Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats

Full text

Ecological restoration
in
Northern Western Ghats
Field studies in
Panshet catchment and
Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary regions.
2014
Funded by the Global Forest Watch Small Grants Program
Undertaken by Ecological Society, Pune

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Project Team members
Project Coordinator
Shailaja Deshpande
Members
Gunwant Mahajan
Kirti Amritkar
Field Assistants
Pratik Purohit
Trupti Satpute
Experts
Dr. Vinaya Ghate
Revati Gindi
Sanjay Thakur
Guides
Dr. Swati Gole
Ketaki Ghate
Manasi Karandikar
Yogesh Pathak
Dr. Gurudas Nulkar
Ajay Phatak
Editorial team
Dr. Swati Gole
Shailaja Deshpande
Yogesh Pathak
Ketaki Ghate
Manasi Karandikar
Dr. Gurudas Nulkar
Publisher
Dr. Swati Gole, Chairman
Ecological Society,
B-2, Jayanti Apartments,
Senapati Bapat Road, Pune 411016. India.
Tel: +91 20 25677312
Cover design
Dr. Gurudas Nulkar
Cover photographs
Oikos for Ecological Services, Pune

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Contents
1.
Executive summary
5
2.
Introduction - Significance of the survey
7
3.
Objectives and methodology
9
4.
Land use and vegetation classes in Panshet
catchment
12
5.
Glimpses of earlier study of Panshet catchment
15
6.
Panshet catchment – comparison with prior study
17
7.
Supporting data of Panshet catchment
21
8.
An analysis of the restoration potential of Panshet
catchment
23
9.
Socioeconomic study in Panshet catchment
25
10.
Templates for undertaking restoration for
Northern Western Ghats
35
11.
Survey of Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary
41
12.
Conclusions
43
13.
Annexure I : Biodiversity of Panshet Catchment
49
14.
Annexure II : Restoration techniques and results
in Panshet catchment site of ES
61
15.
Annexure III : Restoration techniques from sites
executed by Oikos for Ecological Services, Pune
64

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Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
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1. Executive Summary
Funded by the Small Grants Program of Global Forest Watch,
Ecological Society (ES) undertook a detailed ecological survey at two
locations in Northern Western Ghats. The project was completed in
2014 in a period of six months. This booklet describes project in detail,
including the objectives of the study, materials and methods, the
findings and a comparative analysis with data from 1986.
ES is a 32-year old NGO engaged in research and education in
management and conservation of natural resources and ecosystems.
Over these years the ES has conducted various surveys to study the
ecological status and recommend management guidelines for
conservation and restoration. In the course of these surveys, in 1986 the
ES completed a detailed survey in the catchment of ‘Panshet’ dam
which is the major source of drinking water to Pune city. This
catchment lies in the northern Western Ghats in Maharashtra, a region
of high rainfall and endowed with abundant biodiversity. In this survey
biodiversity was looked upon as an expression of the local land use
pattern. The findings and the land use classification in the report show
the effect of economic activities of local communities on the
biodiversity. Based on these observations ES suggested a framework
for ecological restoration of the degraded areas which would consider
the need of the local communities. To validate the framework, an
experiment was initiated on a land patch owned by department of
irrigation, near Panshet dam. This experiment helped validate and
improve restoration guidelines for restoration in Northern Western
Ghats.
The present study was initiated to evaluate the current ecological status
of the catchment, record changes in the land use and make
recommendations to conserve and restore potential forest patches. The
study was undertaken from August 2014 to January 2015.
Some findings of significance are noted below

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1. The study region supports both endemic and special biodiversity
but this is confined to few tiny patches. During last 30 years, no
special conservation effort has been taken to protect the
landscape. Meager passive protection by local communities by
way of social fencing prevalent in the sacred groves area has
helped. The findings in this study suggest a compelling and urgent
need to protect and conserve these remaining patches.
2. Fire and grazing are two major constraints in natural succession
which have left the catchment with various degrees of vegetation
and canopy layers supporting associated biodiversity.
3. One of the major potential threats is modern ‘development’
which is imposed by demands of farm houses and townships by
urban consumers. This threat was absent in the survey of 1986.
4. Improved road connectivity in the catchment has changed
economic activities, lifestyle and social structures within local
communities. Livelihood practices of the past are being rendered
inefficient by access to modern technology. Proliferation of
television has brought about aspirations which demand higher
incomes. This has triggered large scale sale of fallow lands to urban
developers.
5. The study clearly shows that due to changing land use, biodiversity
has suffered. The report suggests an urgent need to prepare a
landscape level restoration plan.
6. With the help of data collected through this survey and the baseline
data of 1986, this project proposes a restoration template which
may be useful for conservation programs in the northern Western
Ghats region. Such a template is developed as an aid in planning
and implementation of restoration projects.
The Ecological Society wishes to express its gratitude to Global Forest
Watch for the generous grant provided for this project. The team hopes
that the recommendations made herein will aid serious conservation
efforts in the Western Ghats!

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2. Introduction - Significance of the survey
Extending from the river Tapi in Gujarat to Kanyakumari in the south,
the mountain range which runs parallel to the western coast of the
Indian peninsula is referred to as the Western Ghats. These mountains
have played a crucial ecological role for the inhabitants on both sides of
it. Posing a formidable barrier to the moisture laden clouds from the
Arabian Sea, they receive a heavy rainfall. As a result, the Western
Ghats are generously endowed with biodiversity. Their resources have
paid rich dividends to humans. Moreover, being source regions of some
important rivers like the Godavari, Krishna and the Kaveri, their
benevolence extends deeper inland too.
Over the years, changing
land use has dramatically
reduced forest cover and
increased soil erosion.
Increasing interventions
like agriculture,
plantations, mining and
residential development
have been detrimental to
the flora and fauna.
However, as the
geographical features of
the Western Ghats are
suited for building dams,
the bigger challenge is
protecting the remaining
biodiversity from changes
made by the huge dam
reservoirs.
This survey was undertaken in the northern Western Ghats which are
locally called the Sahyadri Mountains. The study region comprised of
Figure 1: Hills of India (source -Wikipedia Creative
Commons License)

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the catchment areas of Panshet dam which are the main sources of
water to the city of Pune. In the year 1984-85, the Ecological Society
had conducted a detailed survey to establish the status of animal and
plant life in these critical areas with an objective of evolving a
conservation plan. The current study compiled significant data on
species, land use, forest cover, protected areas and fallow patches as
well as recorded socio-economic connections of the local communities
with the biodiversity.The purpose of the socio-economic study was to
find patterns of changes in energy, water, and food demand and
sources, occupations, migration, land use, and man-nature connections.
Some intriguing findings regarding land sales, migrations to cities, and
problems for local communities were learned by us as a result of this
study.

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3. Objectives and methodology
The objective of this survey was to document the changes within the
study region over the baseline data of 1984-85. This is undertaken
through ecological assessments and socio-economic studies conducted
there. The methodology comprised of selecting and marking the study
regions followed by obtaining satellite images and rainfall data of the
region. Extensive ground truthing was done in 47 sample areas. For
over 6 months teams visited the sample areas to collect data on forest
cover, occurrence of species, regeneration and their IUCN status.
Physical features too were noted. Sample areas were marked out on
digital images. After compiling the data we classified the entire region
on the basis of land use. The photo-documentation was then transcribed
into templates which can be used by researchers and conservationists
working in the Western Ghats. The data was collected over monsoon
and winter seasons in 2014 and was compared with the baseline data of
1984-85.
The intention behind this comparative study was to evolve a
conservation and restoration plan which aims at improving the
livelihoods of local communities and minimizes environmental impacts
of changing land use by urban ownership.
Considering the physiography and climate of the Northern Western
Ghats, or Sahyadri mountains, as they are called in Maharashtra, the
region should support a tropical semi evergreen forest around the
crestline and moist deciduous forest near the eastern end of its spurs.
This should have been the climax state and applicable to the Panshet
catchment area too. However, it has degraded variedly and
fragmented due to use by local communities for cultivation or/and due
to intrusion from outsiders. Pressures of modern development are far
too evident here.
Defining signatures for ground survey
The original forest cover and biodiversity remain in but a few pockets
of government protected areas throughout Sahyadri or within semi-

