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Social-Symbolic and Affective Aspects of Car Ownership and Use
Abstract
People buy and drive cars for many reasons. Instrumental factors such as cost and speed are important, but social-symbolic factors such as status and affective aspects such as driving pleasure and control also play a significant role in understanding car ownership and use. The (perceived) value of cars as symbols of personality or status influence car purchases and car use as well as social interactions. High-status cars (expensive, luxury, and technologically advanced) can affect a driver's attractiveness as well as levels of aggressive driving both by the car owner and others. Through car use, experience, and symbolic factors people can become strongly attached to their cars, which affects responses to travel demand management strategies.
... They are also related to affective and symbolic values, such as the enjoyment of travel by car, freedom, independence, power, higher social status, privacy, and lifestyle, as developed in affect theories (Goldberg, 1981;Steg et al., 2001;Russell, 2003;Steg, 2005;Lois and López-Sáez, 2009;Bergstad et al., 2011b; É . M. S. Ramos et al., 2020;Gatersleben, 2021). Thus, affective factors are not separate aspects in the decision-making process (Mann and Abraham, 2006). ...
... Most recent studies analyze how car use influences travel satisfaction (Chatterjee et al., 2020;Gärling and Connolly, 2021;Li et al., 2022) and how social-symbolic factors influence private car driving and ownership Moody and Zhao, 2020;Gatersleben, 2021;Meena et al., 2021;Benleulmi and Ramdani, 2022). For instance, Gatersleben (2021) found that status, driving pleasure, and control can firmly attach people to their cars, thus affecting the effectiveness of travel demand management strategies. ...
... Most recent studies analyze how car use influences travel satisfaction (Chatterjee et al., 2020;Gärling and Connolly, 2021;Li et al., 2022) and how social-symbolic factors influence private car driving and ownership Moody and Zhao, 2020;Gatersleben, 2021;Meena et al., 2021;Benleulmi and Ramdani, 2022). For instance, Gatersleben (2021) found that status, driving pleasure, and control can firmly attach people to their cars, thus affecting the effectiveness of travel demand management strategies. In the US, Benleulmi and Ramdani (2022) found that symbolic motives, such as personal innovativeness and social influence, positively affect the intention to use autonomous vehicles. ...
... She carried out interviews with samples of drivers to demonstrate that symbolic and affective motives play an important role in explaining the level of car use, in particular for commuting, concluding that these motives may be a reason why attempts to influence car use have not been very successful. Gatersleben (2021) has summarised the extensive yet diverse literature on the symbolic and affective aspects of car ownership and use. Cars can be symbols of both social identity and status as well as of personal identity. ...
The concept of car dependence includes both travel to destinations for which other modes than the car are not practical and preference for car travel even when other modes are available. While the concept has been a focus for transport analysts for some time, car ownership and use have continued to grow. This reflects the utility of the car for travel on roads where drivers do not experience excessive congestion and where there is parking at both ends of the journey. Local public transport and active travel only become generally attractive alternatives to the car in dense city centres where road space for car use is limited. Reduced car dependence is facilitated by city planning that encourages increased density, opportunities for which are constrained by the stability of the built environment. As well as utility for travel to achieve access to desired destinations, car ownership is also attractive on account of positive feelings, including pride, reflecting both self-esteem and social status. The positive feelings of the population at large towards car ownership are not consistent with the critical view of many analysts, a divergence in point of view that contrasts with the general acceptance of the need to respond to climate change, for which the purchase of electric vehicles is seen as an appropriate action. Rather than advocating measures explicitly aimed at reducing car dependence, a more effective policy approach would be to increase the availability of alternative modes while mitigating the detriments of car use.
Reducing emissions from privately-owned cars plays a central role in reaching targets for global greenhouse gas emissions. Electrification has been one strategy to meet this goal. Norway has been a forerunner and is today the country with the highest proportion of privately-owned battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in Europe. Thus, studying Norwegian experiences with electric mobility should be useful for those working with the electrification of person transport in other countries. In this paper, we analyze user experiences with different models of BEVs, symbolic dimensions of BEV ownership and use, and the significance of incentives promoting BEVs. We argue that the total package of incentives not only provides instrumental motives to buy BEVs but represents a highly visible, national policy in support of BEVs that has been important for adoption, giving BEVs a symbolic certification as an environmentally sound mobility choice. The paper also points to the way incentives for BEVs have different meaning to different drivers according to BEV model and driving experience. Hence, we stress the importance of not treating BEVs as a homogenous technology when developing policy. We argue that the combination of the economic and symbolic value of incentives, technical and practical dimensions of BEVs and not least growing environmental concerns have fostered the successful introduction of BEVs in Norway. The paper is based on in-depth interviews with different segments of BEV drivers in 2013 and 2015, as well as data from two surveys conducted by the Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association in 2016 and 2017.
