No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
How trees and forests reduce risks from climate change
Abstract
Across the globe, increasing tree cover is a popular solution to offset carbon emissions. Replenishing trees is only part of the answer, and scientists seek an increased role as part of a multi-layered policy approach.
... Tree planting's crucial role in mitigating climate change has been acknowledged at international climate meetings. (Palmer, 2021;Villamor et al., 2022). From the early days of the Montreal Protocol to the landmark Paris Agreement, global commitments have highlighted the importance of afforestation and reforestation efforts (Cooper and MacFarlane, 2023). ...
... These agreements have laid the groundwork for annual global climate discussions, which culminate in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (Palmer, 2021). In response to the urgent need for climate action, a variety of large-scale forestation initiatives have been launched globally, notable among them are the Great Green Wall initiative in Africa (Goffner et al., 2019), China's Grain for Green program (Jin and Yabuta, 2024), Pakistan's Billion Tree Tsunami (Haq et al., 2024), Philippines' National Greening Program (Goltiano et al., 2021) and Iran's One Billion Tree Planting Project. ...
... Forests, as the largest carbon reservoir in terrestrial ecosystems, significantly impact the carbon sequestration function of land-based systems. Their vital role includes maintaining ecological balance, facilitating carbon cycling, mitigating climate change, and determining energy budgets [1][2][3]. In contrast, the global occurrence, severity, and scope of forest disturbances have witnessed a notable escalation in the 21st century, primarily attributed to climate change-induced factors such as droughts, wildfires, and pest outbreaks. ...
... Initially, GLASS FVC was resampled to a spatial resolution of 250 m × 250 m using bilinear interpolation. Subsequently, a 2 × 2 window of 250 m pixels was employed to match and decompose the resampled GLASS FVC data pixel by pixel, with pixel values calculated using Formula (1). To minimize non-vegetation interference, pixels with EVI values below 0.05 were considered non-vegetation and were excluded from the decomposition process. ...
Fractional Forest cover holds significance in characterizing the ecological condition of forests and serves as a crucial input parameter for climate and hydrological models. This research introduces a novel approach for generating a 250 m fractional forest cover product with an 8-day temporal resolution based on the updated GLASS FVC product and the annualized MODIS VCF product, thereby facilitating the development of a high-quality, long-time-series forest cover product on a global scale. Validation of the proposed product, employing high spatial resolution GFCC data, demonstrates its high accuracy across various continents and forest cover scenarios globally. It yields an average fit coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.9085 and an average root-mean-square error of 7.22%. Furthermore, to assess the availability and credibility of forest cover data with high temporal resolution, this study integrates the CCDC algorithm to map forest disturbances and quantify the yearly and even monthly disturbed trace area within two sub-study areas of the Amazon region. The achieved sample validation accuracy is over 86%, which substantiates the reliability of the data. This investigation offers a fresh perspective on monitoring forest changes and observing forest disturbances by amalgamating data from diverse sources, enabling the mapping of dynamic forest cover over an extensive time series with high temporal resolution, thereby mitigating data gaps and enhancing the precision of existing products.
... For example, fast growing Eucalyptus plantations rapidly generate revenues but do not provide the same ecological benefits as native forests (Hua, Wang, et al., 2018). Moreover, most forest plantations are not optimized to sustain long-term carbon stocks (Palmer, 2021), which explains why only 10% of the region has reached its carbon carrying capacity, in spite of intensive forestation. Future ecological projects could be adjusted toward fixing more CO 2 maximizing the full carbon sequestration potential of the region. ...
... Consequently, to improve future ecological projects and rapidly reach the full carbon sequestration potential of an area, it is crucial to identify the potential constraints of forest growth as well as determine the land available for sustainable afforestation (Waring et al., 2020), natural regeneration and assistant reconstruction (Palmer, 2021). ...
... For example, fast growing Eucalyptus plantations rapidly generate revenues but do not provide the same ecological benefits as native forests (Hua, Wang, et al., 2018). Moreover, most forest plantations are not optimized to sustain long-term carbon stocks (Palmer, 2021), which explains why only 10% of the region has reached its carbon carrying capacity, in spite of intensive forestation. Future ecological projects could be adjusted toward fixing more CO 2 maximizing the full carbon sequestration potential of the region. ...