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protected areas like scared groves. Sacred groves are ancient forest
patches which have been conserved through traditional practices of
social fencing and deity worship. For centuries, no human interference
is permitted in such groves and thus they represent forest conditions of
thousands of years ago.
The Bhimashankar wild life sanctuary is a good representation of a
protected area and hence was included in the study region. The rest of
the landscape in Sahyadri has degraded to various seral stages
depending on the degree of disturbance resulting from of socio-
economic changes in the catchment. ES had conducted a detailed study
of Panshet catchment in 1984-85 which supports similar results. The
study of 1984-85 reports dominance of vegetation all over the
catchment. Extending this further, the current study attempts to evolve
a signature based on composition of the vegetation, height and quality.
The term quality is used here based on whether the patch comprises
specialist species as a remnant from earlier forest or common species
indicating degradation.
A review of publications was undertaken to arrive at a consistent
referencing in the report. Various researchers have used standard terms
like Evergreen forests, deciduous forests, grasslands etc. to indicate
various seral stages within Northern Western Ghats. In this survey,
similar terms were employed with some modification as per the site
specificity to cover each vegetation class.
Five major vegetation classes are defined to map the vegetation classes
and other biodiversity associated with it. –
1. Open grasslands
2. Scrub
3. Dwarf canopy forests
4. Tall canopy forests and
5. Mature forests
Composition of species pertaining to each of these classes is more or
less definite with some overlaps. As the survey progressed, a need was
felt to add more vegetation classes. Consequently, Carvia callosa

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patches, Carvia callosa& dwarf canopy, Dense shrubbery, Sparse
vegetation, Sparse vegetation dominated by trees were added to the
above five classes.
In this survey we mapped the vegetation classes and biodiversity and
also assessed the current changes in the land use. Along with the
vegetation classes, land classes too were mapped in detail. The land
classes are:
1. Agriculture
2. Plantations; further divided in -
a. Non-native Plantations
b. Bamboo Plantation around Settlement
c. Horticulture
d. Old Non-native Plantations with regenerating natives
3. Road
4. Area Affected By Road
5. Bamboo
6. Modern Development
7. Quarry
8. Shifting Cultivation Patches
9. Settlements
These land classes were marked on ground with GPS co-ordinates and
then transferred to the satellite image.
During field survey, 47 different patches were surveyed within six
months. Associated biodiversity is documented in standard formats.
Endemism, IUCN status, and legal status of each species is also
mentioned in these formats.
(Reference: Management of Forests in Northern Western Ghats, Ketaki
Ghate, Journal of Ecological Society, Volume 26 – 27, 2014)

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4. Land use and vegetation classes in Panshet
catchment
GIS map for Land use & Vegetation classes for Panshet
catchment
The vegetation and land classes discussed in the earlier section were
truthed on site and plotted on the digital map of the study region. The
figure below is the Land use map for the Panshet catchment.
Area by land use
Field research teams compiled the following area statements for the
entire catchment (Table 1).

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Table 1: Area Statements of Vegetation Classes
No
Head (in descending order of area)
Acres
Percent
1
Carvia callosa and Dwarf Canopy
7034.84
27.31%
2
Open Grassland
2616.16
10.16%
3
Carvia callosa patches
2558.51
9.93%
4
Dense Shrubbery
2052.47
7.97%
5
Agriculture
1571.16
6.10%
6
Sparse Vegetation
1545.06
6.00%
7
Mature Forest
1542.16
5.99%
8
Scrub
1502.26
5.83%
9
Tall Canopy
1319.95
5.12%
10
Dwarf Canopy
1026.05
3.98%
11
Sparse Vegetation Dominated By Trees
821.31
3.19%
12
Rocky Outcrop
651.97
2.53%
13
Settlement with Bamboo Plantation
441.76
1.72%
14
Non-native Plantations
289.7
1.12%
15
Road
209.73
0.81%
16
Modern Development
195.6
0.76%
17
Current Shifting Cultivation
158.21
0.61%
18
Non-native Plantations with regenerating Natives
83.28
0.32%
19
Horticulture
44.94
0.17%
20
Potential Stream habitat
34.61
0.13%
21
Area Affected By Road
27.98
0.11%
22
Free Face
25.38
0.10%
23
Quarry
3.56
0.01%
24
Bamboo
1.25
0.00%
Total
25757.9
100%
Since the above classification was too granular, the 24 areas in Table 1
were clubbed into 5 major land classes as depicted in Table 2. This
gives an overview on the current status of catchment.

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Table 2: Area Statement of Land Classes
No.
Land class / Vegetation class
(in descending order of area)
Area
%
1
Dwarf canopy
10113.36
40
2
Scrub
6427.13
25
3
Open grasslands
3268.13
12
4
Human use
3027.16
12
5
Mature forest
2922.1
11
25757.89
100
Conclusions:
1. The study revealed that most of the sensitive species, both floral &
fauna are now pertaining to mature forest only. Immediate action
is needed to conserve endemic and special biodiversity.
2. The largest vegetation class is Carvia callosa & dwarf canopy
(40%). This suggests some change in seral stage, from grassland
towards shrubbery i.e. improved canopy vegetation. This shows
the regenerative capacity of the hills.
3. There is a need to consider the future threats and develop a
conservation strategy for them.
4. Large scale “Landscape Restoration Programs” can be initiated for
vegetation or land classes other than mature forests.

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5. Glimpses of earlier study of Panshet catchment:
1983 – 1985
Ecological Society had conducted a detailed survey of Panshet
catchment during 1983 to 1985 and the related report was published in
1986.
Map showing vegetation classes in 1986
A handmade map was printed in this report which gives approximate
idea and an overview of the status of the vegetation classes at that time.
(Please see Annexure XII, Part I).The report also provides notes on the
rest of the biodiversity and its associations within the catchment area.
This map was transferred to a GIS platform to show the following:

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Area by land use as of 1986
No
Land class
Area Acres
1986
%
1986
1
Open grasslands
10507.11
43
2
Dwarf canopy
10076.765
41
3
Scrub
1908.6796
8
4
Mature forest
1853.7058
8
5
Human use
0

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6. Panshet Catchment – comparison with prior study
Area statement as of 1986
Table comparing the area by land us from reports of 1986 and 2014.
Comments:
1. The above table shows that dwarf canopy forest has not changed
much since 1986. A probable explanation is that during 1980s
large portions of tall canopy forests were felled for coal. As coal
usage in the cities decreased, some of those patches are
undergoing slow restoration.
2. Scrub land has increased significantly since 1986. This could be
an indicator of undergoing restoration where the next level
succession is achieved. However, these may not be the same
patches and other patches of dwarf canopy may have degraded to
scrub land.
3. The mature forests area cover has increased.
4. Human use of land which was insignificant in 1986 has now
increased.
5. Though human interventions overall have increased, one major
cause of human intervention from 1983-1985, namely, shifting
cultivation, has reduced significantly in 2014. The protection
afforded to the forest due to this, is a possible reason for increase
in dwarf canopy forest and scrublands.
No
Land class
Area Acres
1986
%
1986
Area Acres
2014
%
2014
1
Dwarf canopy
10076.765
41
10113.363
40
2
Scrub
1908.6796
8
6427.1343
25
3
Open grasslands
10507.11
43
3268.1327
12
4
Human use
0
3027.1571
12
5
Mature forest
1853.7058
8
2922.1019
11

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Comparison of biodiversity:
Table: Comparison of species count between 1983-85 and 2014
Number of species recorded
Taxa
1985
2014
Flora
406
448
Birds
153
134
Mammals
19
8
Reptiles
Not recorded
9
Important findings:
 Other than the apparent changes in the number of flora and fauna
species, this data is insufficient to draw further conclusions. The
data was collected mainly to assess species as an indicator. Some
rare species which were recorded in the earlier survey were not
recorded in this survey. The current survey was carried out in a
span of 6 months and it is possible that those species might have
been absent temporarily; hence no species-specific conclusions are
being made.
 Number of bird species recorded in 1985 survey are 153. Number
of bird species recorded in 2014 survey are 134. However, 21 bird
species observed in 2014 were not recorded in 1985.
They are - Indian Cormorant, Grey heron, Little stint, Little grebe,
River Tern, Ruddy breasted crake, Laggar Falcon, Nilgiri
Woodpigeon, Eurasian collared dove, Grey bellied cuckoo,
Common hawk cuckoo, Brown headed barbet, Brown Shrike,
Tawny bellied babbler, Plain prinia, Sulphur-bellied Warbler,
Greenish warbler, White-rumped Munia, Golden fronted leafbird,
Indian Roller, Rufous Treepie.
 The Indian Giant Squirrel is a new sighting as compared to 1985
survey. It was observed in the larger sacred groves in 1960s but
not later (Gole, 1985). Bonnet Macaque is also a new sighting
compared to 1985.

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 New sightings about Reptiles in 2014 - Green Keelback, Common
krait, Bombay Shieldtail, Phipson's Shieldtail. Both the Shieldtails
are endemic to Western Ghats.