Cars have long been considered goods that symbolize status, yet few studies integrate the impact of symbolic and affective motives on the car buying decisions, with even fewer studies focusing on the influence of these motives on Eastern European consumers' buying behaviour. The aim of this paper is to propose and test an integrative model, derived from the MOA model, which accounts for consumer motives (instrumental, symbolic and affective), constraints and abilities. The model is tested on a sample of Romanian consumers owning a driving licence. The data analysis was based on structural equation modelling. Findings indicate that symbolic and instrumental car use motives positively influence the intention to buy a car sooner, while affective motives have a negative influence, leading consumers to postpone the intention to buy a car. Results also show a significant positive effect of self-efficacy on intention implementation. Thus, the stimulation of symbolic motives may increase car buying intentions, while the presence of affective motives may lead consumers to still enjoy their current car. The paper contributes to expanding our understanding of consumer behaviour through an integrative model, which includes psychological motives, external factors and consumer abilities. JEL classification: D11, D12, M31
Automobility refers to the continued, self-perpetuating dominance of privately-owned, gasoline-powered vehicles used primarily by single occupants—a system which clearly has broad environmental and societal impacts. Despite increasing societal interest in transitions to more sustainable transportation technologies, there has been little consideration of how such innovations might challenge, maintain or support different aspects of automobility, and what that means for technology deployment, transport policy, and user practices. To bring attention to the complexity and apparent durability of the automobility system, in this paper we develop a conceptual framework that explores automobility through a categorization of frames, or shared cultural meanings. This framework moves beyond the typical focus on private, functional considerations of user choice, financial costs and time use to also consider symbolic and societal frames of automobility that exist among users, non-users, industry, policymakers and other relevant social groups. We illustrate this framework with eight particular frames of automobility that fall into four broad categories: private-functional frames such as (1) cocooning and fortressing and (2) mobile digital offices; private-symbolic frames such as (3) gender identity and (4) social status; societal-functional frames such as (5) environmental stewardship and (6) suburbanization; and societal-symbolic frames such as (7) self-sufficiency and (8) innovativeness. Finally, we start the process of discussing several transportation innovations in light of these automobility frames, namely electrified, autonomous and shared mobility—examining early evidence for which frames would be challenged or supported by such transitions. We believe that appreciation of the complex and varied frames of automobility can enrich discussion of transitions and policy relating to sustainable transportation.
The Psychology of the Car explores automotive cultures through the lens of psychology with the goal of achieving a low-carbon transport future. Worldwide there are now more than one billion cars, and their number grows continuously. Yet there is growing evidence that humanity needs to reach 'peak cars' as increased air pollution, noise, accidents, and climate change support a decline in car usage. While many governments agree, the car remains attractive, and endeavors to change transport systems have faced fierce resistance. Based on insights from a wide range of transport behaviors, The Psychology of the Car shows the "why? of automotive cultures, providing new perspectives essential for understanding its attractiveness and for defining a more desirable transport future. The Psychology of the Car illustrates the growth of global car use over time and its effect on urban transport systems and the global environment. It looks at the adoption of the car into lifestyles, the "mobilities turn,? and how the car impacts collective and personal identities. The book examines car drivers themselves; their personalities, preferences, and personality disorders relevant to driving. The book looks at the role power, control, dominance, speed, and gender play, as well as the interrelationship between personal freedom and law enforcement. The book explores risk-taking behaviors as accidental death is a central element of car driving. The book addresses how interventions can be successful as well as which interventions are unlikely to work, and concludes with how a more sustainable transport future can be created based on emerging transport trends. Features deep analyses of individual and collective psychologies of car affection, moving beyond sociology-based interpretations of automobile culture. Illustrates concepts using popular culture examples that expose ideas about automobility. Shows how fewer, smaller and more environmentally friendly cars, as well as low-carbon transport modes, are more socially attractive.
A recently empirically isolated latent variable in transport choice is symbolism, which examines what people believe their transport choices say to others about them and how they are judged in a social context. Whilst it is well established that symbolism differs vertically across different socio-economic groups within a country, very little work has been done on how symbolism in transport may differ between similar individuals across nations as a function of national cultural values, and how this may manifest itself in transport choices. If significant differences were to be found then this could have impacts for transport policy formulation and transfer. This paper explores and discusses these issues and concludes that the initial goal of any research into symbolic transport choices across cultures is theoretical fertility, and this is best achieved by adopting Lakatosian research programmes, using theory-driven thematic analysis to develop theoretical models for testing.
Car sharing services gain momentum as a potential alternative to various modes of transportation, including privately owned cars. This trend goes hand in hand with a renewed interest in the sharing economy, which has as essential premise that product ownership is of minor relevance. Using an online experiment, this study investigates if individual differences in psychological ownership influence the effects of well-known instrumental car attributes (price, parking convenience, and car type) on people's intention to select a shared car. Results confirmed that instrumental attributes generally impact preferences for car sharing services, and that a low psychological ownership may lead to a higher preference for a shared car under specific circumstances. This suggests that not only instrumental car attributes, but also psychological disposition, specifically psychological ownership, of potential customers need to be taken into consideration when developing measures to stimulate car sharing services in society.
