recent scientific endeavors to degrade plastics.
... Smaller microplastics, due to their higher surface area-to-volume ratio, may be more harmful as they can penetrate cells and tissues more readily. 74 The urgent need for more comprehensive studies is evident as these findings suggest significant implications for public health. ...
Article
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This review examines the widespread problem of microplastic pollution by exploring where it comes from, how it is distributed in the environment, its impact on ecosystems and human health, as well as recent advancements made in detecting and removing it. The discussion includes a focus on the distinct distributions of microplastics across marine, terrestrial, and freshwater systems, detailing their varying concentrations and the long-term implications for ecosystem functionality and biodiversity. It details how microplastics originate from consumer products and the breakdown of larger plastics that permeate marine, terrestrial, and urban environments and highlights how they enter food webs, thus endangering wildlife and humans. The review also considers the global regulations against microplastic pollution and the technological innovations used to reduce its presence. It also explores the socioeconomic impacts on industries reliant on marine resources and the innovative solutions for microplastic mitigation, including biodegradable plastics and circular economy approaches. The paper underscores the need for strong policy frameworks supported by international cooperation, calling for urgent action to address the ecological and health risks posed by microplastics. It emphasizes the critical role played by interdisciplinary research and innovative solutions in tackling this environmental threat.
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Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from urban areas may be modified by structural (e.g., airway anatomy) and functional (e.g., ventilatory pattern) sex-related physiological differences during exercise, resulting in greater PM2.5 deposition in females versus males. Beyond the total PM2.5 deposition, further insights concerning regional differences in PM2.5 deposition are needed to understand females’ hyperresponsiveness to PM2.5. Thus, a modelling-based analysis of structural and functional characteristics of PM2.5 deposition in the human respiratory tract was conducted simulating an urban cycle commute of 30 minutes. Two scenarios were considered to estimate the PM2.5 deposition: 1) greater minute ventilations in females versus males (p < 0.001); and 2) minute ventilations matched between males and females (p = 0.710). We found that females experience 51.32% and 0.62% greater total PM2.5 deposition for Scenarios 1 and 2, respectively (both p < 0.001). Regardless of total minute ventilation, there was greater PM2.5 deposition into the bronchiolar and alveolar region in females compared to males (p < 0.001 for both). These data indicate a greater likelihood of bronchial hyperresponsiveness in females compared with males when exposed to PM2.5 while cycle commuting in urban areas.
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The environmental pollutant Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is commonly found in the environment, with microplastics (MPs) acting as the primary carriers of BaP into living organisms, increasing its availability in the body. However, the specific pathways and mechanisms through which MPs carrying pollutants cause kidney damage are not fully understood. This study aimed to investigate the routes and mechanisms of kidney injury in mice to low concentrations of both MPs and BaP. The combination of polystyrene (PS) and BaP disrupted lipid metabolism in the kidneys, leading to a form of cell death known as ferroptosis. However, this effect was not observed in HK-2 cells in vitro, indicating a cell-specific response. Interestingly, in HIEC-6 cells, both PS and BaP directly induced ferroptosis. These findings confirm that exposure to both PS and BaP can disrupt metabolic homeostasis in the kidneys, contributing to kidney dysfunction and cell death.
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Influent, final effluent, biosolids, ultrafiltration membrane module inflow and outflow samples were collected in a tertiary wastewater treatment plant to enumerate and categorize anthropogenic particles, including microplastics in the 250 µm-5 mm size fraction. Samples were digested with 50% hydrogen peroxide, filtered, and examined via microscopy at 40-50x magnification. Most (99%) anthropogenic particles were present in biosolids compared to final effluent (<1%), with fibres numerically dominating influent and final effluent, and fragments dominating biosolids and ultrafiltration inflow and outflow. Assessment of ultrafiltration (pore size = 0.02 µm) inflow and outflow before and after membrane deep cleaning and repair revealed high variability in source abundance and a general, yet non-significant reduction in particle counts in module permeate over 20 weeks. Removal techniques require assessment to explore effective options to mitigate the potential impacts, particularly to freshwater environments, of anthropogenic microparticle release. Our data reveal the utility of quantification and removal options for anthropogenic particles in wastewater treatment plants as they are conduits between municipal and industrial wastewater sources and freshwater and terrestrial receiving environments.