... Consequently, to improve future ecological projects and rapidly reach the full carbon sequestration potential of an area, it is crucial to identify the potential constraints of forest growth as well as determine the land available for sustainable afforestation (Waring et al., 2020), natural regeneration and assistant reconstruction (Palmer, 2021). ...
Afforestation and land use changes that sequester carbon from the atmosphere in the form of woody biomass have turned southern China into one of the largest carbon sinks globally, which contributes to mitigating climate change. However, forest growth saturation and available land that can be forested limit the longevity of this carbon sink, and while a plethora of studies have quantified vegetation changes over the last decades, the remaining carbon sink potential of this area is currently unknown. Here, we train a model with multiple predictors characterizing the heterogeneous landscapes of southern China and predict the biomass carbon carrying capacity of the region for 2002–2017. We compare observed and predicted biomass carbon density and find that during about two decades of afforestation, 2.34 PgC have been sequestered between 2002 and 2017, and a total of 5.32 Pg carbon can potentially still be sequestrated. This means that the region has reached 73% of its aboveground biomass carbon carrying capacity in 2017, which is 12% more than in 2002, equal to a decrease of 0.77% per year. We identify potential afforestation areas that can still sequester 2.39 PgC, while old and new forests have reached 87% of their potential with 1.85 PgC remaining. Our work locates areas where vegetation has not yet reached its full potential but also shows that afforestation is not a long‐term solution for climate change mitigation.
... Despite the growing number of NZ strategies at various levels, IPCC [24] and IEA [25] emphasize the need for technological breakthroughs and setting aside investments in key areas such as 100% RE, large-scale hydrogen generation, carbon capture, utilization and storage, etc. [26]. However, implementation is hindered by structural challenges: high costs [27], heterogeneity of implementation, and uncertainty of effects, especially in naturebased solutions [28,29]. In addition, the scientific community points to risks of the "energy efficiency paradox" [30] and social injustice of the transition [31], which calls for rethinking transition trajectories. ...
The issue of improving the effectiveness of international climate policy, one of the main goals of which is to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, poses a critical and acute challenge for the global economic system. At every COP conference and in every IPCC report, it is evident that current measures fall short. To address this gap, this study examines the structure and trends of global climate policy development through content analysis, PRISMA methodology, and correlation and regression analysis using censored Bayesian Tobit regression. The obtained results are supplemented with the LMDI (Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index) decomposition of the Kaya identity. The research covers 198 countries and 4241 documents spanning 1950 to 2023 that shape global climate policy. The results showed that (1) the success of climate goals varies depending on policy instruments, institutional conditions, and the time frame of analysis; (2) the greatest success in achieving climate targets was often observed in countries that adopted moderate, realistic, and institutionally supported targets; (3) in some cases, an overachievement of targets and GHG emissions reduction was a temporal observation or the result of economic decline; (4) in countries without officially declared targets, emissions also continued under similar growth trends, calling into question the effectiveness of current methods of setting up CO2 emissions reduction targets. These findings provide a deeper understanding of the factors determining the effectiveness of climate policy. They highlight key barriers to achieving too ambitious emission reduction targets, which can lead to economic shocks and a subsequent increase in environmental impact. Ultimately, this research can contribute to the development of more realistic and effective decarbonization strategies.
... This targeted allocation can enhance the effectiveness of the tax scheme, ensuring that restoration efforts balance global commitments, such as climate change mitigation, with locally prioritized services. In other words, such strategies can bridge the gap between regional stakeholder needs and international environmental agendas, fostering restoration models that are both context-specific and scalable (also see Holl & Brancalion, 2020;Mori et al., 2021;Palmer, 2021). ...
The urgency to conserve and restore forests for their multifaceted benefits is escalating. We spotlight Japan's new Forest Environment Tax, a novel fiscal measure crafted to finance public‐beneficial ecosystem services through enhanced forest management.
To convey the expert perceptions of the policy, we present the results of a survey targeting individuals immersed in Japan's forest policies, which aimed to assess attitudes toward the various benefits that forests provide. We classified forest functions into five core areas: wood production, soil and water conservation, mitigation of anthropogenic global warming, wildlife conservation and cultural utilities.