Electric vehicles (EVs) have the potential to dramatically reduce vehicle emissions contributing to climate change without significantly reducing convenience or mobility. Despite their potential, EV market share remains low, necessitating research to identify factors that could encourage more widespread adoption. For instance, concern about climate change is associated with intent to adopt an EV, but little is known about mechanisms through which this concern may translate into action. This study builds on previous work investigating the roles of symbolic and instrumental attributes in low-emission vehicle adoption, focusing exclusively on EVs to better understand perceptions associated with their unique technical capabilities. Prior work has examined symbolism rather generally (e.g., in terms of status). We examine specific aspects of self-identity that EVs may reflect, representing the extent to which consumers perceive EVs as symbols that they are environmentalists and/or social innovators. In addition, extending prior work, we quantify the relative influence of these separate aspects of symbolism on EV adoption intentions alongside instrumental, psychological, and demographic factors. We find differing impacts of these two symbols on EV adoption intentions. Environmentalist symbolism is consistently the strongest predictor of adoption, across three dependent variables. Innovator symbolism predicts willingness to lease/buy an EV, trailing only environmentalist symbolism in effect size, and outperforming instrumental attributes as well as psychological and demographic factors. Additionally, we examine a potential mechanism through which concern about climate change may translate into EV adoption intentions: we find that seeing EVs as environmentalist and social innovator symbols partially mediates the relationship between concern about climate change and EV adoption intentions. These results have implications for EV marketing and policy, and suggest that emphasizing the potential for EVs to reinforce specific self-identities may be a more promising strategy to increase adoption rates than emphasizing instrumental attributes such as fuel efficiency.
Previous research found that men conspicuously consume luxury products to attract a mate and to signal their mate value. However, these studies have yet neglected to investigate the function of male conspicuous consumption in same-sex competition. Given that intersexual and intrasexual selection are closely related processes, it stands to reason that a further function of male conspicuous consumption could be to impress and deter same-sex rivals. An 2 (intrasexual competition context vs. control) x 2 (conspicuous luxury vs. inconspicuous non-luxury) between-subjects experimental study conducted with an MTurk sample (N = 160) revealed that men reported both higher liking of and an intent to purchase a conspicuous luxury car compared to an inconspicuous non-luxury car due to increased feelings of social status. This effect was stronger in the intrasexual competition than in the control context. An additional perception study using a single factor between-subjects design (conspicuous luxury vs. inconspicuous non-luxury car) among German men (N = 405) indicated that male participants rated a man who displayed a conspicuous luxury car more as a rival and mate poacher and less as a friend. They further perceived him to be superior on various mate value characteristics (i.e., attractiveness, intelligence, ambition, and status) and rated him as more oriented towards short-term mating. In sum, our findings add to previous research in the field of evolutionary consumer psychology by suggesting that male conspicuous consumption of luxuries may also serve a function in male-male competition.
For over a century, the automobile has shaped our physical mobility like no other means of transport. For almost as long, however, it has also been the subject of criticism surrounding the ecological, social and health consequences of automobility.
Public transport is often perceived to be a poor alternative for car use. This paper describes who may be open to use public transport more often, and how people might be persuaded to use it. A computerised questionnaire study was conducted among 1,803 Dutch respondents in May 2001. Results revealed that especially fervent car users disliked public transport. For them, the car outperformed public transport not only because of its instrumental function, but also because the car represents cultural and psychological values, e.g. the car is a symbol of freedom and independence, a status symbol and driving is pleasurable. So, for fervent car users, car use is connected with various important values in modern society. Infrequent car users judged less positively about the car and less negatively about public transport. Consequently, they may be open to use public transport more regularly. In contrast, many efforts are needed to stimulate fervent car users to travel by public transport, because in their view, public transport cannot compete with their private car. In this case, policies should be aimed at reducing the functional, psychological and cultural values of private cars, as well as increasing the performance of public transport and other (more) environmentally sound modes of transport on these aspects.
In social psychology, we need to establish a general theory of the self, which can attend to both macro and micro processes, and which avoids the redundancies of separate theories on different aspects of the self. For this purpose, we present core components of identity theory and social identity theory and argue that although differences exist between the two theories, they are more differences in emphasis than in kind, and that linking the two theories can establish a more fully integrated view of the self. The core components we examine include the different bases of identity (category/group or role) in each of the theories, identity salience and the activation of identities as discussed in the theories, and the cognitive and motivational processes that emerge from identities based on category/group and on role. By examining the self through the lens of both identity theory and social identity theory, we see how, in combination, they can move us toward a general theory of the self.