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7. Supporting data of Panshet catchment
Map showing forest patches with high endemic biodiversity
Map of 32 forest patches within Panshet catchment showing high
endemism and with specialist species.
Short summary of status of the biodiversity within the catchment
Overall status of the catchment can be summarized as given below :
Number of
species recorded
Number of Endemic species
IUCN & WPA
Schedule,
Specialist / Rare
species
FLORA
425 (Native) + 23
(non- native) =
448
Endemic plants – 74
Endemic to India – 55
Endemic to Western Ghats- 13
Endemic to Northern Western Ghats-
4 Endemic to peninsular India- 2
IUCN – 3
(2 VU, 1 NT)
Specialist -32
Rare - 21
FAUNA
272
{Birds- 134
Birds -
Endemic birds – 36
Birds –

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Butterflies – 70
Amphibians – 9
Reptiles – 9
Mammals – 8
Dragonflies-12
Moths -6
Other insects and
Arthropods – 24}
Endemic to the Indian Subcontinent -
20Endemic to India & SriLanka- 3
Endemic to India- 4
Endemic to peninsular India – 5
Endemic to Western Ghats -1
Endemic to Western Ghats + Tamilnadu
– 2
Endemic to Western Ghats + Western
satpuda-1
IUCN - 4
(1 VU+ 2 NT + 1 CR)
Butterflies –
WPA schedule I – 4;
schedule II- 1;
Schedule IV- 1
Endemic Amphibians (endemic to
Western Ghats) – 2
Endemic Reptiles(endemic to Western
Ghats) – 2
Reptiles –
WPA schedule II- 1
Schedule IV- 5
Endemic Mammals– 2 (1 endemic to
India & 1 endemic to peninsular India)
Mammals –
WPA schedule II- 3;
schedule III- 2;
schedule IV- 1
Comments on the status of biodiversity in the study region:
1. Other than a few mature forest patches where climax communities
are seen, the catchment shows an overall degradation in the
biodiversity.
2. The distribution of biodiversity within the catchment is correlated
to the rainfall. There are four rainfall zones within the catchment
and the biodiversity changes from east to west within them.

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3. Rainfall zone 3 and 4 represents more of moist deciduous
vegetation with dominance of grasslands and degraded areas.
Remnants of original forests are seen only in the form of sacred
groves, albeit in a degraded stage.
4. Rainfall zones 1 and 2 represent tropical semi evergreen
vegetation and are in a better condition compared to rainfall zone
3 and 4. Original tropical semi evergreen forests are seen to be
intact in sacred groves, few riparian patches and certain privately
protected patches.
5. Rainfall zone 1 seems to be most fragile in term of biodiversity.
Patches other than sacred groves and protected areas also show
endemic species but in a highly scattered manner. Ecological
Society (1986) had suggested making this zone into a sanctuary, it
being the source region for the river Ambi. If this strategy is
applied to other catchments within Northern Western Ghats it
would form a North - South corridor which would not only
provide corridor for movement of higher animals but would also
conserve source regions of all rivers.

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8. An analysis of the restoration potential of Panshet
catchment
The detailed ecological survey of the Panshet catchment enabled
us to assess restoration potential of various sections in the
catchment based on their current vegetation class and
biodiversity.
GIS map of restoration priority classes
Table: Area statement according to Restoration Priority
Class
No
Priority
Vegetation class
Area
%
1
Priority 1
Mature forest
2922.10
11
2
Priority 2
Degraded forests
16540.50
65

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3
Priority 3
Open grasslands
3268.13
12
4
Priority 4
Human use
3027.16
12
25757.88
100
Discussion:
1. The table above classifies areas into priority zones for conservation
and restoration.
2. Mature forests with special endemic biodiversity lead the priority
list. If their protection and conservation is not immediately
undertaken, several species may get locally wiped out from the
catchment.
3. There is a great potential in degraded forests to be restored back to
their original shape, as remnants of earlier forests still exist. Root
stock in such areas helps in quicker restoration than totally barren
areas or grasslands.
4. Grasslands being a different habitat than forests, will take a longer
time to restore to forests. They are lower on priority as forest
endemic species have already been lost from these areas. However,
taking into account local needs like fodder, some of such
grasslands may be restored into higher quality grasslands.
5. Though it appears that land under human use is minimal, future
threat needs to be recognized. Urban ownership is evident as farm
houses and fenced plots on slopes. This could be a major future
threat to ecosystem health and biodiversity in the catchment.
6. This restoration potential analysis is only based on ‘ecological
conditions’. Practically it has more layers to it owing to the
ownership status in catchment under department of forest, state
department of irrigation & private lands.

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9. Socioeconomic study in Panshet catchment
In order to connect changes in vegetation and bio-diversity with human
actions, socio-economic data was collected from villages in the Panshet
catchment. The objective was to assess:
1. Energy demand and its sources, food, forest resources, water
demand and sources, land use, agricultural inputs, soil quality
in the village.
2. Occupations and livelihood in the villages
3. Migration of locals to the city
4. To understand the local economy and its integration with urban
economy
5. Health, happiness, and well-being
6. To understand local problems and key demands of local
populations
A dipstick study was undertaken with a semi-structured questionnaire.
Eight families across six villages were interviewed in the catchment
area in each of the four rainfall zones defined in (Gole, 1985) and
(Brahme, 1986). A questionnaire template was filled in based on the
interview notes.
Key Socioeconomic Findings
Population & Households: Relative to 1986, the population and
households of individual villages has mostly declined or lagged the
state/national population growth rate. This is more pronounced in
smaller villages than larger villages like Panshet Colony or Kadve.

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Table: Population by village
Zone
Village
1981 census
2014 interviews
Population
Households
Population
Households
I
Panshet
gaothan
71
9
40-50
8-10
Ambegaon
Khurd
339
65
90
10-12
Kadve
741
134
1300
170
II
Kambegi
95
21
50-60
10-12
III
Gondekhal
128
39
50-60
12
IV
Dapsare
187
44
180-200
28
The primary reason is migration to the cities (or in some cases, to
Panshet Colony). While Kadve’s population has actually increased, it
should be noted that, being situated in a side valley, Kadve was not
displaced when the Panshet dam was built, unlike the other 23 villages
in Panshet catchment area.
Occupations: In 1985, “rice was no longer cultivated in the
catchment except for some families in segment III and by some who
have parts of their holdings near stream” (Gole, 1985). At that time, a
three-year shifting cultivation pattern of Nachani-Varai-Karale-Teel
(Eleusine coracana, Panicum miliaceum, Guizotia abyssinica) was
dominant. This pattern is still followed at very few places.
Today Rain-fed agriculture continues to be the main occupation of
those who stay in the villages. In cases where little to no land is
farmed, cattle-rearing for milk is a key occupation.
Income from agriculture has continued to stay at sustenance levels or
below it. Most farmers take crops of Rice and Nachani, for household
consumption and not for sale. This was recorded in 1985 too. Varai,
and Teelare also being grown but declining. No cash crops are
present.
There seems to be variation in the rice yield across farmers. Farmers
mentioned yields of between 100 kg/acre to 500 kg/acre. Some

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
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variation could be attributed to (1) Destruction of crops by wild boar
(2) Extensive use of chemical fertilizers by some farmers (3)
Productive agriculture by some farmers due to relatively high
availability of labour.
These are anecdotal findings and definitive view on yields will need a
detailed survey.
Other occupations or supplementary income sources include rearing
cattle to sell milk, cultivating and selling Bamboo or household items
from Bamboo, rearing goat and sheep for self and for others, working
with the Gram Panchayat (Village Council), etc. Other than the larger
villages like Kadve or Panshet Colony, there are no signs of specialist
services like barbers, carpenters, etc.
The purchase rate for milk now stands at Rs. 30-32/liter, relative to
Rs. 2.5-3 in 1985. An average annual rise of 9%, this is just slightly
above India’s inflation rate of approximately 7% during this period.
Milk production occupation is not profitable due to the increasing
scarcity of fodder and rising prices of cattle.
Compared to 1985, some natural resource-centric occupations have
closed down. Coal making from forest wood has reduced as has
harvesting of Hirda Terminalia chebula tree produce. In 1985, 15% of
the annual household income was estimated to come from mango and
minor forest produce. In this study, sale of mango was not found to be
significant. It is undertaken mainly by those who have access to the
produce. Similarly little evidence was recorded of sale of Jamun and
other minor forest produce. Relative to 1985, it seems to be declining
even as a temporary occupation.
A new occupation has emerged - services of household help / laborers
/ watchman / cook and similar services being provided by individuals
to occupants of urban owner bungalows. These jobs pay about