We found that stakeholders closely involved in forest policies in Japan prioritize soil and water conservation as the paramount function over the mitigation of anthropogenic global warming. The results of the survey underscore the necessity of evaluating forest management practices and the importance of recognizing the multiple values that can be derived from forests. While there has been much attention to the carbon benefits of forests in the region and beyond, we emphasize the need to avoid an excessive focus on this single ecosystem service and to ensure that the other important multifunctional values of forests are not overlooked.
Policy implications: We call for a more holistic approach that recognises the interdependence of the different functions of forests and the importance of valuing forests as natural capital in all their dimensions.
... Incorporating forests into various management strategies could yield even greater benefits [88]. Specifically, carbon farming, a novel agricultural production model that integrates forests, can enhance carbon sequestration rates in soils and plants, thereby swiftly reducing atmospheric carbon emissions, augmenting crop yields, and mitigating air pollution [89]. Additionally, we emphasize that carbon reduction policies and pollution reduction policies exhibit significant effects and synergies in the integrated management of diverse industries and air pollutants. ...
As the largest terrestrial ecosystem covering extensive expanses of the Earth’s surface, forests offer crucial health benefits to humans, both directly and indirectly. Presently, health services derived from forest resources have presented significant opportunities for enhancing human well-being. Nonetheless, the absence of a comprehensive understanding regarding the mechanisms by which forests impact human health jeopardizes the potential gains in health. Regrettably, there remains a dearth of scholarly work elucidating these pathways. This paper aims to furnish a thorough examination of how forests influence human health. We initiate by formulating a conceptual framework upon which we delineate the various pathways through which forests impact human health. These encompass the provisioning of resources, preventive services, and forest therapies. Concurrently, we outline the moderating influence of social, economic, and individual characteristics as mediators within this pathway. These characteristics are classified into two overarching dimensions: accessibility and behavioral choices, which notably affect marginalized demographics such as those with lower socioeconomic status, women, the elderly, individuals with disabilities, and children in developing nations. Consequently, we build upon these foundational insights to propose six strategies aimed at perpetuating the positive impact of forests on human health in the foreseeable future. In the future, the development of forest management policies, the assessment of long-term health benefits, social practices, and international cooperation must be considered holistically to attain the dual objective of sustainable forest management and the advancement of human well-being.
... Forest ecosystems are the most important terrestrial carbon sinks and wildlife habitats (Canadell & Raupach, 2008;Levin, 2013) and are threatened by biodiversity loss (IPBES, 2019;IPCC, 2022). Restoring forest ecosystems is therefore an important tool for protecting biodiversity, maintaining ecosystem functioning (Griscom et al., 2017;Bastin et al., 2019;Buzhdygan et al., 2020;Schnabel et al., 2021), and increasing the resilience of forest ecosystems to climate change (Lewis et al., 2019;Palmer, 2021;Zhang et al., 2021). Recent experimental and observational studies suggest that planting multiple tree species may be beneficial for these goals, as increased tree species richness generally increases forest productivity, a major ecosystem function (Barrufol et al., 2013;Scherer-Lorenzen, 2014;Liang et al., 2016;Huang et al., 2018;Liu et al., 2018;Chen et al., 2020;Feng et al., 2022). ...
Multispecies planting is an important approach to deliver ecosystem functions in afforestation projects. However, the importance of species richness vs specific species composition in this context remains unresolved.
To estimate species or functional group richness and compositional change between two communities, we calculated nestedness, where one community contains a subset of the species of another, and turnover, where two communities differ in species composition but not in species richness. We evaluated the effects of species/functional group nestedness and turnover on stand productivity using 315 mixed plots from a pool of 40 tree species in a large forest biodiversity experiment in subtropical China.
We found that the greater the differences in species or functional group nestedness and turnover, the greater the differences in stand productivity between plots. Additionally, the strong effects of both nestedness and turnover on stand productivity developed over the 11‐yr observation period.
Our results indicate that selection of specific tree species is as important as planting a large number of species to support the productivity function of forests. Furthermore, the selection of specific tree species should be based on functionality, because beneficial effects of functional group composition were stronger than those of species composition.
... Review applications for tree plantings.(4) Organize tree plantings and care activities." ...