This review of consumer EV adoption studies provides theoretical and empirical insights for research, policy and practice.•Drivers for EV adoption include pro-environmental attitudes, symbolic meanings, identity, innovativeness and emotions.•Purchase cost of EVs is found to be a barrier to adoption while lower running cost is shown to be a driver.•Hands-on experience with EVs changed attitudes to a large extent, yet the negative evaluation of range did not change.•Joy, pride and positive emotions from driving an EV and environmental concerns positively influence adoption intentions.
To date, most research on travel behavior has been limited to studying utilitarian appraisals of car users and users of public transport. Studies on affective experiences are usually limited to commuter stress. A survey among university employees revealed that in support of previous research, car commuters find their journey more stressful than other mode users. The main sources of this stress are delays and other road users. Users of public transport also “complain” about delays; however, this results in stress as well as boredom. Walking and cycling journeys are the most relaxing and exciting and therefore seem the most optimum form of travel from an affective perspective. The affective appraisals of the daily commute are related to instrumental aspects, such as journey time, but also to general attitudes toward various travel modes. These findings have implications for sustainable transport policy initiatives that aim to persuade people to abandon their car.
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The phenomenon of road rage has attracted much media attention since the mid-1990s, but little research has been conducted into how motorists have incorporated the concept into their experiences and understandings of driving. This article reports the findings from a qualitative study on road rage, which used in-depth interviews with 77 people living in Sydney to investigate the meanings given to road rage and aggressive driving. The research showed that driving was a potent source of autonomy, pleasure and self-expression among motorists, meanings that were often frustrated by the travails of negotiating the road system. The concept of road rage had become integrated into the interviewees' accounts of driving, and they were uniformly condemning of it. Road rage was represented as a response to the stresses of urban living, not only driving in a crowded road system but also the pressures exerted by such factors as a competitive work environment and lack of time. A strong gender and social class difference was noted in the ways in which the interviewees described their emotional responses to driving frustrations. The findings revealed that the expression of anger in road rage is negatively conceptualized because of the challenges it poses to the idea of the 'civilized' body/self, but also that such expression is seen as understandable in the context of an urban environment replete with stress.
Despite widespread acceptance of the need to change individual behaviour towards sustainability, resistance to change remains a continuing challenge. Past behaviour or habit, and psychological reactance, have been explored as components of resistance. Growing evidence for the influence of self-identity on behaviour suggests self-identity as a further factor. The current study draws on Identity Process Theory (Breakwell, 1986) to propose that threat to self-identity contributes to resistance to change, over and above the influence of past behaviour. Using travel-related vignettes to trigger threat, a study with 295 working parents in England found evidence supporting the relationship between self-identity threat and resistance to change travel behaviour, controlling for past behaviour. The findings further suggest identity threat as an alternative theoretical perspective on reactance. The results build theoretical understanding of resistance as a barrier to behaviour change. The application of an identity theory to understanding resistance is argued to add potentially new ways to encourage change towards sustainable behaviour. In addition, the findings suggest rich avenues for future research on the theoretical and empirical implications of the relationship of identities and sustainable behaviours.
Growing evidence supports a range of non-instrumental factors influencing travel mode. Amongst these, identity has been proposed. However, to date, the relationship has not been systematically investigated and few investigations have harnessed a theoretical framework for identity. Drawing on role theory (Stryker, S., 1980, Symbolic interactionism: A social structural version. CA: Benjamin Cummings), we hypothesised that multiple identities, of varying importance, are related to travel mode choice. The study of 248 UK urban/suburban, working, car-owning parents used survey-based data to test the influence of seven identities on travel mode choice in regular travel. Multiple and logistic regression analyses found multiple identities to be significantly related to travel mode to work, on escort education and on other regular journeys. The study demonstrated different patterns of relationship between identity on different types of journey and found evidence for travel mode choice as embedded within social identities. In addition to the study‟s contribution of new empirical findings, its application of a theoretical focus on identity offers additional strategies in attempting to change travel behaviours towards sustainability.
The purpose of the paper is to test a model dealing with direct and indirect effects of self-image congruence on brand loyalty. The model posits that self-image congruence positively affects brand loyalty directly and indirectly through functional congruity, product involvement, and brand relationship quality. The model was tested using cars as the product stimulus in a survey of 600 car owners. We chose automobiles because cars are high in conspicuousness (therefore are likely to be evaluated using symbolic criteria) and are used across a variety of situations. The model was mostly supported by the data. First, the results document the paramount importance of self-congruity in predicting brand loyalty. Second, our study integrated the emerging construct of brand relationship quality into self-congruity theory. Third, in regards to the hypothesized effect of self-congruity on functional congruity, the data were supportive. Additional managerial implications are discussed.