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
28
Rs.100/day. In some villages nearly 10% of the population is engaged
in them.
The milk-vending dhangar (pastoral) households have also declined,
mostly to single digits in any given village (in some cases, only 1-2 in
a village). They continue to reside in the mountain slopes near the
villages.
Some other new occupations recorded are in the land business, serving
urban buyers for fulfilling their land based demands. These include
real estate agents, building contractors, craftsmen, consultants,
architects, and others. Most of this, however, is visiting population.
Land Use: Shifting cultivation continues to be the dominant method
for agriculture and continues to affect land use. Relative to 1985, the
following changes are observed:
1. In the absence of land share arrangements, farmers have left
part of their land permanently fallow
2. The fallow period in shifting cultivation is declining as farmers
are trying to maximize output and are ready to use chemical
fertilizers extensively. Gole (1985) mentions that in Sector I,
fallow period was already shortening even in the mid-80s. This
process seems to have continued further and become more
widespread.
3. Overall land under active agriculture has declined. As per
Brahme (1986), 1044 hectares was the cultivated land area in
1986. According to the 2014study, 1571 acres is under paddy
cultivation while 158 acre is under shifting cultivation of
nachani, varai, or teel. This is a total of 1729 acres or 691
hectares.
Some of the land has also been claimed in land deals by urbanites –
mostly for non-agricultural use. The land ownership transfers started
in 1970s/80s, caught momentum in the mid-1990s and continues
today. It is likely that some of these land parcels have changed hands

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
29
multiple times among urban land investors with surplus wealth. Even
as the landscape appears rural, it is partially composed of urban
ownership.
Caste Mix: Kunabi, Maratha and Bouddha continue to be the main
castes in most villages. Caste tolerance has increased somewhat
relative to the prior decades, perhaps due to urban integration of most
families.
Land Holding: Small farmers hold 4-5 acres of farmland while a
relatively large land holding would comprise of 10-15 acre. There are
some families holding as small as 1-2 acres, primarily due to the
successive distribution of holdings across generations.
Cattle: In 1985, while qualitative depletion of habitat was noted, a
large number of families had cattle (Gole, 1985). By 2014, several
farmer households have sold off cattle due to lack of fodder, lack of
use, or increasing costs. In some villages less than20% households
own cattle (1-6 each). In 1985, Dapsare had a population of 187 across
44 households. It had 98 cows, 67 bulls, and 53 buffalo (total 218
cattle) or an average of 4.95 cattle per household assuming each
household had cattle. In 2014, only 20% households had cattle and
only 2-4 each. In Ambegaon Khurd, the cattle count has reduced from
310 (excluding goats) in 1985, to 40-50 in 2014.
Those in the milk business own relatively more cattle. Majority of the
cattle are native species. Farther in the catchment, transport imposes
increased costs in selling of milk.
Cattle feed on forest land and agricultural residue. Grazing commons
(gaayraan) which existed in some villages earlier are now ignored or
barren. As such, even though overall cattle numbers have declined
relative to 1985, cattle grazing continues to be a cause of the
degradation of the forest ecosystem.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
30
Quality of soil (agricultural land) is declining, particularly in Zones
I-III. There is a relatively higher use of urea mix than before, while
organic manure also continues to be used. Farmers are realizing that
though yields have improved in short run due to use of chemical
fertilizers, the crops have also become more prone to diseases and
quality of soil will decline over the long term.
Vegetation around villages is on a general decline too, over the last
20+ years. e.g. The Hirda trees, once common in this area, are now
almost completely exploited.
Forest food and resources: The villagers’ food habits have
increasingly grown to be similar to urban tastes. Consumption of
wheat has increased. Apart from some forest vegetables during the
monsoon season or the seasonal mangoes and jackfruit, no other forest
food is consumed. They are heavily dependent on the forest for fuel
wood – Karavanda, Kaarvi,Ain, and Borbeing the plants of choice. A
few of them make items of household use from bamboo as a side
occupation. Awareness of medicinal plants is on the decline, except
for places like Dapsare which are closer to Sacred Groves.
Villagers admitted to cutting fuel wood from all over the catchment
except sacred groves. As urban land owners fence off their properties,
access to fuel wood has decreased.
Sacred Groves: In Gondekhal, a small sacred grove (devrai) is
adjacent to the village. It has 4 deities: Mari Aai, Lakshmi Aai,
Somjaee, Varadani. Cattle-grazing is allowed in this sacred grove.
Dapsare has a sacred grove adjacent to village. Some of its plants
include Entada rheedi - Garambi,Persea macrantha - Gulum,
Dimocarpus longan - Yeru, Adhatoda vasica - Adulsa, , Memecylon
umbellatum - Anjan,Mallotus philipens - Shendari,Solanum indicum -
Raanvangi,Zanthoxylum rhetsa - Khokla. The sacred grove is
respected and cattle-grazing/cutting does not seem to be too common
in it.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
31
Schools: Some of the villages have nursery schools (Aanganwadis)
and schools till 8th grade, while some with lower population (e.g. less
than 15 households) do not have any schools. Children from these
villages have the option of walking to schools in nearby villages,
which may be some distance away. The schools have teachers on
government roll. Due to the decline in population, the number of
students enrolled is small. Absenteeism within teachers is also an
issue. Beyond 8th grade, the only option is to study at schools at
Panshet Township. Many students commute daily, which is tiresome
and time-consuming, because there is only one bus from these villages
to Panshet town. Some others live in hostels in the town, but they are
expensive. Due to urban integration, many of the young families have
anyway migrated to Pune, Mumbai, and other cities, and their children
are studying in city schools.
Other Amenities: There are no Primary Health Centers or Ration
Shops in these villages, though they are a necessity of the villagers.
Particularly in case of health emergencies, the patients either have to
be taken to places like Panshet or Khanapur and some patients even
die due to the lack of transport.
NGO presence: Other than occasional associations with NGOs (e.g.
Ecological Society’s field station providing grass to Panshet gaothan
villagers, or the Rotary Club making a donation/ providing a facility),
there is no presence of NGOs in this area.
Some Local Problems& Pain Points
1. Destruction of crops by animals like wild boar, monkeys, and
barking deer.
2. Declining agricultural yields and degrading soil quality
3. Poor public transport to connectivity to Panshet and Pune. There is
only one bus per day to go to Panshet.
4. Schools are not well managed. Students may walk long distances
wasting time.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
32
5. Most children residing here can get education only till 8th/9th (that
too in Panshet) and later have to work in menial jobs like labourers,
drivers or unskilled computer work.
6. Farmers do not grow enough food to meet their sustenance needs.
They have to buy food from the market or are dependent on income
sent by urban family members.
7. Transport costs have increased rapidly. Producing and selling to the
city is increasingly expensive.
8. Local governance bodies (gram-panchayats) are dominated by
some families and may not hold regular meetings or do not pass
information about government schemes to villagers.
9. Local communities in this region are seen to have a hand to mouth
existence. There are daily struggles for food, fodder, and health
services. They do not have major aspirations for local growth as
their basic needs are not being met. Sometimes, they have
misplaced aspirations. E.g. in Dapsare, villagers are unhappy
because a nearby road connecting to Konkan cannot be built due to
forest land reservations. They are also unhappy because the
Western Ghats Panel declared the area an eco-sensitive zone and
new construction activity is restricted. They feel this constrains
‘development’ of their area. They have no idea of what alterative
growth models could be used.
Analysis and Discussion
1. Gole (1985) wrote, “..the average family residing in the Panshet
catchment today barely earns enough to sustain itself. The
agriculture they practice is primitive, less productive, and generally
harmful to the environment. The cattle they keep also produce less,
do not get enough nutrition, and are a drain on the time and energy
of the family”. The present dipstick survey shows that these trends
have either remained the same or worsened. Farmers are relying
on chemical fertilizers to produce more. Soil quality has declined.
The number of cattle have declined significantly. Despite all the
investments and extensive agricultural research and outreach by the

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
33
government, the farmer of the Panshet catchment seems to be more
or less at the same place socio-economically.
2. Gole (1985) also noted “With the disappearance of the forest, their
sources of income are also fast declining”. This process has
worsened. Not only income, but even knowledge of the forest and
its produce has shown a decline from 1985 to 2014. The forest
department has taken efforts to protect the forests, but a symbiotic
relationship between the forest and people or preservation of any
kind of significant ecological niche could not be seen. Barring a few
examples, even the sacred groves have suffered from degradation, as
noted elsewhere. There is little interest among villagers to conserve
local natureother than the sacred groves.
3. Gole (1985) noted, “The people…have to fall back on selling off
remaining trees to charcoal merchants and to rely heavily on
government subsidies”. The degradation of the forest has
continued. Charcoal was a temporary cash cow back then. Today,
real estate is the cash cow. A farmer cannot justify continued
productive use of land for agriculture when urban demand offers
several times their annual incomes for the same piece of land
particularly in face of all the hardships in agriculture in the Western
Ghats. Those who do not have access to such wealth creation tools
are increasingly dependent on their city-based relatives who
migrated from here.
4. There is a depressed or negative feeling among most of the villagers
who have been residing here, particularly in Zone I-III. Decades of
lack of facilities and poor governance have created this
depression (e.g. healthcare, education, transport). Their next
generations have little by way of development options and may need
to migrate to cities.
5. For new occupations and ideas, lack of manpower may prove to be
an impediment as younger people have migrated out.
6. Discussion: Land sales to urbanites are and will continue to be the
main tool for wealth creation in this area. Setting up ecological
restoration programs involving the locals to conserve nature may
face hurdles, unless linked to monetary rewards or short-term