Background: Trees and urban forests have significant public health benefits as well as providing both climate mitigation and adaptation impacts. The tree canopy in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, had suffered a 6% decline between 2010 and 2017, and some cities in the county had suffered as much as an 11% decrease by 2023. Methods: All current county tree ordinances were analyzed. A review and analysis of the relevant scientific literature and similar ordinances of other cities and counties were completed. The most suitable sections of the tree ordinances were determined by selecting components that had the strongest attributes and compiling these to make a single, robust model ordinance. Results: The results of this study recommended that an ideal tree ordinance must address or mention permitting for the removal of otherwise healthy trees, while allowing for the lawful removal of trees that are diseased or pose a threat to persons or property. Balancing the interests of private landowners with that of the general public health interests would be key to the success and implementation of such an ordinance. Conclusion: The study found that by compiling different sections of various existing tree ordinances and providing suggestions for improvements, a model city ordinance was both feasible and scalable. This model tree ordi-nance would then be used by future lawmakers of Cuyahoga County, Ohio, or its constituent municipalities in order to effectively protect tree canopy.
... The conversion of forestland into croplands may be unsustainable in promoting food security in the long term, a perspective affirmed by Padoch and Sunderland (2013). Maintaining healthy forest cover may facilitate the provision of favourable conditions to croplands through climate regulation (Madeira et al., 2009;Palmer, 2021), conservation of groundwater (Berrahmouni & Mansourian, 2021;Shah et al., 2022) and protection of soils from erosion (Elliot et al., 2018;Rodrigues et al., 2021;Teng et al., 2019). Maintaining a robust forest cover within a sustainable agrifood system is therefore expected to be an efficient approach in attaining food security and maximizing the diverse benefits that forests offer to farming systems. ...
Transitions in land use and land cover (LULC) are key indicators of human activities,
impacting both the environment and human well-being. Spatiotemporal analysis and
the projection of future LULC trends under various scenarios are crucial tools for
monitoring past changes, predicting future developments, and guiding management
interventions to achieve desired LULC trajectories.
This study used the freely available, open source LULC maps for 2001 (when the
dataset was first available), 2011 and 2021 to perform a spatiotemporal analysis of LULC
changes in key areas in Kenya where changes in forest cover could help to prevent
land degradation. Three scenarios were generated and used to project LULC in 2050:
achieving a 10% forest cover, converting forests to croplands, and restoring degraded
forests. The analysis was conducted for four counties that are primarily arid and semi�arid lands (ASAL), and in which the Integrated Management of Natural Resources
for Resilience in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (IMARA) program is implemented. These
counties are Turkana, West Pokot, Elgeyo Marakwet and Narok.
Based on the findings of this study, the distribution of LULC classes among the four
counties varies considerably. This suggests that decisions regarding the selection and
implementation of sustainable land management interventions should be tailored to
the specific geographical context. For counties with conditions similar to Turkana, the
focus should be on increasing tree cover and restoring degraded lands. In contrast, for
counties resembling Narok, West Pokot and Elgeyo Marakwet, halting deforestation
may be a more effective starting point for environmental conservation.
As a signatory to multilateral agreements addressing climate change and its impacts,
the Kenyan government is committed to achieving a 10% forest cover due to its
critical role in climate regulation and environmental protection. Our study found that
adopting interventions to maintain a 10% forest cover (scenario 1) would yield the most
favourable environmental outcomes by 2050. In all four counties, this scenario not only
increased forest cover but was also associated with an expansion in croplands.
Our modelling also indicates that by 2050, the cropland proportion attained under
scenario 1 (achieving 10% forest cover) will not be significantly different from that
under scenario 2 (forest-to-cropland conversion). This is attributed to the significant
role of healthy forest cover in providing favourable conditions to croplands through
climate regulation, conservation of underground water (groundwater resources) and
protection of soils from erosion.
We observed the occurrence of croplands along rivers, especially in Turkana and
West Pokot counties, which implies that forests are likely to be converted to cropland
in these areas due to the availability of water resources for cultivation. Coupled with
the conversion of wetlands to croplands, as identified in our analysis, we anticipate
possible wetland degradation through over-extraction and pollution of water resources.
Likewise, the observed proximity of farmlands to forest also could promote
deforestation through forest-to-cropland conversion. This potential outcome
6 Land cover scenarios in four Kenyan arid and semi-arid regions by 2050
underscores the importance of zoning to clearly demarcate forest lands from cultivable
parcels. Such zoning can help prevent encroachment into forests and support
sustainable conservation efforts. According to scenario 2, the “Shamba system”, in
which farmers are allowed to cultivate within forests, is expected to significantly
contribute to the loss of forest cover.