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As a new type of pollutant, the harm caused by microplastics (MPs) to organisms has been the research focus. Recently, the proportion of MPs ingested through the digestive tract has gradually increased with the popularity of fast-food products, such as takeout. The damage to the digestive system has attracted increasing attention. We reviewed the literature regarding toxicity of MPs and observed that they have different effects on multiple organs of the digestive system. The mechanism may be related to the toxic effects of MPs themselves, interactions with various substances in the biological body, and participation in various signaling pathways to induce adverse reactions as a carrier of toxins to increase the time and amount of body absorption. Based on the toxicity mechanism of MPs, we propose specific suggestions to provide a theoretical reference for the government and relevant departments.
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Microplastics (MPs) are produced from various primary and secondary sources and pose multifaceted environmental problems. They are of non-biodegradable nature and may stay in aquatic environments for a long time period. The present review has covered novel aspects pertaining to MPs that were not covered in earlier studies. It has been observed that several methods are being employed for samples collection, extraction and identification of MPs and polymer types using various equipment, chemicals and instrumental techniques. Aquatic species mistakenly ingest MPs, considering them prey and through food-chain, and then suffer from various metabolic disorders. The consumption of seafood and fish may consequently cause health implications in humans. Certain plasticizers are added during manufacturing to provide colour, durability, flexibility, and strength to plastics, but they leach out during usage, storage, and transport, as well as after entering the bodies of aquatic species and human beings. The leached chemicals (bisphenol-A, triclosan, phthalates, etc.) act as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which effect on homeostasis; thereby causing neurotoxicity, cytotoxicity, reproductive problems, adverse behaviour and autism. Negative influence of MPs on carbon sequestration potential of water bodies is also observed, however more studies are required to understand it with a detail mechanism under natural conditions. The wastewater treatment plants are found to remove a large amount of MPs, but in turn, also act as significant sources of their release in sludge and effluents. Further, it is covered that how advanced oxidation processes, thermal- and photo-oxidation, fungi, algae and microbes degrade the plastics and increase their numbers in the surrounding environment. The management strategy comprising recovery of energy and other valuable by-products from plastic wastes, recycling and regulatory framework; are also described in detail. The future perspectives can be of paramount importance to control MPs generation and their abundance in the aquatic and other types of environments. The studies in future need to focus on advanced filtration techniques, advanced oxidation processes, energy recovery from plastic wastes and influences of MPs on carbon sequestration in aquatic environment and human health.
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Human health is being threatened by environmental microplastic (MP) pollution. MPs were detected in the bloodstream and multiple tissues of humans, disrupting the regular physiological processes of organs. Nanoscale plastics can breach the blood-brain barrier, leading to neurotoxic effects. How MPs cause brain functional irregularities remains unclear. This work uses high-depth imaging techniques to investigate the MPs within the brain in vivo. We show that circulating MPs are phagocytosed and lead these cells to obstruction in the capillaries of the brain cortex. These blockages as thrombus formation cause reduced blood flow and neurological abnormalities in mice. Our data reveal a mechanism by which MPs disrupt tissue function indirectly through regulation of cell obstruction and interference with local blood circulation, rather than direct tissue penetration. This revelation offers a lens through which to comprehend the toxicological implications of MPs that invade the bloodstream.