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
34
benefits. Urban owners in these land markets will be key influencers
of this landscape as well as its conservation. Urban ownership is
more likely to attract real estate development and tourism putting
more demand on roads and creating townships, farmhouse/bungalow
schemes, and industrial parks. This may increase destruction than
make way for conservation. A landscape-based ecosystems
management approach practiced over the region, significant
government support in conservation, a good governance
approach and a stop to further roads and real estate
development will save this landscape. If conservation and
restoration programs are designed to reward the local populations
meaningfully and also create better soft infrastructure for the
community, these could prove to be saviors of the region.
References for socio-economic study:
 An enquiry into the status of animal and plant life in the
critical areas of Western Ghats in order to evolve a plan to
conserve their biological diversity, Vol. 1, Gole, Prakash and
Telali, P., Ecological Society, 1985
 Economic and ecological impact of Panshet reservoir: A study
in problems and ecodevelopment alternative, Brahme, Sulabha
and Tetali, P., Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics,
1986

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
35
10. Templates for undertaking restoration in Northern Western
Ghats
Our 1985 survey showed a depressed resource situation in the Panshet
catchment. The villagers had little access to water, little fertile land,
and faced several livelihood issues. Their lifestyle was dependent on
natural resources, but because of the forest’s degradation, grass and
forest produce availability was not abundant.
As a solution both to the ecological and socio-economic problems, the
Ecological Society (ES) suggested measures of nature restoration. The
high rainfall in this region is a true ‘nature’s subsidy’ and with extra
efforts of restoration, resource availability can increase significantly.
In 1986, ES leased a patch of a hill slope in the forest land from the
Department of Irrigation, State of Maharashtra. A 3-year passive
restoration exercise was initiated at this site. The detailed chronology
and results of this restoration experience is summarized in Annexure
VI.As a result of this project, ES developed initial templates and
methodologies for forest restoration in the Northern Western Ghats.
Similarly, the project guides (Oikos Eco-Services) brought experience
from commercial work in restoration in others sites of Northern
Western Ghats.
In the current project, we enhanced these templates to take into account
the starting point (current vegetation class of a landmass), the end point
(the desired end state ecosystem) and the set of restoration techniques
which will take us from the starting point to the end point.
Below we provide
 A high-level template for a conservation approach which may
or may not have community livelihood-related objectives
 A high-level template for a community-centric approach with
clear livelihood support objectives

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
36
 A detailed template which can be implemented with expert
involvement
A. Conservation approach
No.
Restoration
activities*
Broad Scheme of the technique
1
Protection
Total protection from cutting of vegetation,
cattle and fire is the necessary first step. Use
of dry fencing and live hedges.
2
Soil &
moisture
conservation
Erosion prone areas or slopes to be worked on
with the help of local materials like stones and
boulders to arrest soil and reduce water
velocity.
3
Vegetation
management
Protection to existing flora. Stage wise
plantation of natives: initially hardy plants and
then desired plants. Removal of non-natives.
4
Habitat
creation
Creation of rock piles, log piles, wetlands.
Plantation of larval host plants, shrub clusters.
5
Plantation
(Native plants)
Native plants to be selected as per the current
status of the soil and land.
6
Seed dispersal
(Native plants)
An economical way of introducing native
plants and test the regenerating capacity of the
soil.
* Please refer to Annexure II for photographic explanation of the
above restoration techniques.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
37
Suggested application of restoration techniques
Current status
of land
Grass
-lands
Scrub
Shrub-
bery
Dwarf
canopy
Tall
canop
y
Matur
e
forest
End
point
Semi
-
ever
gree
n
Fore
st
Restoration
activities No.
(from above
table)
1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6
1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6
1, 3, 5,
6
1, 5, 6
1, 5, 6
1, 5, 6
Approximate
time frame
(years)
15 -
20
10 - 12
10 - 15
10 - 15
10 -
15
15 –
20
The time frame is based on observations of local people & the
restoration experiment carried out by Ecological Society in the Panshet
catchment and our experience on other such projects.
B. Community approach
Starting point
No.
Restoration technique
Grasslands
Scrub
Dwarf Canopy
1
Protection
 (Objective:
Management
for fodder)

 (Objective:
Management
for fuel wood)
2
Soil & moisture
conservation


3
Vegetation
management


4
Habitat creation



5
Plantation

End point : Sustainable livelihood support
This approach does not include tall or mature canopy patches as they
have to be protected and conserved as is.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
38
C. Detailed template for restoration useful in implementation
Measuring the key indicators below will help track the path of the
restoration effort. Often the direction of restoration may be subject
to nature’s vagaries, local climatic effects, and impacts of human
interference. Tracking these indicators will help judge the kind of
interventions needed to keep restoration on the desired path.
Indicator
Details
Year wise data
Year
1
Year
2
Year
3
A
Biomass
Increase in biomass
Dry and wet biomass of grasses,
Leaf litter
B
Overall biodiversity
Increase in habitat
diversity
Grassy areas : Shrub Clusters :
Tree clusters : Instream habitats*
: Wetlands
Index of diversity (Pre-
monsoon) - May
Number of species to be recorded
from each habitat
Index of diversity
(During monsoon) -
August
Number of species to be recorded
from each habitat
Index of diversity
(Post-monsoon)-
October
Number of species to be recorded
from each habitat
Improvement in
biodiversity
Ratio of Species indicating
degradation to Species indicating
improvement
C
Soil and moisture
conservation
Soil quantity arrested
Soil pH
Soil temperatures
Soil carbon
Water recharge
capacity
Conductivity
Moisture monitoring
Thrice a year
D
Vegetation
Change in % of cover
types
Ratio of No-vegetation : grass :
shrub : tree

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
39
Revival of shrubs
Av. height and width of
monitored clumps
Natural regeneration
Number & species of regenerated
saplings within quadrates
Increase in herbaceous
flora
Species Status : Common, Few,
Rare
Change in Grass
community
Composition of grasses, % area
for each species
Overall plant list
Survival of saplings
during dry season and
their ht.
Lists along with numbers
E
Habitat Improvement
Safe site development
Safe sites for special plant,
Nesting of birds, Webs of spiders,
insect diversity and population
etc. : Lists of species and numbers
within quadrates
Improvement in
microclimate
Ambient Temp and humidity
readings : Open areas and Shady
areas
Associations
Plants : Plants
Flora : Fauna
e.g. Butterflies – Foodplants
F
Map of project land
Maintain a map with vegetation
classes, species distribution, and
habitat distribution
* Instream habitats are pools, riffles, bars etc.
Suggestions for Ecological Restoration:
1. When the work of ecological restoration begins on a given
area, total protection is the key factor.
2. A detailed survey of the existing floral and faunal species and
its documentation is necessary. It is useful for comparing data
fromthe future stages of restoration.
3. Removal of any kind of pre-existing native vegetation is not
advised. Whatever vegetation cover exists, is useful for
conserving moisture as it adds biomass and casts shade.
4. For removal of non-native vegetation, expert advice should
besought.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
40
5. During restoration if biomass is added to the site,
documentation of observations regarding species growing on
such area is necessary. It will help to decide duplication /
repetition of such intervention.
6. Where possible, creation of a small wetland or pond is
suggested. This will add to the habitat diversity and help in
improving the micro climate.
7. A good habitat diversity can be planned e.g. Patch of scrub and
grassland and clumps of trees etc. In case of wetlands shallow
sheet of water, sand flats, islands, dykes etc. This will help in
increasing biodiversity.
8. Documentation of special observations is necessary to
understand the trend of the restoration stages. e.g. Excessive
growth of certain herbs along the path or hedges (indicating
disturbances to some extent), occurrence of specialist species,
flocks of certain species of bugs and beetles.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
41
11. Survey of the Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary
The Bhimashankar Wild life Sanctuary, situated on the crest of Western
Ghats,is a Protected Area highly representative of Western Ghats
biodiversity. Bhimashankar harbors a large number of endemic &
specialized flora & fauna. A diversity of vegetation classes are
represented here, including Closed canopy ever green forest, stunted or
scrub ever green forest, moist deciduous & deciduous woodlands etc.
Sacred groves are an integral part of the Bhimashankar forest. Sacred
groves are protected forest patches as a form of Nature worship. They
harbor endemic & matured growth species. Climax vegetation is
observed in sacred groves.
During 1998-99, The Ecological Society conducted a detailed Survey
of birds of the Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary and formulated
guidelines for management of the sanctuary. One of the key
observations from that survey was sensitive birds like the Forest Eagle
Owl have been displaced from the sanctuary because of increased
illumination within its habitat. Birds like the Fairy bluebird, Painted
Spurfowl, certain Woodpeckers & Hornbills which were recorded
earlier are no more seen within the sanctuary.
In this project, an exploratory qualitative survey was conducted to
document changes in the type of forest at Bhimashankar. In view of the
short timeline of the project, a few sample areas were chosen so as to
represent or indicate any change in the forest ecosystem. The research
team selected sample areas based on:
1. Representation of vegetative classes as per the survey report by
ES (2000).
2. Representative locations of Forma Alerts given on GFW
website
3. Representative locations based on stresses.
Short summary of the status of biodiversity: Bhimashankar
Wildlife Sanctuary