The aim of current transport policy in the UK and many other developed countries is to reduce reliance on private motor vehicle transport in order to promote public health and reduce environmental degradation. Despite the emphasis in these policies on the unhealthiness of private motor car use, epidemiological studies have consistently shown that car access is associated with longevity and better health. We examine this paradox using a postal survey of adults in the West of Scotland (n=2043, m=896, f=1147) to investigate the psychosocial benefits associated with private and public motor vehicle transport. Those with access to a car appear to gain more psychosocial benefits (mastery, self esteem, and feelings of autonomy, protection, and prestige) than public transport users from their habitual mode of transport. Being a car driver conferred more benefits than being a passenger, except for self esteem which was only associated with driving among men. Self-esteem was also associated with type of car among men but not women. This study suggests that if people are to be encouraged to reduce private motor vehicle use, policies need to take into account some of the psychosocial benefits people might derive from such use.
This study was aimed at clarifying the relative importance of symbolic-affective as opposed to instrumental-reasoned motives for car use. We examined which motivational dimensions are underlying the (un)attractiveness of car use, in order to distinguish a limited set of main motive categories. Three methods were developed, which differed in the extent to which the purpose of the task was apparent. The tasks were: (1) a similarity sorting of car-use episodes, (2) a Q-sorting following attractiveness of car-use episodes, and (3) a semantic-differential method for evaluating (un)attractive aspects of car use. The symbolic-affective motives for car use were better expressed when the aim of the research task was not too apparent. If the aim of the task was evident, respondents tended to evaluate car use in terms of instrumental-reasoned motives. Overall, the results indicate that both instrumental-reasoned and symbolic-affective functions of the motor car are significant dimensions underlying the attractiveness of car use.
Besides reduction of energy consumption, which implies alternate actuation and light construction, the main research domain in automobile development in the near future is dominated by driver assistance and natural driver-car communication. The ability of a car to understand natural speech and provide a human-like driver assistance system can be expected to be a factor decisive for market success on par with automatic driving systems. Emotional factors and affective states are thereby crucial for enhanced safety and comfort. This paper gives an extensive literature overview on work related to influence of emotions on driving safety and comfort, automatic recognition, control of emotions, and improvement of in-car interfaces by affect sensitive technology. Various use-case scenarios are outlined as possible applications for emotion-oriented technology in the vehicle. The possible acceptance of such future technology by drivers is assessed in a Wizard-Of-Oz user study, and feasibility of automatically recognising various driver states is demonstrated by an example system for monitoring driver attentiveness. Thereby an accuracy of 91.3% is reported for classifying in real-time whether the driver is attentive or distracted.
Conspicuous consumption is a form of economic behavior in which self-presentational concerns override desires to obtain goods at bargain prices. Showy spending may be a social signal directed at potential mates. We investigated such signals by examining (a) which individuals send them, (b) which contexts trigger them, and (c) how observers interpret them. Three experiments demonstrated that conspicuous consumption is driven by men who are following a lower investment (vs. higher investment) mating strategy and is triggered specifically by short-term (vs. long-term) mating motives. A fourth experiment showed that observers interpret such signals accurately, with women perceiving men who conspicuously consume as being interested in short-term mating. Furthermore, conspicuous purchasing enhanced men's desirability as a short-term (but not as a long-term) mate. Overall, these findings suggest that flaunting status-linked goods to potential mates is not simply about displaying economic resources. Instead, conspicuous consumption appears to be part of a more precise signaling system focused on short-term mating. These findings contribute to an emerging literature on human life-history strategies.
This paper presents some empirical evidence on the psycho-social benefits people seem to derive from their cars based on in-depth interviews with a sample of car owners and non-car owners in the West of Scotland. We suggest that psycho-social benefits of protection, autonomy and prestige may help to explain people's attachment to cars and also why studies have found consistently that car owners are healthier than non-car owners. In our study cars were seen to provide protection from undesirable people events, and a comfortable cocoon (but not as providing protection against accidents). Cars provided autonomy because car use was seen as being more convenient, reliable and providing access to more destinations than public transport. Cars were seen to confer prestige and other socially desirable attributes such as competence, skill and masculinity. We think that it is important for policy makers to consider how to make public transport more attractive by increasing its potential to provide similar sorts of benefits, and to do so by targetting the different needs of various population groups.
Why do people purchase proenvironmental "green" products? We argue that buying such products can be construed as altruistic, since green products often cost more and are of lower quality than their conventional counterparts, but green goods benefit the environment for everyone. Because biologists have observed that altruism might function as a "costly signal" associated with status, we examined in 3 experiments how status motives influenced desire for green products. Activating status motives led people to choose green products over more luxurious nongreen products. Supporting the notion that altruism signals one's willingness and ability to incur costs for others' benefit, status motives increased desire for green products when shopping in public (but not private) and when green products cost more (but not less) than nongreen products. Findings suggest that status competition can be used to promote proenvironmental behavior.