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Plastic pollution, particularly from microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), has become a critical environmental and health concern due to their widespread distribution, persistence, and potential toxicity. MPs and NPs originate from primary sources, such as cosmetic microspheres or synthetic fibers, and secondary fragmentation of larger plastics through environmental degradation. These particles, typically less than 5 mm, are found globally, from deep seabeds to human tissues, and are known to adsorb and release harmful pollutants, exacerbating ecological and health risks. Effective detection and quantification of MPs and NPs are essential for understanding and mitigating their impacts. Current analytical methods include physical and chemical techniques. Physical methods, such as optical and electron microscopy, provide morphological details but often lack specificity and are time-intensive. Chemical analyses, such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy, offer molecular specificity but face challenges with smaller particle sizes and complex matrices. Thermal analytical methods, including pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), provide compositional insights but are destructive and limited in morphological analysis. Emerging (bio)sensing technologies show promise in addressing these challenges. Electrochemical biosensors offer cost-effective, portable, and sensitive platforms, leveraging principles such as voltammetry and impedance to detect MPs and their adsorbed pollutants. Plasmonic techniques, including surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), provide high sensitivity and specificity through nanostructure-enhanced detection. Fluorescent biosensors utilizing microbial or enzymatic elements enable the real-time monitoring of plastic degradation products, such as terephthalic acid from polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Advancements in these innovative approaches pave the way for more accurate, scalable, and environmentally compatible detection solutions, contributing to improved monitoring and remediation strategies. This review highlights the potential of biosensors as advanced analytical methods, including a section on prospects that address the challenges that could lead to significant advancements in environmental monitoring, highlighting the necessity of testing the new sensing developments under real conditions (composition/matrix of the samples), which are often overlooked, as well as the study of peptides as a novel recognition element in microplastic sensing.
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The indiscriminate use of plastic products and their inappropriate management and disposal contribute to the increasing presence and accumulation of this material in all environmental zones. The chemical properties of plastics and their resistance to natural degradation lead over time to the production of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics, which are dispersed in soil, water, and air and can be absorbed by plants, including those grown for food. In agriculture, MPs can come from many sources (mulch film, tractor tires, compost, fertilizers, and pesticides). The possible effects of this type of pollution on living organisms, especially humans, increase the need to carry out studies to assess occupational exposure in agriculture. It would also be desirable to promote alternative materials to plastic and sustainable agronomic practices to protect the safety and health of agricultural workers.
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Chapter
Macrophages are key players of the biological response to implanted biomaterials, in the process of biomaterial-tissue integration and on the subsequent tissue repair. Macrophages are remarkable plastic cells that can shift from one phenotype to another. In tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, after implantation of a biomaterial or biomedical device, it is desirable to have control over the M1–M2 phenotype progression and to ensure a timely and smooth transition from the inflammatory to the healing stage. As such, several immunomodulatory strategies, focused on the macrophage, have been developed in an attempt to modulate immune responses that include different approaches such as the modification of the chemical or physical properties of the materials, the combination of bioactive molecules that can be antiinflammatory drugs, pro-resolution mediators, or growth factors, and cell therapy methods either by including immune cells or by inducing their recruitment.
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Raman spectroscopy can be used to effectively analyze submicron- to microsized microplastics, but Raman spectra of weathered microplastics commonly show deviations from those of unweathered microplastics and are often affected by fluorescence. However, studies of weathering-induced surface changes in microplastics have been limited to laboratory simulations. To systematically study Raman spectra and surface changes of microplastics weathered under natural environments, we collected microplastics from sediments around waste plastics processing and recycling industries in Laizhou City, Shandong Province, East China. Raman spectra of weathered microplastics differ greatly from standard spectra of unweathered plastic material. Peaks in the Raman spectra of weathered microplastics are weakened and even invisible. A preliminary Raman database of weathered microplastics (RDWP) including 124 Raman spectra of weathered microplastics was built to accurately identify microplastics in natural environments, and it is open to all users. FTIR spectroscopy revealed the presence of oxygen-containing functional groups and CC bonds related to oxidation and chain scission. SEM showed that weathered microplastics had rough surfaces and that PP was more easily fractured than PE. Complementary C and O elemental maps suggested that the O/C ratio is a potential indicator of oxidation degree. EDS revealed titanium on PET and PVC surfaces, which is related to titanium dioxide typically used as a light-blocking aid. Our data document that Raman spectroscopy has great potential in the identification of naturally weathered microplastics and that combined spectral and elemental analyses can be useful in deciphering the degradation processes of microplastics under natural conditions.