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
42
Survey Period - September 2014 to December 2014
FLORA
Total Species – 229
Of which endemic to India-
41 and endemic to Western
Ghats- 11) IUCN- 3 (2 VU
+ 1 NT)
FAUNA
Birds – 96 species
Mammals -7
Reptiles- 12
Birds-
The report of 2000has 172 species, whereas
this study recorded 96 species in the four
month period.
Bar tailed godwit, Common greenshank,
Indian blue robin and Stork billed
kingfisher were not recorded previously,
but recorded in the current survey.
Long billed Vultures & White rumped
vultures were abundant &their nesting
recorded in 2000, but not observed during
our 2014visits. According to locals, they
were not spotted here in the last 4 years.
Grey jungle fowl, Red spur fowl, Night jar,
Owls Previously seen commonly & now
Decline in numbers. Reason illumination &
human interference.
House Crow, Jungle crow, and Common
Myna were previously very fewin numbers
but are now abundantly seen near temple
areas, bus stand, parking areas &resorts.
Mammals-
Sambar, Black naped Hare
-
Previously heard & seen
commonly butnow decline
in numbers due to
disturbance & poaching
Barking deer Commonly
seen
Bonnet Macaque- Very few
in numbers previously, but
now abundantly seen near
temple areas, bus stand,
parking areas &resorts.
We also noticed several threats to the Bhimashankar Wildlife
Sanctuary in spite of it being a Protected Area: Hunting, Road
constructions, Dam constructions, Tourists, Garbage dispersal, plastic
intake by animals, Road kills, fuel wood collection, construction of
resorts, Wind mills, etc.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
43
12. Conclusions
Ecological Society’s ecological restoration project can offer a model
for Northern Western Ghats, India
Due to high rainfall and high elevation, the Western Ghats range in
India supports “Tropical semi evergreen type of forest”. Special
physical features have created unique habitats which support endemic
biodiversity. The region was declared as a biodiversity hotspot by
British Environmentalist Normann Myers in year 1988.
The Ecological Society is an NGO based in Pune, India, founded by
ornithologist-ecologist Prakash Gole. In 1985-86, the Society
conducted a detailed ecological and socio-economic survey of the
catchment area of Panshet dam, which is part of Western Ghats
forests. The survey was repeated in 2014 as part of a Small Grants
project from GFW. The video below details degradation in the
Western Ghats forests over this long period.
<<< VIDEO LINK >>>
The current status of the landscape of Western Ghats is the outcome of
years of use by local people since last two centuries, as well as
modern developmental pressures within the last few decades. The
continuous degradation of the landscape has changed the character of
the original forest ecosystem. Due to this, Nature’s Services from
region, whether water for the Deccan peninsula or production of soil,
are severely affected. The case of the Panshet dam tells us that for
short-term benefits of water supply to the city of Pune, long-term
future of an ecosystem and its services was compromised.
Our 1985 survey showed a depressed resource situation. The villagers
had little access to water, little fertile land, and faced several
livelihood issues. Their lifestyle was dependent on natural resources,
but because of the forest’s degradation, grass and forest produce
availability was not abundant.
As a solution both to the ecological and socio-economic problems, the
Ecological Society suggested nature restoration. The high rainfall in

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
44
this region is a true ‘nature’s subsidy’. We felt that with a little extra
effort of restoration, resource availability may increase significantly.
The overall objective of the restoration project was to demonstrate
how nature can be revived and local people can get natural resources.
Specifically,
 Restoration of indigenous flora on denuded and eroded
surfaces
 Planting of species that will help satisfy the basic needs of the
residents
 Cultivation of plants that would help generate income and
should induce people to give up the practice of shifting
cultivation.
The overall chronology of the project is as under:
In 1986, a patch of a hill slope in forest land was leased from the
Department of Irrigation, State of Maharashtra. This land was adjacent
to the Panshet dam wall. The land was degraded due to burning,
trampling, wind, sheet erosion, and physical removal of soil.
During the planning phase, three stages were envisioned:
1. Protecting the area from outside interference, making provision
for water for the dry season, and carrying out soil conservation
measures. This was expected to result in natural regeneration of
grasses, weeds, and hardy local species.
2. This was to be followed by a plantation program, primarily
species that resist grazing and drought conditions.
3. Finally, fruit species like Mango, Jambhul, and Jackfruit were
to be planted, along with other delicate species. Grass was
expected in abundance by this stage. The saplings, fruit, and
grass would be provided to local people.
When the restoration work started in 1986, protection of the land was
emphasized. The area was given protection by thorn fencing and
trench-cum-mound barricades against grazing and trespassing. Other
activities like gulley-plugging, contouring, and ploughing along the
contours were carried out to break run-off and control erosion. In

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
45
May-June 1986, 600 saplings were planted. The 1986 monsoon
season had a normal rainfall and 76% of the saplings survived. The
check dams erected to stop soil erosion held on during the monsoon
season, protecting an accumulation of soil 20-60 cm in depth.
However, beyond this point, grazing proved to be a major disturbance.
Trampling by cattle and eating of sprouted tender leaves destroyed
many a plant. During the 1986-87 dry period, there was no
continuous supply of water for the plants. As a result, out of the 600+
saplings planted originally, only 296 remained to see the monsoon of
1987. During the dry season, trenches lined with plastic sheets were
dug to accumulate water, seeds of native species were collected from
neighboring forests, and a plant nursery was initiated.
The 1987 monsoon was very weak, with only 25 rainy days during the
4-month season. New plantation was executed as per the plan but due
to the weak monsoon, out of 7690 saplings planted, only 5104
survived by October, 1987. Eucalyptus and Agave species were
planted in majority to strengthen fencing around the boundaries of the
project area. A positive outcome of reduction in grazing was natural
regeneration of several native trees, shrubs, climbers, herbs, and
grasses during this monsoon period. By October, 28 species of trees
were growing in the area as opposed to 8 during the 1986 inventory.
Similarly, climbers species grew from 2 to 15 and herbs from 10 to
75. A large area (48000 sq. mt.) now had grass and herb cover. This
attracted bird (12) and butterfly (11) species as well.
During the 1987-88 dry period, various methods were tried to bring
water to the project area but most proved expensive or cumbersome.
As a result, plants had to mostly withstand the season without
irrigation. However, the grasses grew tall and luxuriant (70 cm to 115
cm depending on species). When all the grass was cut, it measured 2.5
metric ton – 100 bundles each valued at Rs. 25-40.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
46
By May 1988, 3836 saplings had survived. At this time, 5 ha was
added to the project area, making the total area 12 ha, but spreading
the project resources thin. But it was thought that a larger area will
support higher species diversity and be more robust for conservation.
At this time, the nursery had completed one year, with many plants
available.
The 1988 monsoon was normal, with abundant rain in July and
August (60 rainy days through the season). The grass and herb cover
from previous years helped control the soil erosion, so did the check
dams. Around 1985 saplings were planted in this year, and this time,
they included many fruit trees, wherever the soil depth was good. As
before, natural regeneration was in full swing. By now, the number of
grass species had increased to 16, from 3 in 1986 and 4 in 1987. As
moisture accumulated near rocks, presence of herbs also continued to
increase. Soil quality had improved, as earthworms were noticed
while digging pits (there was no such occurrence in 1986 or 1987).
More bird and butterfly species were attracted. Mammals like
blakcknaped hare were now residents while barking deer and wild
boar also frequented the area.
During the dry season of 1988-89, grasses in several locations achieve
height greater than 1 m. This time, the grasses were not cut to help
protect the soil from wind and sun and to retain moisture. Due to lack
of irrigation, many of the more recent saplings, particularly the fruit
trees of mango and jackfruit could not survive. Around 1051 saplings
survived by May 1989.
The 1989 monsoon was the last of the planned 3-year first phase.
Hence plantation of trees catering to fuel wood and timber was a
priority, to help meet energy needs of local population. E.g. Lucanea,
teak, and Gliricidia. A total of 1130 trees were planted. The rainfall
during this season was normal and most of the saplings survived.
Moreover, natural regeneration continued profusely. Grasses in