The current research explores the relationship between people and their cars within the framework of Altman's theory of human territoriality. It further develops the research of Sandqvist by examining the descriptions given by people with differing ownership and uses of their cars and exploring the congruence between these and the characteristics used to describe human territories. Thirteen focus groups were held with young drivers between the ages of 18 and 25 years, drivers over the age of 25 who are parents of pre-license age children, drivers over the age of 25 who do not regularly transport children, and drivers of work vehicles. Analyses of discussions revealed that drivers’ descriptions of the relationship with their car could be matched with Brown and Altman's descriptions of territory types. However, variations existed both between and within individuals as to the application of the labels 'primary', 'secondary' and 'public' territory to the car. Implications for the understanding of road user behaviour and the further development of theory on the car as a place or an object in terms of territoriality are discussed.
Previous studies have shown that male attractiveness can be enhanced by manipulation of status through, for example, the medium of costume. The present study experimentally manipulated status by seating the same target model (male and female matched for attractiveness) expressing identical facial expressions and posture in either a 'high status' (Silver Bentley Continental GT) or a 'neutral status' (Red Ford Fiesta ST) motor-car. A between-subjects design was used whereby the above photographic images were presented to male and female participants for attractiveness rating. Results showed that the male target model was rated as significantly more attractive on a rating scale of 1-10 when presented to female participants in the high compared to the neutral status context. Males were not influenced by status manipulation, as there was no significant difference between attractiveness ratings for the female seated in the high compared to the neutral condition. It would appear that despite a noticeable increase in female ownership of prestige/luxury cars over recent years males, unlike females remain oblivious to such cues in matters pertaining to opposite-sex attraction. These findings support the results of previous status enhancement of attractiveness studies especially those espousing sex differences in mate preferences are due to sex-specific adaptations.
In a representative sample of Finnish car owners (N = 1892) we connected the Five‐Factor Model personality dimensions to driving a high‐status car. Regardless of whether income was included in the logistic model, disagreeable men and conscientious people in general were particularly likely to drive high‐status cars. The results regarding agreeableness are consistent with prior work that has argued for the role of narcissism in status consumption. Regarding conscientiousness, the results can be interpreted from the perspective of self‐congruity theory, according to which consumers purchase brands that best reflect their actual or ideal personalities. An important implication is that the association between driving a high‐status car and unethical driving behaviour may not, as is commonly argued, be due to the corruptive effects of wealth. Rather, certain personality traits, such as low agreeableness, may be associated with both unethical driving behaviour and with driving a high‐status car.
Abstract The present research investigated the possibility of using an in-vehicle voice agent to promote eco-driving. Considering that both types of benefit appeals-egoistic (emphasizing benefits to the self) and altruistic (emphasizing benefits to others)-could be employed to promote eco-driving behavior, we explored the effects of benefit appeals delivered by an in-vehicle voice agent on driving performance. In particular, we tested whether and how the valence (positive vs. negative) of drivers' affective states moderates the effects, drawing on the functionalist affect-cognition framework, which has theorized that positive affect leads people to focus more on self-interest, whereas negative affect leads people to become more sensitive to social norms. An experiment was conducted in which participants, after undergoing affect (happy vs. sad) elicitation, received messages (egoistic vs. altruistic) promoting eco-driving from an in-vehicle voice agent while performing a simulated driving task. Results were partially consistent with the functionalist affect-cognition framework. Happy participants performed better on eco-driving when they were exposed to egoistic appeals than to altruistic appeals. On the other hand, the driving performance data from sad participants did not yield a significant difference between the egoistic condition and the altruistic condition. Participants' driving performance data further revealed that the joint effects of benefit appeals and affective states on safe driving performance mirrored the joint effects on eco-driving performance, confirming a close relationship between the two driving behaviors. Theoretical and practical implications for the use of in-vehicle voice agents and benefit appeals in promoting eco-driving and safe driving are discussed.
Although it is obvious that commuting to work is stressful, it is not at all clear why this is so. This study examined the potential role of commute unpredictability in the stressfulness of the daily journey to work among a population of rail commuters. Men and women who perceived their commute to work as more unpredictable felt greater levels of stress and evidenced higher elevations of salivary cortisol. Expected differences in motivation in task performance did not occur. Limitations of these cross-sectional findings are discussed along with future research needs. The possible roles of commute predictability and stress in transportation mode choice are also delineated.
The aim is to understand how private car drivers’ perception of vehicle attributes may affect their intention to adopt electric vehicles (EVs). Data are obtained from a national online survey of potential EV adopters in the UK. The results indicate that instrumental attributes are important largely because they are associated with other attributes derived from owning and using EVs, including pleasure of driving (hedonic attributes) and identity derived from owning and using EVs (symbolic attributes). People who believe that a pro-environmental self-identity fits with their self-image are more likely to have positive perceptions of EV attributes. Perceptions of EV attributes are only very weakly associated with car-authority identity.