Spatial mapping of LULC also reveals the linear distribution of forest cover along water
bodies, especially in Turkana County. Owing to the challenges of invasive species,
and the fact that the severity of their implications increases with their spread, it is
important for the local communities to understand the long-term implications of
invasive species and the approaches to contain their extent to an acceptable threshold.
Capacity-building programs aimed at building consensus on the definition, impacts and
management of invasive species can be valuable tools for early detection and rapid
response to invasions by “alien” or “non-native” species.
Scenario analysis of LULC provides insight into the implications of alternative
management strategies. However, while spatiotemporal LULC analysis is important in
monitoring the implications of alternative LULC changes, integrating local knowledge
and experience can enhance our understanding of the drivers behind the observed
and projected land cover transitions. Consequently, land management interventions
should be context-specific and evidence-based for them to yield practical and
sustainable solutions.
... Within this context, forest ecosystems have been recognized as viable tools for mitigating climate change (He et al., 2024;Griscom et al., 2017;Bellassen and Luyssaert, 2014;McKinley et al., 2011), owing to their capacity to serve as a significant sink for CO 2 via photosynthesis and sequestering CH 4 via methanotrophy. While it has been recognized that forests may not represent a "silver bullet" for addressing this challenge (Palmer L., 2021), particular focus has been paid to actively increasing forest cover and growth rates to optimize their prospective contribution to climate change mitigation (Lundmark et al., 2014;BCMFR, 2007). ...
Newly-planted forests require careful management to ensure the successful establishment of young trees; this can include herbicide application, irrigation, fertilization, or a combination of these treatments. The global rise in nitrogen (N) fertilizer application in managed forest plantations is driven by policies aiming at rapid tree growth and carbon sequestration as a strategy to tackle climate change. However, the impact of N-fertilizer on production and consumption of greenhouse gases (GHG), such as carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4) is poorly understood, particularly when combined with irrigation. As a result, assessing forest GHG balance is key to defining effective climate mitigation strategies through afforestation projects.
This study assessed the response of GHG fluxes to irrigation and fertilization on recently afforested lowland arable land in central England, across loamy and sandy loam soils. The application of 180 kg ha-1 of N via an irrigation system, aimed at enhancing wood production and C sequestration, resulted in an increase of CO2 and N2O emissions for both soil types. Particularly, the N2O emission factors (EF; kg N2O/kg N applied) for loamy and sandy loamy soils were 3.9% and 2.1%, respectively, higher than the IPCC default estimate of 1% for agricultural and forest land. Furthermore, both sandy loam and loamy soils showed a distinct transition from being CH4 sinks to sources. Thus, the combined application of irrigation and N-fertilizer had a significant impact on the total Global Warming Potential (GWP), which increased by 34% and 32% for sandy loam and loamy soil, respectively, when compared to their controls. Despite a significant increase in tree growth under fertilized conditions, the offset potential was only partial, highlighting the net contribution to GHG emissions. The outcomes of this study emphasise the potential for significant “carbon-equivalent-debt” from afforestation supported in its early years by irrigation and fertilization.
... Afforestation (Palmer, 2021;Yue et al., 2021) and forest management (Sasaki, 2021) are key means through which to improve forest carbon storage and sequestration capacities. As shown in Fig. 1, forest ecosystems are like a container, and the function of afforestation is to expand the volume of the container; whereas forest harvest involves removing part of the volume of carbon from the container in the form of forest products, so that the container can sequestrate more carbon dioxide. ...