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
47
particular experienced healthy growth again. Themeda reached a
maximum height of 2.5 m while Heteropogon reached 1.75 m.
Tangible outcomes of restoration efforts over three years
Some of the quantifiable results are noted below.
1. Increase in improvement in soil PH (from an average of 5.7 in June
1986 to an average of 6.8 in Sept 1989).
2. Control of soil erosion (25.8 cu.m. silt collected over 993 sq. m. due
to bunds i.e. 1 cu.cm /year/ sq. m.)
3. Increase in quantity and quality of vegetative cover, increase in
naturally growing plants
4. An improvement in the Index of Diversity (from 125 in Sept’87 to
185 in Sept ’89, and from 22.5 in June’87 to 81 in June’89)
5. Significant increase in the supply of grass to support local peoples’
needs, 6. Increase in faunal diversity of bird, butterflies, and
mammals.
For several years after the initial phase, a ‘pact’ was put in place with
local people, where they will not send cattle for grazing in the project
site, and in return, they will get ready grass as cattle feed during the
dry season. This arrangement was mutually beneficial and it provided
grass in quantities of about 20 ton/year to local people.
It was seen that ecological restoration, where protection is provided
and nature is allowed to take its own course, was a more reliable and
less expensive process than horticulture. The project expenses were
Rs. 5952 / ha / year, vs. an estimated Rs. 30000 / ha/ year if traditional
horticulture were to be used.
A planned and cooperative effort, led by local community was
recommended. This is necessary to 1. Reduce destructive practices
like shifting cultivation, 2. Spread the costs of restoration across the
community, and 3. Reap the benefits of restoration collectively

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
48
The project showcases ideal restoration techniques to restore
biodiversity at a very low cost. Even the local community has
benefitted in terms of nutritious fodder for their cattle. This project is
an excellent example of passive restoration which can be replicated
almost anywhere else in the Northern Western Ghats.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
49
13. Annexure I : Biodiversity of Panshet Catchment
Abbreviations & Terms:
E - Evergreen
D - Deciduous
BD - Brevideciduous
IUCN- International Union for Conservation of Nature
EN - Endangered; VU - Vulnerable
NT - Near Threatened; LC - Least Concern
S = Specialist species - Sensitive species requiring specific habitat.
Such species may disappear if habitat is destroyed.
R = Rare species - Species rarely found in Panshet catchment
A. List of ecologically special flora
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Local
name /
Common
name
E/D/
BD
S /
R
Endemism
IUCN
Stat-us
TREES
1
Actinodaphne
angustifolia
Pisa
E
Endemic to
Western
ghats
2
Aglaia lawii
…
E
Endemic to
Western
ghats
3
Bombax insigne
Devsavar
BD
R
4
Bridelia retusa
Asana
BD
Endemic to
India
5
Carallia brachiata
Phanshi
E
R
6
Cassine paniculata
Bhutya
(Thikra)
E
S
7
Celtis tetranda
Brumaj
BD
R
8
Celtis timorensis
BD
R
9
Dalbergia sissoo
Sisoo
D
VU
1
0
Dimocarpus
longan
Umb
E
S

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
50
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Local
name /
Common
name
E/D/
BD
S /
R
Endemism
IUCN
Stat-us
1
1
Dimorphocalyx
lawianus
Jodpakli
E
S
Endemic to
Western
ghats
NT
1
2
Diospyros
sylvatica
E
S
1
3
Elaeocarpus
glandulosus
Rudraksh
E
S
1
4
Ficus nervosa
Loth
E
S
1
5
Flacourtia latifolia
Taambat
D
Endemic to
India
1
6
Garcinia talbotii
Phansada
E
S
Endemic to
Western
ghats
1
7
Glochidion
ellipticum
Bhoma
E
Endemic to
Western
ghats
1
8
Holigarna
grahamii
Raan biba
E
S
Endemic to
Western
ghats
1
9
Hymenodictyon
obovatum
kadva
sirid
BD
Endemic to
India
2
0
Lagerstroemia
microcarpa
Nana
D
Endemic to
India
2
1
Litsea ghatica
E
S
2
2
Mallotus
aureopunctatus
E
S
Endemic to
Western
ghats
2
3
Memecylon
talbotianum
E
S
Endemic to
Western
ghats
2
4
Neolitsea
zeylanica
E
S
2
5
Persea macrantha
Gulum
E
S
2
6
Phoenix loureiroi
var.
pedunculata/Phoen
ix robusta
Shelu
E
R
Endemic to
India
2
7
Sapium insigne/
Falconeria
insignis
Hura
D
VU
2
Sterculia guttata
Kukar
BD
R

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
51
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Local
name /
Common
name
E/D/
BD
S /
R
Endemism
IUCN
Stat-us
8
2
9
Symplocos
racemosa
E
S
3
0
Terminalia
paniculata
Kindal
BD
Endemic to
India
3
1
Tetrameles
nudiflora
BD
R
3
2
Trichilia
connaroides
Limbara
E
R
3
3
Xylia xylocarpa
Zambha
D
R
SHRUB
3
4
Abutilon persicum
Madam
R
3
5
Agrostistachys
indica
Agasti
R
3
6
Anisomeles
heyneana
Gopali
Endemic to
India
3
7
Artemisia
nilagirica
Dhor
Davana
Endemic to
India
3
8
Cajanus lineatus
Ran tur
endemic to
India
3
9
Calacanthus
grandiflorus
R
Endemic to
India
4
0
Capparis
parviflora
Kabar
S
4
1
Carvia callosa /
Strobilanthes
callosus
Karwi
Endemic to
India
4
2
Cissus woodrowii
Girnul
Endemic to
India
4
3
Desmodium
laxiflorum
Asud
R
4
4
Ecbolium
ligustrinum
Hirvi
aboli
R
4
5
Glycosmis
pentaphylla
Kirmira /
Maenaki(
Ban
Limbu)
S
Endemic to
India
4
6
Ixora brachiata
Gorbale
E
Endemic to
Western
ghats

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
52
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Local
name /
Common
name
E/D/
BD
S /
R
Endemism
IUCN
Stat-us
4
7
Ixora nigricans
S
4
8
Maytenus
rothiana/Gymnosp
oria rothiana
Bhalwand
Endemic to
Western
ghats
4
9
Nilgirianthus
heyneanus
Akra
Endemic to
India
5
0
Rauvolfia
verticillata
Alpagand
ha
R
5
1
Thelepaepale
ixiocephala
Patri
Endemic to
India
5
2
Calamus
pseudotenuis
Vet
S
HERBS
5
3
Adelocaryum
coelestinum/
Paracaryopsis
coelestina
Nisurdi
Endemic to
India
5
4
Aeginetia indica
S
5
5
Aerides crispum /
Aerides crispa
Panshing
S
Endemic to
Western
ghats
5
6
Aerides
maculosum
Endemic to
peninsular
India
5
7
Asystasia
dalzelliana
Neelkanth
Endemic to
India
5
8
Balanophora
abbreviata
Alimbi
bandgul
S
5
9
Begonia crenata
Kapru
Endemic to
India
6
0
Chlorophytum gla
ucum
Endemic to
India
6
1
Crinum latifolium
Gulabi
karnaful
R
6
2
Crotalaria filipes
var.filipes
Phatphati
Endemic to
India
6
3
Curcuma caulina /
Hitchenia caulina
Chavar
S
Endemic to
Northern

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
53
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Local
name /
Common
name
E/D/
BD
S /
R
Endemism
IUCN
Stat-us
Western
Ghats
6
4
Curcuma
pseudomontana
Raanhalad
Endemic to
India
6
5
Cynarospermum
asperrimum
Dikna
Endemic to
India
6
6
Desmodium
ritchiei
…..
Endemic to
India
6
7
Ensete superbum
Rankeli
Endemic to
India
6
8
Eranthemum
roseum
Dashmuli
Endemic to
India
6
9
Eria dalzelii
R
Endemic to
Western
Ghats
7
0
Exacum lawii
Lahan
chirayat
Endemic to
India
7
1
Exacum pumilum
Jambhli
chirayat
Endemic to
India
7
2
Geissaspis tenella
Lahan
barki
Endemic to
India
7
3
Habenaria
grandifloriformis
Endemic to
Western
Ghats
7
4
Habenaria
longicorniculata
Endemic to
Peninsular
India
7
5
Haplanthodes
verticillatus
Jakara
Endemic to
India
7
6
Hemigraphis
latebrosa
Morpankh
i
Endemic to
India
7
7
Impatiens acaulis
Endemic to
India
7
8
Impatiens minor
Endemic to
India
7
9
Impatiens
pulcherrima
Dhal -
Terda
Endemic to
India
8
0
Kalanchoe
olivacea
Paanphuti
Endemic to
India
8
1
Lavandula gibsonii
Endemic to
India
8
Malaxis rheedii
Mala amri
S