Commuting times and distances continue to increase in the United States with potential impacts to the environment as well as possible health consequences for the travelers, because of stress from the commuting trip. There is very little empirical information, however, on the differences between various modes of commuting on commuter stress. This study provides a cross-sectional comparison of car and train commuters with multiple indicators of stress, including statistical controls for group characteristics. We compared commuters in the same geographic region, Metropolitan New York City, who had comparable starting and destination points, and were from homogeneous socioeconomic backgrounds. We also explored potential underlying psychological processes (i.e., control, effort, predictability) to help explain stress differences related to commuting mode. There were statistically significant differences for perceived commuting stress and mood. Car commuters showed significantly higher levels of reported stress and, more negative mood. Mediational analyses indicated that effort and predictability largely account for the elevated stress associated with car commuting.
Car cultures have social, material and, above all, affective dimensions that are overlooked in current strategies to influence car-driving decisions. Car consumption is never simply about rational economic choices, but is as much about aesthetic, emotional and sensory responses to driving, as well as patterns of kinship, sociability, habitation and work. Through a close examination of the aesthetic and especially kinaesthetic dimensions of automobility, this article locates car cultures (and their associated feelings) within a broader physical/material relational setting that includes both human bodies and car bodies, and the relations between them and the spaces through which they move (or fail to move). Drawing on both the phenomenology of car use and new approaches in the sociology of emotions, it is argued that everyday car cultures are implicated in a deep context of affective and embodied relations between people, machines and spaces of mobility and dwelling in which emotions and the senses play a key part – the emotional geographies of car use. Feelings for, of and within cars (‘automotive emotions’) come to be socially and culturally generated across three scales involved in the circulations and displacements performed by cars, roads and drivers: embodied sensibilities and kinaesthetic performances; familial and sociable practices of ‘caring’ through car use; and regional and national car cultures that form around particular systems of automobility. By showing how people feel about and in cars, and how the feel of different car cultures generates habitual forms of automobilized life and different dispositions towards driving, it is argued that we will be in a better position to re-evaluate the ethical dimensions of car consumption and the moral economies of car use.
This chapter examines the social character and functions of explanations of conduct. The identity-analytic theory that is presented in the chapter provides a basis for understanding when and why people's attributions and self-presentations sometimes appear personally biased, if not downright distorted, to the outside observer. The chapter focuses on changes or shifts in attitudes that occur following counter-attitudinal behaviors. Predicaments are discussed in the chapter wherein accounting, attitude change following counter-attitudinal behavior, acclamations, self-attention, identity images, and counterattitudinal behavior, and negative affect and attitude change are discussed. The chapter explores payments and predicaments, where it discusses about the enigma, the social meaning of payment, prior research on payments for counter-attitudinal behavior, manipulating illegitimacy, self-presentation and genuine attitude change, and identity analysis and dissonance theory.
Prior research has reported that self-image congruence can influence brand preference, brand satisfaction and purchase intentions. With the help of an empirical research, the paper argues that while self-image congruence may be related to satisfaction in general in the automobile market, it may not necessarily affect satisfaction judgements when customers have higher levels of expertise. The paper discusses implications for brand managers and argues to take into account customer characteristics such as customer expertise while developing positioning strategies.
Although there is currently no Axis I disorder holding anger as its hallmark feature (with the possible exception of intermittent explosive disorder, IED), the impact of anger, aggression, hostility, and related behaviors on society is enormous. Anger and aggression in the workplace, in schools, on the streets, in airplanes, and on the roadways appears to be becoming increasingly commonplace. This article reviews the expanding literature regarding aggression on the roadways given the proximity of such violence to our everyday lives. In particular, this article defines aggressive driving and reviews the history, extent, and consequences of “road rage.” A review of the type of individual engaging in aggressive driving behaviors is also provided in an attempt to profile (demographically, psychologically, and psychiatrically) the “aggressive driver.” Finally, a review of the three successful programs currently attempting to correct such behaviors through psychological intervention is provided.
The changing environment in Europe opens up new market opportunities for consumer product firms. This change challenges firms to approach decision making with the aid of strategic marketing, including knowledge of consumer reactions to products. Since self-concept and image congruity are important to understanding consumer behavior, the study was conducted to determine the self-image/product-image of European consumers related to an American automobile, the Ford Escort. Results indicated that a relationship does exist between self-image/product-image congruity and intention to purchase.