Enhancing forest carbon storage and carbon sequestration capacity is crucial for achieving carbon neutrality. Scientific forest management can maintain a high level of carbon sequestration capacity in forests, and considering the carbon pool of wood products can extend the time of carbon fixation. However, current predictions of large-scale forest carbon storage and carbon sequestration capacity have overlooked changes in forest carbon absorption with forest age and the buffering effect of wood product carbon pools in the carbon release process. In this paper, we used the Forest Simulation and Optimization System model (FSOS) to analyze the wood supply and carbon sequestration capacities of different management scenarios based on data from the Forest Resources Inventory (2014–2018). The results showed that China's forests could export significant amounts of timber in the future; According to the 9th forest survey report, China's forests produce only 88 million m3 yr-1. Among them, the harvested objects were mainly planted forests, and if all forests (planted forests and natural forests) are involved in forest management planning, the maximum sustainable annual wood supply will reach 286 million m3 yr-1. Moreover, due to the current large proportion of younger forests in China, 358 million m3 of annual wood supply will be achievable in the future (as of the year 2039). Forest management can increase the carbon sequestration capacities in forest ecosystems as well as the wood supply compared to the no management options. In summary, the carbon sequestration potential of unmanaged forests is limited. Appropriate forest management can increase the carbon sequestration potential of forests. The substitution of carbon emission reduction of wood products and bioenergy can also greatly reduce the pressure to achieve carbon neutral strategies.
... Beyond its ability to reduce atmospheric greenhouse gases (Cook-Patton et al., 2020;Palmer, 2021), afforestation can moderate temperature extremes, reduce drought lengths (Abiodun et al., 2013;Cao et al., 2023;Ingrosso & Pausata, 2024;Schwaab et al., 2020), and enhance extreme precipitation (Camara et al., 2022;Diba et al., 2018;Ingrosso & Pausata, 2024;Saley et al., 2019;Smiatek & Kunstmann, 2023). However, model responses show considerable disagreement (Abiodun et al., 2013;Camara et al., 2022;Ingrosso & Pausata, 2024;Odoulami et al., 2019;Schwaab et al., 2020;Smiatek & Kunstmann, 2023), and the full benefits and potential tradeoffs of afforestation, particularly its biophysical impacts on climate extremes, remain largely unexplored. ...
West Africa is currently experiencing extensive agricultural intensification associated with rapid population growth. Those anthropogenic land use and land-cover changes (LULCC) can have significant impacts at regional and seasonal scales but also for extreme weather events, posing high vulnerability to human, natural, and economic systems. However, the effects of LULCC on extreme events in West Africa remain largely unexplored at the regional scale, lacking consensus. Here, for the first time, we employ high-resolution LULCC experiments (at 3 km resolution, spanning 2012-2022) performed with the fully coupled atmosphere-hydrology WRF-Hydro system (i.e. Weather Research and Forecasting model fully coupled with version 5.2 of the WRF-Hydro hydrological module) to investigate the potential impacts of LULCC (deforestation and afforestation scenarios) on regional climate extremes in the West African Savannas region. Analyzing 18 extreme weather indices, we find that deforestation significantly affects temperature extremes, though with modest average impacts (<3%), consistently impacting regional rainfall extremes ~2 times more than mean rainfall conditions while significantly increasing drought duration. Our findings also reveal contrasting regional biophysical responses to afforestation concerning temperature extremes: converting grassland to evergreen forests tends to mitigate the biophysical warming effect, reducing extreme heat indices through enhanced plant transpiration from largely increased canopy foliage. Conversely, converting grassland to savanna may intensify extreme heat events due to the albedo-induced warming effect and increased downward longwave radiation, resulting in more absorption of shortwave radiation by the surface. This work emphasizes the necessity of fully coupled modeling frameworks that integrate all aspects of LULCC and the potential local positive feedback between the terrestrial hydrological system and the overlying atmosphere to improve the evaluation of land-based mitigation and adaptation strategies.
... These strategies could provide numerous physical and mental health benefits, reduce air pollution, and increase cohesion. Greenspace, such as forests and parks, also plays a significant role in promoting biodiversity and mitigating climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide and reducing the effect of the urban heat island effect [66,67]. ...
Background
Previous cross-sectional studies have found a beneficial relationship between greenspace and children's behaviour. Nevertheless, evidence on the mechanisms underlying this association remains scant. We examined whether the availability of greenspace was related to fewer behavioural problems in Polish children and investigated potential mechanisms.
Methods
Data were obtained from the case-control NeuroSmog study, in which children with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were tested from October 2020 to September 2022. The analytic sample comprised 679 children aged 10–13 years. Parents reported internalizing, externalizing, and total behavioural problems using the Child Behaviour Check List (CBCL), as well as information about the presence of a domestic garden and potential mediators: greenspace perception, neighbourhood social cohesion, and physical activity. Tree and grass covers were extracted in 500 m and 1 km buffers around lifelong residences. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to examine the psychosocial pathways linking the greenspace metrics to behavioural problems.