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As smaller particle sizes are increasingly included in microplastic research, it is critical to chemically characterize microparticles to identify whether particles are indeed microplastics. To increase the accessibility of methods for characterizing microparticles via Raman spectroscopy, we created an application-based library of Raman spectroscopy parameters specific to microplastics based on color, morphology and size. We also created two spectral libraries that are representative of microplastics found in environmental samples. Here, we present SLoPP, a Spectral Library of Plastic Particles consisting of 148 reference spectra, including a diversity of polymer types, colors and morphologies. To account for the effects of aging on microplastics and associated changes to Raman spectra, we present a Spectral Library of Plastic Particles aged in the Environment (SLoPP-E). SLoPP-E includes 113 spectra, including a diversity of types, colors and morphologies. The microplastics used to make SLoPP-E include environmental samples obtained across a range of matrices, geographies and time. Our libraries increase the likelihood of spectral matching for a broad range of microplastics because our libraries include plastics containing a range of additives and pigments that are not generally included in commercial libraries. When used in combination with commercial libraries of over 24,000 spectra, 63% of the top 5 matches across all particles tested (product and environmental) are from SLoPP and SLoPP-E. These tools were developed to improve the accessibility of microplastics research in response to a growing and multidisciplinary field, as well as to enhance data quality and consistency.
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Microplastics are ubiquitous contaminants, with preliminary evidence indicating they are a novel component of air pollution. This presents a plausible inhalation exposure pathway, should microplastics occur in the inhalable size range; however, this remains an analytical challenge. Here, we develop a filter-based sampling method compatible with both air quality monitoring and Raman spectral imaging (RSI) for the detection of inhalable-sized microplastics. Clean and particulate matter (PM) contaminated filters of a range of compositions were screened. RSI was validated using a plastic microbead suspension (poly(methyl methacrylate) (5-27 μm), polyethylene (10-27 μm), and polystyrene (4 and 10 μm)). Filters were loaded with the suspension before being analyzed. RSI analysis was conducted using a univariate analysis, fitting unique plastic bands to the spectral data sets, where high spatial intensity indicated the presence of microplastics. Inhalable microplastics were not visibly detectable against quartz or spectroscopically detectable against polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)- and alumina-based filters. While microplastics were detectable against cellulose, the PM-contaminated filters (4 and 24 h) burned during analysis. The greatest intensities for microplastics were observed against the silver membrane filter, and inhalable microplastics were still detectable in a 24 h PM sample. These findings will facilitate the acquisition of inhalable microplastic concentrations, which are necessary for understanding microplastic exposure and, ultimately, what their potential role in PM-associated health effects might be.
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Plastics are one of the most widely used materials and, in most cases, they are designed to have long life times. Thus, plastics contain a complex blend of stabilizers that prevent them from degrading too quickly. Unfortunately, many of the most advantageous properties of plastics such as their chemical, physical and biological inertness and durability present challenges when plastic is released into the environment. Common plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are extremely persistent in the environment, where they undergo very slow fragmentation (projected to take centuries) into small particles through photo-, physical, and biological degradation processes1. The fragmentation of the material into increasingly smaller pieces is an unavoidable stage of the degradation process. Ultimately, plastic materials degrade to micron-sized particles (microplastics), which are persistent in the environment and present a potential source of harm for organisms.
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The occurrence and effects of microplastics (MPs) in the aquatic environment are receiving increasing attention. In addition to their possible direct adverse effects on biota, the potential role of MPs as vectors for hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOCs), compared to natural pathways, is a topic of much debate. It is evident, however, that temporal and spatial variations of MP occurrence do (and will) occur. To further improve the estimations of the role of MPs as vectors for HOC transfer into biota under varying MP concentrations and environmental conditions, it is important to identify and understand the governing processes. Here, we explore HOC sorption to and desorption from MPs and the underlying principles for their interactions. We discuss intrinsic and extrinsic parameters influencing these processes and focus on the importance of the exposure route for diffusive mass transfer. Also, we outline research needed to fill knowledge gaps and improve model-based calculations of MP-facilitated HOC transfer in the environment. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2017;13:488–493. © 2017 SETAC Key Points Concentrations of microplastics (MPs) and environmental conditions change over time, meaning that spatio-temporal hotspots do (and will) occur, potentially changing the relative importance of MPs as hydrophobic organic chemical (HOC) vectors compared to natural pathways (such as water, food, and natural particulate matter). An improved understanding of the governing processes is needed to better evaluate the role of MPs as pathways for HOC transfer into biota under such varying conditions. We point out future research needed and highlight direct contact exposure as a route of HOC transfer process, which should not be overlooked when working toward a better understanding and model-based estimations of microplastic as HOC vectors in the environment.