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
54
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Local
name /
Common
name
E/D/
BD
S /
R
Endemism
IUCN
Stat-us
2
8
3
Pecteilis gigantea
Waghchor
a
S
8
4
Phyllocephalum
tenue
Parnagum
phi
Endemic to
India
8
5
Pimpinella
adscendens
Endemic to
India
8
6
Pinda concanensis
Panda/Pin
da
Endemic to
Northern
Western
Ghats
8
7
Rhamphicarpa
fistulosa / R.
longiflora
Tutari
Endemic to
India
8
8
Senecio
bombayensis
Sonki
Endemic to
India
8
9
Smithia bigemina
Kawla
Endemic to
India
9
0
Smithia hirsuta
Endemic to
India
9
1
Smithia purpurea
Barka
Endemic to
India
9
2
Swertia minor
Endemic to
India
9
3
Tectaria cicutaria
Kombadn
akhi
R
9
4
Trachyspermum
roxburghianum
Pinela
Endemic to
India
9
5
Zingiber neesanum
Nisam
Endemic to
India
CLIMBERS
9
6
Ancistrocladus
heyneanus
Kardal
S
Endemic to
India
9
7
Dalbergia horrida
var. horrida
Pedgul
Endemic to
India
9
8
Caesalpinia
cucullata
Ragi
R
9
9
Gnetum scandens
Umbli
S
1
0
0
Pristimera
grahamii /
Hippocracea
Lokhandi/
daushir
S

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
55
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Local
name /
Common
name
E/D/
BD
S /
R
Endemism
IUCN
Stat-us
grahamii
1
0
1
Argyreia
involucrata
Endemic to
India
1
0
2
Argyreia sericea
Gavel
Endemic to
India
1
0
3
Asparagus
racemosus
Shatavari
Endemic to
India
1
0
4
Ceropegia huberi
Endemic to
northern
Western
Ghats
1
0
5
Ceropegia oculata
Mor
kharchudi
Endemic to
India
1
0
6
Clematis heynei
Raanjai
Endemic to
India
1
0
7
Cynanchum
tunicatum
Panchali
R
1
0
8
Dioscorea
belophylla
R
Endemic to
India
1
0
9
Entada rheedei
Garambi
S
1
1
0
Gymnema
khandalense/Bidar
ia khandalense
S
Endemic to
Northern
Western
Ghats
1
1
1
Hoya wightii
Ambari
S
Endemic to
India
1
1
2
Jasminum
malabaricum
Kusar
Endemic to
India
1
1
3
Piper spp.
S

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
56
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Local
name /
Common
name
E/D/
BD
S /
R
Endemism
IUCN
Stat-us
1
1
4
Toddalia asiatica
jungli
mirchi
S

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
57
B. List of Ecologically Special fauna
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Common name
Endemism
IUCN
WPA
Sched
ule
Birds
1
Acritillas indica /
Iole indica
Yellow browed
bulbul
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
(India &
Shrilanka)
LC
2
Aethopyga vigorsii
Vigors's sunbird
endemic to
northern western
ghats and western
satpuda.
LC
3
Ammomanes
phoenicura
Rufous-tailed lark
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
(India &
Pakistan)
LC
4
Cacomantis
passerinus
Grey bellied
cuckoo
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
5
Cinnyris lotenia
Loten's sunbird
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent (
India &
shrilanka)
LC
6
Columba
elphinstonii
Nilgiri
woodpigeon
endemic to
peninsular India
VU
7
Copsychus fulicatus
/ Saxicoloides
fulicatus
Indian Robin
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
8
Corvus
macrorhynchos
Jungle Crow
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
9
Cyornis pallipes
White-bellied
blue flycatcher
endemic to
Western ghats &
west Tamilnadu
hills
LC
1
0
Dicaeum concolor
Nilgiri
flowerpecker
endemic to
Western ghats &
Tamilnadu
LC

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
58
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Common name
Endemism
IUCN
WPA
Sched
ule
1
1
Dicaeum
erythrorhynchos
Pale billed
flowerpecker
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
1
2
Dumetia hyperythra
Tawny bellied
babbler
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
1
3
Edolius
caerulescens /
Dicrurus
caerulescens
White bellied
Drongo
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
1
4
Falco jugger
Laggar Falcon
NT
1
5
Galerida
malabarica
Malabar lark
endemic to
western ghats
LC
1
6
Galloperdix
spadicea
Red Spurfowl
endemic to India
LC
1
7
Gallus sonneratii
Grey junglefowl
endemic to India
LC
II
1
8
Gyps indicus
Indian Vulture
CR
I
1
9
Hierococcyx varius
Common hawk
cuckoo
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
2
0
Hypsipetes ganeesa
Square-tailed
Bulbul
endemic to India
& Shrilanka
2
1
Leptocoma
zeylonica
Purple-rumped
Sunbird
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
2
2
Megalaima viridis
White cheeked
barbet
endemic to
peninsular India
LC
2
3
Megalaima
zeylanica
Brown headed
barbet
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
2
4
Motacilla
madaraspatensis
White-browed
wagtail
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
2
5
Myophonus
horsfieldii
Malabar
whistling thrush
endemic to
peninsular India
LC
2
6
Parus aplonotus
Indian Yellow Tit
/ Black lored tit
endemic to
peninsular India
LC

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
59
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Common name
Endemism
IUCN
WPA
Sched
ule
2
7
Pavo cristatus
Indian peafowl
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
I
2
8
Perdicula
argoondah
Rock Bush-Quail
endemic to India
LC
2
9
Perdicula asiatica
Jungle Bush-
Quail
endemic to India
& Shrilanka
LC
3
0
Pericrocotus
flammeus
Orange Minivet
endemic to India
& Shrilanka
LC
3
1
Pomatorhinus
horsfieldii
Indian Scimitar-
Babbler
endemic to India
LC
3
2
Prinia socialis
Ashy prinia
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
3
3
Psittacula
cyanocephala
Plum headed
parakeet
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
3
4
Rhipidura
albogularis
white spotted
fantail
endemic to
peninsular India
LC
3
5
Sterna aurantia
River tern
NT
3
6
Sturnia pagodarum
Brahminy
Starling
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
3
7
Taccocua
leschenaultii
Sirkeer malkoha
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
3
8
Turdoides malcolmi
Large grey
babbler
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
3
9
Turdoides striata
Jungle babbler
endemic to the
Indian
Subcontinent
LC
Butterflies
1
Acytolepis puspa
Common hedge
blue
I
2
Castalius rosimon
Common pierrot
I
3
Euchrysops cnejus
Gram blue
II

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
60
S
r.
N
o.
Scientific name
Common name
Endemism
IUCN
WPA
Sched
ule
4
Euploea core
Common crow
LC
IV
5
Hypolimnas
misippus
Danaid eggfly
I
6
Pachliopta hector
Crimson rose
I
Amphibians
1
Indirana sp.
Endemic to
Western Ghats
2
Nyctibatrachus sp.
Night frogs
Endemic to
Western Ghats
Snakes
1
Bungarus caeruleus
Common krait
IV
2
Macropisthodon
plumbicolor
Green keelback
IV
3
Naja naja
Spectacled cobra
II
4
Uropeltis
macrolepis
Bombay
shieldtail
Endemic to
Western Ghats
IV
5
Uropeltis phipsonii
Phipson's
Shieldtail
Endemic to
Western Ghats
IV
6
Xenochrophis
piscator
Checkered
keelback
IV
Mammals
1
Hystrix indica
Indian crested
porcupine
IV
2
Macaca radiata
Bonnet macaque
Endemic to
peninsular India
II
3
Muntiacus muntjak
Barking deer
III
4
Ratufa indica
Malabar giant
squirrel
Endemic to India
II
5
Semnopithecus
entellus
Hanuman langur
II
6
Sus scrofa
Wild boar
III

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
61
14. Restoration techniques and results at the Panshet
restoration site of ES
Landscape before restoration (1986)
Landscape after the protection provided to site during Year 1

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
62
Landscape after the restoration effort during Year 2
Landscape after the restoration effort during Year 3

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
63
Biomass (grass) produced as a result of restoration effort. The
grasses were distributed as cattle fodder to nearby villages.

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
64
15. Restoration techniques from sites executed by Oikos for
Ecological Services, Pune.
Protection
Dry Fence and
Live fence (Area
with vegetation
clusters and good
quality grasses
shows protected
area as against
the inferior
quality grass area
outside the fence)

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
65
Examples of Fire line

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
66
Soil and Water Conservation Measures
Examples of Stone Lines

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
67
Examples of
Gully
plugging
Trenches

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
68
Creation of small wetlands or percolation ponds

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
69
Stone work at erosional features

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
70
Habitat
development: Stone
pile, Log piles,
plantation of larval
host plants and food
plants etc.
Microbial reserve:
Addition of biomass
like crop residue,
grasses from outside

Ecological restoration in Northern Western Ghats
71
Enclosures
Plantation of
natives
Removal of
non-natives