Results
Greenspace was only indirectly related to fewer behavioural problems. Specifically, tree cover was related to greater levels of physical activity which, in turn, was related to fewer internalizing and total behavioural problems. Tree cover and presence of garden were related to greenspace perception which, in turn, was associated with higher neighbourhood social cohesion which, in turn, was linked to fewer behavioural problems. The patterns of associations in children without ADHD were very similar to those in the full sample except that the associations from garden to greenspace perception and from physical activity to total behavioural problems were no longer significant. The only association persisted among girls was from neighbourhood social cohesion to behavioural problems and among boys were from tree cover to physical activity and tree cover and garden to greenspace perception.
Conclusion
Trees and garden, but not grass, are linked to fewer behavioural problems through greenspace perception, neighbourhood social cohesion, and physical activity in Polish children.
... Forests provide numerous ecosystem services (ecological, environmental, social, and economic) (Hadziabdic et al., 2021), harbor a substantial portion of terrestrial biodiversity, are at the root of terrestrial geochemical processes (Brockerhoff et al., 2017), and play a significant role in climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration (Di Sacco et al., 2021;Palmer, 2021). Still, forests are threatened by many natural stressors exacerbated by climate change (higher temperatures and lower water availability) and anthropogenic activities (land use and trades) (Pautasso et al., 2015;Sturrock et al., 2011), which tend to increase their susceptibility to pests and pathogens (Dale et al., 2022;Hadziabdic et al., 2021). ...
Forests are threatened by many natural stressors intensified by climate change and anthropogenic activities, which tend to increase their susceptibility to pests and pathogens. Consequently, oomycete‐related forest decline or dieback cases are increasing in natural, urban, and agricultural landscapes. It is in this context that Christmas tree growers from Southern Québec, Canada, are experiencing root rot problems, with reported incidences up to 25%. In a previous study, seven Phytophthora spp. were associated with this root rot problem, but the overall diversity of oomycetes has not yet been investigated. Hence, in this study, we use a metabarcoding approach to provide an overview of the diversity, richness, and composition of the oomycete community in fir plantations compared to surrounding natural forests. We showed that the P. cryptogea cluster, P. europaea cluster, P. sansomeana , and P. chlamydospora cluster were significantly more abundant in soils collected from plantations under diseased trees and confirmed that the P. europaea cluster (including P. abietivora ) was most frequently associated with trees showing Phytophthora root rot‐like symptoms. Finally, we report that land use (anthropogenic activities) shapes oomycete diversity, while plantations can act as a gateway for invading natural forests. In fact, the results presented here suggested that the P. europaea cluster might already have crossed this boundary and that other species might follow, advocating the importance of improved surveillance of oomycete diversity in various environments.
... Trees are amazing at carbon capture and storage. Woods and forests absorb atmospheric carbon and as such have become our allies in the fight against climate change (171). Unsurprisingly, there are numerous drives to plant more trees, and tree planting is a key part of the UK government's plan to combat climate change. ...