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Studies about microplastics in various environments highlighted the ubiquity of anthropogenic fibers. As a follow-up of a recent study that emphasized the presence of man-made fibers in atmospheric fallout, this study is the first one to investigate fibers in indoor and outdoor air. Three different indoor sites were considered: two private apartments and one office. In parallel, the outdoor air was sampled in one site. The deposition rate of the fibers and their concentration in settled dust collected from vacuum cleaner bags were also estimated. Overall, indoor concentrations ranged between 1.0 and 60.0 fibers/m³. Outdoor concentrations are significantly lower as they range between 0.3 and 1.5 fibers/m³. The deposition rate of the fibers in indoor environments is between 1586 and 11,130 fibers/day/m² leading to an accumulation of fibers in settled dust (190–670 fibers/mg). Regarding fiber type, 67% of the analyzed fibers in indoor environments are made of natural material, primarily cellulosic, while the remaining 33% fibers contain petrochemicals with polypropylene being predominant. Such fibers are observed in marine and continental studies dealing with microplastics. The observed fibers are supposedly too large to be inhaled but the exposure may occur through dust ingestion, particularly for young children.
Article
Microplastics collected at sea harbour a high diversity of microorganisms including some Vibrio genus members, raising questions about the role of microplastics as a novel ecological niche for potentially pathogenic microorganisms. In the present study we investigated the adhesion dynamics of Vibrio crassostreae on polystyrene microparticles (micro-PS) using electronic and fluorescence microscopy techniques. Micro-PS were incubated with bacteria in different media (Zobell culture medium and artificial seawater) with or without natural marine aggregates. The highest percentage of colonised particles (38-100%) was observed in Zobell culture medium, which may be related to nutrient availability for production of pili and exopolysaccharide adhesion structures. A longer bacterial attachment (6 days) was observed on irregular micro-PS compared to smooth particles (<10h) but complete decolonisation of all particles eventually occurred. The presence of natural marine agreggates around micro-PS led to substantial and perennial colonisation featuring monospecific biofilms at the surface of the aggregates. These exploratory results suggest that V. crassostreae may be a secondary coloniser of micro-PS, requiring a multi-species community to form a durable adhesion phenotype. Temporal assessment of microbial colonisation on microplastics at sea using imaging and omics approaches are further indicated to better understand the microplastics colonisation dynamics and species assemblages.
Article
The authors compared procedures for digestion of mussel soft tissues and extraction of microplastics. Complete tissue digestion was achieved with 1M NaOH, 35% HNO3, and protease at 9.6 UHb/mL (unit hemoglobin per mL); but use of HNO3 caused unacceptable destruction of some microplastics. Recovery of microplastics spiked into mussels was similar (93 ± 10%) for NaOH and enzyme digestions. The authors recommend use of industrial enzymes based on digestion efficiency, microplastic recovery, and avoidance of caustic chemicals. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016 © 2016 SETAC
Article
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) and its effect on occupant well-being and comfort is an important area of study. This paper presents a state of the art study through extensive review of the literature, by establishing links between IEQs and occupant well-being and comfort. A range of issues such as sick building syndrome, indoor air quality thermal comfort, visual comfort and acoustic comfort are considered in this paper. The complexity of the relationship between occupant comfort and well-being parameters with IEQ are further exacerbated due to relationships that these parameters have with each other as well. Based on the review of literature in these areas it is established that design of buildings needs to consider occupant well-being parameters right at the beginning. Some good practices in all these different areas have also been highlighted and documented in this paper. The knowledge established as part of this paper would be helpful for researchers, designer, engineers and facilities maintenance engineers. This paper will also be of great benefit to researchers who endeavour to undertake research in this area and could act as a good starting point for them.