This book contains a proposed self-concept theory. We refer to it as "self-congruity theory." The theory is about self-concept, personality dynamics, motivated social cognition, and cybernetics and systems. . . . The proposed theory may be useful to all those social/behavioral scientists who are keen on developing and using theory in doing research in any one or more of these topics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
a b s t r a c t An empirical study investigates the extent to which affective–symbolic and instrumental–independence psychological motives mediate effects of socio-demographic variables on daily car use in Sweden. Ques-tionnaire data from a mail survey to 1134 car users collected in 2007 were used to assess the relation-ships daily car use as driver or passenger have to sex, household type (single or cohabiting with or without children), and residential area (urban, semi-rural or rural). Reliable measures of affective–sym-bolic and instrumental–independence motives were constructed. The results show that households with children use the car more than households with no children, that men make more car trips as drivers than women who use the car as passenger more than men, and that households living in rural areas use the car more than households living in semi-rural areas who use the car more than households living in urban areas. An affective–symbolic motive partially mediates the relationship between the number of weekly car trips and sex, the instrumental–independence motive partially mediates the relationships between weekly car use and percent car use as driver and several of the socio-demographic variables (living in urban vs. rural residential area for both measures; sex and living in urban vs. semi-rural residential area for percent car use as driver). Of several other socio-demographic variables (age, employment, and income) affecting car use, only the relationship of the number of cars to percent car use as driver was (partially) mediated by the instrumental–independence motive.
We studied the incidence and correlates of status projection—use of material possessions to emphasize social status to others—among 100 adolescents in a historical context of rising affluence. Participants listed 10 possessions, rated each for its value as a status symbol, and chose five to discuss with another participant in a forthcoming interaction. Participants selected especially those of their possessions that they had rated higher in status value (p < .001). This effect was stronger among those reporting upward or downward change in their families' socioeconomic status (p < .05), greater actual-ideal self-discrepancies (p < .05), and stronger commitment to materialistic values (p < .01); moreover, the effect of changing status was stronger among higher materialists (p < .05). These results indicate that people self-complete through presenting their possessions selectively to others, and they help to clarify the precise role of identity commitment in symbolic self-completion. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Individuals conspicuously consume to signal their wealth. As a variant to this economic explanation, four studies explored individual’s psychological need for self-integrity as a potential motivating force for these consumption decisions. Relying on both field and experimental studies, and employing multiple instantiations of high-status goods and self-threat, we demonstrate that individuals consume status-infused products for their reparative effects on the ego. Individuals under self-threat sought ownership of high-status goods to nurse their psychological wounds (Study 1), and when afforded an alternate route to repair their self-integrity, sought these products less (Study 2). Furthermore, among a representative sample of US consumers, low-income individuals’ lowered self-esteem drove their willingness to spend on high-status goods (Study 3). Finally, these high-status goods serve the purpose of shielding an individual’s ego from future self-threats (Study 4). The compensatory role of high-status goods has important implications for consumer decision-making and public policies aimed at reducing consumer debt.
In two empirical studies, the impact of attitudes and environmental knowledge on driving distance, travel behaviour and acceptance of various traffic restrictions was investigated. The first study included the population in Lund, southern Sweden, and the second the politicians and civil servants responsible for transports and environment in the same city. Comparisons of the two samples revealed similar psychological processes, including environmental concern, hazard/efficacy perception and car affection, whereas environmental knowledge seemed to have a subordinate role. Preferences of restrictions differed somewhat between the public, and the politicians and civil servants. It is suggested that local implementation of new strategies to reduce private car driving might benefit from a better understanding of what will be accepted among the public. Further, in promoting pro-environmental travel behaviour it may be important to focus on basic attitudes, rather than to rely solely on factual information.
The environmental problems originating from the transport sector are huge and even though the last decade has delivered a great number of reports and action programmes, only very little progress has been made to reduce these problems in real life. The use of private cars is still increasing and has become an integrated part of both modern society and of the life of individuals and families. It has a role to play not only as a means of transport but also in cultural and social life. One has to know and understand this whole picture if the intention is to change the pattern of transport in order to solve the environmental problems within and from the transport sector. This article is presenting the results from a research project1 that was dealing with these issues. The research project consists of two parts — a qualitative as well as a quantitative study. The qualitative study is based on 20 in-depth interviews with 30 persons in all. Among other things the interviews were used to develop types of travellers. This has created six mobility types: The passionate car drivers, the daily life car drivers, the leisure time car drivers, the cyclists/public transport users of heart, the cyclists/public transport users of convenience and the cyclists/public transport users of necessity. The quantitative study is consisting of a survey among 1000 persons based on the qualitative interviews, and is inter alia quantifying the six mobility types. The six types will be described and analysed below. The objective of the research project was on how transport (i.e. the car) has become part of everyday life, on transport behaviour, on attitudes towards transport, on environmental consciousness and — as an important point — on transport as integrated in modern culture. Contradictions between motoring and environment are analysed, and some possibilities of changes in transport behaviour are discussed.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas, 1964. Vita. Abstracted in Dissertation abstracts, v.25 (1964) no. 5, p. 2799-2800. Bibliography: l. 108-112. Microfilm.