Article
Significance Plastics are a contaminant of emerging concern accumulating in marine ecosystems. Plastics tend to break down into small particles, called microplastics, which also enter the marine environment directly as fragments from a variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, and industrial processes. Given their ubiquitous nature and small dimensions, the ingestion and impact of microplastics on marine life are a cause for concern, notably for filter feeders. Oysters were exposed to polystyrene microparticles, which were shown to interfere with energy uptake and allocation, reproduction, and offspring performance. A drop in energy allocation played a major role in this reproductive impairment. This study provides ground-breaking data on microplastic impacts in an invertebrate model, helping to predict ecological impact in marine ecosystems.
Article
Items of clothing recovered after 133 years of submersion at a deep-ocean shipwreck site provided a unique source of marine-degraded textiles. In this research, both dyed and undyed cotton samples taken from a man's waistcoat were studied by optical and scanning electron microscopy and by energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. The undyed fibers showed features typical of localized biodegradation, and two different forms of cellulolytic micro-organisms were observed. Black deposits, perhaps formed by sulfate-reducing bacteria, were observed on both the dyed and undyed samples. After treatment with a mixture of sodium hydroxide plus carbon disulfide, fibrillation and horizontal fragmentation of the dyed and undyed cotton fibers, respectively, were observed. In contrast, new cotton samples treated similarly with sodium hydroxide and carbon disulfide formed the “balloons” typical of fibers with intact primary walls. Tin was present only in the dyed sample. Its source is probably a mordant used in the dyeing process. It is likely that the tin aided in protecting the fabric from attack by cellulolytic micro-organisms.
Article
Background: Two young men working at a nylon flocking plant in Rhode Island developed interstitial lung disease of unknown cause. Similar clusters at the same company's Canadian plant were reported previously. Objective: To define the extent, clinicopathologic features, and potential causes of the apparent disease outbreak. Design: Case-finding survey and retrospective cohort study. Setting: Academic occupational medicine program. Patients: All workers employed at the Rhode Island plant on or after 15 June 1990. Measurements: Symptomatic employees had chest radiography, pulmonary function tests, high-resolution computed tomography, and serologic testing. Those with unexplained radiographic or pulmonary function abnormalities underwent bronchoalveolar lavage, lung biopsy, or both. The case definition of flock worker's lung required histologic evidence of interstitial lung disease (or lavage evidence of lung inflammation) not explained by another condition. Results: Eight cases of flock worker's lung were identified at the Rhode Island plant. Three cases were characterized by a high proportion of eosinophils (25% to 40%) in lavage fluid. Six of the seven patients who had biopsy had histologic findings of nonspecific interstitial pneumonia, and the seventh had bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. All seven of these patients had peribronchovascular interstitial lymphoid nodules, usually with germinal centers, and most had lymphocytic bronchiolitis and interstitial fibrosis. All improved after leaving work. Review of the Canadian tissue specimens showed many similar histologic findings. Among the 165-member study cohort, a 48-fold or greater increase was seen in the sex-adjusted incidence rate of all interstitial lung disease. Conclusions: Work in the nylon flocking industry poses substantial risk for a previously unrecognized occupational interstitial lung disease. Nylon fiber is the suspected cause of this condition.
Article
The ability to manipulate the size and surface properties of nanomaterials makes them a promising vector for improving drug delivery and efficacy. Inhalation is a desirable route of administration as nanomaterials preferentially deposit in the alveolar region, a large surface area for drug absorption. However, as yet, the mechanisms by which particles translocate across the alveolar epithelial layer are poorly understood. Here we show that human alveolar type I epithelial cells internalize nanoparticles, whereas alveolar type II epithelial cells do not, and that nanoparticles translocate across the epithelial monolayer but are unable to penetrate the tight junctions between cells, ruling out paracellular translocation. Furthermore, using siRNA, we demonstrate that 50nm nanoparticles enter largely by passive diffusion and are found in the cytoplasm whereas 100nm nanoparticles enter primarily via clathrin-, but also caveolin-, mediated endocytosis and are found in endosomes. Functionalization of nanoparticles increases their uptake and enhances binding of surfactant which further promotes uptake. Thus, we demonstrate that uptake and translocation across the pulmonary epithelium is controlled by alveolar type I epithelial cells, and furthermore, we highlight a number of factors that should be considered when designing new nanomedicines in order to improve drug delivery to the lung.
Article
ABSTRACT: Organomegaly can be a sign of disease and pathologic abnormality, although standard tables defining organomegaly have yet to be established and universally accepted. This study was designed to address the issue and to determine a normal weight for the major organs in adult human males. A prospective study of healthy men aged 18 to 35 years who died of sudden, traumatic deaths was undertaken. Cases were excluded if there was a history of medical illness including illicit drug use, if prolonged medical treatment was performed, if there was a prolonged period between the time of injury and death, if body length and weight could not be accurately assessed, or if any illness or intoxication was identified after gross and microscopic analysis including evidence of systemic disease. Individual organs were excluded if there was significant injury to the organ, which could have affected the weight. A total of 232 cases met criteria for inclusion in the study during the approximately 6-year period of data collection from 2005 to 2011. The decedents had a mean age of 23.9 years and ranged in length from 146 to 193 cm, with a mean length of 173 cm. The weight ranged from 48.5 to 153 kg, with a mean weight of 76.4 kg. Most decedents (87%) died of either ballistic or blunt force (including craniocerebral) injuries. The mean weight of the brain was 1407 g (range, 1070-1767 g), that of the liver was 1561 g (range, 838-2584 g), that of the spleen was 139 g (range, 43-344 g), that of the right lung was 445 g (range, 185-967 g), that of the left lung was 395 g (range, 186-885 g), that of the right kidney was 129 g (range, 79-223 g), and that of the left kidney was 137 g (range, 74-235 g). Regression analysis was performed and showed that there were insufficient associations between organ weight and body length, body weight, and body mass index to allow for predictability. The authors, therefore, propose establishing a reference range for organ weights in men, much like those in use for other laboratory tests including hemoglobin, hematocrit, or glucose. The following reference ranges (95% inclusion) are proposed: brain, 1179-1621 g; liver, 968-1860 g; spleen, 28-226 g; right lung, 155-720 g; left lung, 112-675 g; right kidney, 81-160 g; and left kidney, 83-176 g.
Article
The understanding of deposition of particles in the respiratory tract is of great value to risk assessment of inhalation toxicology and to improve efficiency in drug delivery of inhalation therapies. There are three main basic mechanisms of particle deposition based primarily on particle size: inertial impaction, sedimentation and diffusion. The regional deposition in the lungs can be evaluated in regards to the aerodynamic particle size, in which particle density plays a significant role. In this review paper, we first introduce the available imaging techniques to confirm regional deposition of particles in the human respiratory tract, such as planar scintigraphy, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET). These technologies have widely advanced and consequently benefited the understanding of deposition pattern, although there is a lack of lung dosimetry techniques to evaluate the deposition of nanoparticles. Subsequently, we present a comprehensive review summarizing the evidence available in the literature that confirms the deposition of smaller particles in the smaller airways as opposed to the larger airways.
Article
We report the results of studies undertaken to determine whether inhaled plant (i.e., cellulosic; e.g., cotton) and plastic (e.g., polyester) fibers are present in human lungs and, if so, whether inhaled fibers are also present in human lung cancers. Specimens of lung cancer of different histological types and adjacent nonneoplastic lung tissue were obtained from patients undergoing a lung resection for removal of a tumor. With the protection of a laminar flow hood and safeguards to prevent contamination by extraneous fibers, fresh, nonfixed, and nonstained samples of lung tissue were compressed between two glass microscope slides. Specimens in these dual slide chambers were examined with a microscope configured to permit viewing with white light, fluorescent light, polarizing light, and phase-contrast illumination. Near-term fetal bovine lungs and nonlung human tumors were used as controls. In contrast to the observations of these control tissues, morphologically heterogeneous fibers were seen repetitively in freshly excised human lung tissue using polarized light. Inhaled fibers were present in 83% of nonneoplastic lung specimens (n = 67/81) and in 97% of malignant lung specimens (n = 32/33). Thus, of the 114 human lung specimens examined, fibers were observed in 99 (87%). Examination of histopathology slides of lung tissue with polarized light confirmed the presence of inhaled cellulosic and plastic fibers. Of 160 surgical histopathology lung tissue slides, 17 were selected for critical examination; of these, fibers were identified in 13 slides. The inhalation of mineral (e.g., asbestos) fibers has been described by many investigators; we believe, however, that this is the first report of inhaled nonmineral (e.g., plant and plastic) fibers. These bioresistant and biopersistent cellulosic and plastic fibers are candidate agents contributing to the risk of lung cancer.
Article
With a view to developing improved mucosal immunisation strategies, we have quantitatively investigated the uptake of fluorescent polystyrene carboxylate microspheres (1.1 microm diameter), using histology and fluorescence-activated cell sorting, following intranasal delivery to BALB/c mice. To qualify these biodistribution data, antigen specific memory and effector responses in the spleens of mice immunised nasally with Yersinia pestis V antigen loaded poly(lactide) (PLA) microspheres (1.5 microm diameter) were assessed at 4, 7 and 11 days. Irrespective of administration vehicle volume (10 or 50 microl), appreciable numbers of fluorescent microspheres were detected within nasal associated lymphoid tissues (NALT) and draining cervical lymph nodes. Nasal administration of the particles suspended in 50 microl volumes of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) served to deposit the fluorescent microspheres throughout the respiratory tract (P<0.05). In these animals, appreciable particle uptake into the mediastinal lymph node was noted (P<0.05). Also, spleens removed from mice 10 days after fluorescent particle application contained significantly more microspheres if the suspension had been nasally instilled using a 50 microl volume (P<0.05). Appreciable memory (and effector from day 7) responses were detected in mediastinal lymph nodes removed from mice immunised nasally with 50 microl volumes of microparticulated or soluble V antigen. Immunological responses in splenic tissue removed 7 days after intranasal immunisation corroborated the thesis that the spleen can act as an inductive site following bronchopulmonary deposition of particulated antigen: upon exposure to V in vitro, splenic T-cells from mice nasally immunised with 50 microl volumes of microspheres incorporated statistically greater (P<0.05) quantities of [3H]thymidine into newly synthesised DNA than did T-cells from cohorts nasally immunised with 50 microl volumes of V in solution. Similarly, significant numbers of anti-V IgG secreting cells were only detected in spleens from mice immunised intramuscularly or nasally with microparticles. These immunological and biodistribution data support the tenet that, following an appropriate method of mucosal delivery, microparticles can translocate to tissues in the systemic compartment of the immune system and thence provoke immunological reactions therein.
Article
Particle behavior in the human respiratory tract is well understood and can be used to (1) estimate particle deposition in all regions of the respiratory tract for any aerosol respired at any pattern, and (2) optimize targeting of all regions of the respiratory tract in respiratory drug delivery. Extrathoracic and alveolar regions can effectively be targeted with mono- and polydisperse aerosols respired steadily. Effective targeting of the bronchial region can only be achieved with bolus inhalations. When particles are suspended in a gas heavier than air, targeting the alveolar region can be enhanced.
Article
Ultrafine, or nano-, particles (< 100 nm) have been associated in epidemiological, human clinical, and animal studies with adverse cardiopulmonary outcomes. Deposition of inhaled ultrafine particles in the respiratory tract is mainly governed by diffusion and is most efficient for alveolar regions of the lung, although deposition occurs in other regions, too. The nose is also a very efficient filter for smaller ultrafine (< 5 nm, diffusion) particles. Solid poorly-soluble ultrafine particles are not efficiently cleared via mucociliary or macrophage-mediated mechanisms and are, thus, likely to be taken up by epithelial cells and translocate to extrapulmonary sites (interstitium, lymph and blood circulation, neurons). These translocation processes are explored here as well potential consequences that result from exposure of extrapulmonary organs to inhaled ultrafine particles.
Plastics - the Facts 2020 An analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data [WWW Document
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Plastics - the Facts 2020 an analysis of European Plastics Production, Demand and Waste Data
  • Plasticseurope