Aeroallergens are airborne particles that can cause or exacerbate allergic disorders including pollen and fungal spores. Aeroallergens can trigger hay fever and exacerbate asthma which affects about 11% of the UK population. Chapter 6 considers the seasonality of these allergens and how they may be impacted by climate change. The chapter was led by academic experts from University of Leicester, with contributions from the University of Worcester, University of Exeter and UKHSA. Weather and climate are well-recognised drivers of aeroallergen production. Climate also impacts atmospheric transport of pollen grains, including atmospheric transport of allergenic pollen from the continent. There is thus significant potential for a changing climate to shift the start-date, duration, and severity of pollen seasons and associated health risks. The authors present new empirical analyses assessing the relationship between fungal spores and temperature using a 52-year data set (1970 to 2021) and review the published evidence and surveillance data for oak, alder, birch, and grass pollen at 6 sites across the UK (1995 to 2020). The link between aeroallergen production, seasonality and temperature differs widely between species. Current evidence outlined in this chapter suggests that there has been a significant trend towards higher concentrations of pollen (such as birch) or increased length of the pollen season (such as oak). Other species (such as alder and grass pollen) show a mixed picture, however for grass pollen, this is likely due to the high number of different grass species and interacting variables that affect these seasons. The occurrence of the first high day for grass pollen annually is getting earlier, however, and heatwaves are predicted to shorten the season duration. The authors note that trends over time are most pronounced in the Midlands; however, existing surveillance provides early indications only, and data is still relatively limited. The impact of climate change on pollens is likely to be mixed and vary considerably across the UK for different species and based on level of warming. In future decades, the first high pollen day is likely to occur earlier for alder, oak and grass pollen, while alder and birch pollen seasons are expected to continue to increase in severity in the Midlands and further north and west over the next 2 decades. In contrast, trees in the south and the east of the UK are likely to become stressed due to increased frequency and severity of heat and drought, which is expected to reduce pollen output and duration of the pollen season. Grass and nettle family pollen seasons are not expected to increase or decrease over time. It is likely that pollen potency will increase and this will enhance the season for hay fever sufferers in most years, although this may decline from the 2030s and with higher levels of warming. The authors' assessment of trends in fungal spores found an earlier start of the season for all spores, partly associated with warmer temperatures in spring and summer coupled with higher precipitation. In a warmer and wetter future climate, there could be a further advance in the start of the season for many spores. Notably, the authors highlight the potential for interactions between pollutants and airborne fungal spores. Exposure to some urban air pollutants has been Chapter 6. Outdoor airborne allergenic pollen and fungal spores 3 shown to increase the allergenicity of some fungal spores. The authors suggest that there are likely to be health benefits for allergy suffers under decarbonisation scenarios involving electrification of transport and associated air pollutants, though there is limited evidence to quantify possible health co-benefits. The results presented in this chapter highlight the relationship between aeroallergen species and climate, with several implications for public health. Firstly, earlier and prolonged pollen seasons may increase population exposure to airborne spores and extend the allergy season, meaning that hay fever and allergy sufferers may suffer symptoms earlier and for longer periods of the year. These trends will be highly variable by region and species; therefore, aeroallergen forecasting, preparedness, and response will need to be highly localised. For example, local health organisations should provide information in locally appropriate ways, outlining the risks, protective behaviours and support. Communication pathways should also exist to warn and inform residents, in addition to professionals. Secondly, it is possible that where temperatures reach levels high enough to cause pollen-producing species to wither or die, this will result in reduced aeroallergen exposure resulting in fewer hay fever and allergy symptoms. This is most likely in the south and west regions of England and at higher levels of warming. The results in this chapter highlight several research gaps and priorities, including the need to: • develop allergen-specific and highly localised public health forecasts, given that weather and climate impacts on aeroallergens range widely between species • continue advancement of taxa-specific forecasts and research to support these as the climate changes will remain a priority • build the evidence on how airborne fungal spores interact with air pollutants and how decarbonisation strategies could maximise health co-benefits associated with aeroallergens • develop the evidence-base to inform urban planning and green infrastructure development on the implications of alternate designs for aeroallergen production, including potential health co-benefits and trade-offs UKHSA is already contributing to research into aeroallergens working with NIHR Health Protection Research Units. UKHSA uses real-time syndromic surveillance to routinely monitor seasonal trends in allergenic rhinitis, primarily through consultations recorded in a GP network across England. Chapter 6. Outdoor airborne allergenic pollen and fungal spores 4
... Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH., 2019). Estos beneficios son particularmente relevantes ante el creciente impacto humano sobre el cambio climático y la degradación ambiental (Palmer, 2021). La vegetación urbana puede mitigar emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero al actuar como sumidero de carbono, además de eliminar contaminantes atmosféricos que afectan la salud humana (Skole, Mbow, Mugabowindekwe, Brandt y Samek, 2021;Wolf, Lam, McKeen, Richardson y Bardekjian, 2020). ...
he objective of this research was to evaluate the environmental services of gross carbon storage and sequestration, as well as the elimination of pollution and emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) by the urban forest present in the TecNM campus Colima (higher education and graduate school) to optimize the green areas of the university and guide decision-making in their management. A total of 628 specimens belonging to 25 families, 44 genera, and 53 species were recorded. Among the most common species are the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), rosamorada (Tabebuia rosea), and neem (Azadirachta indica). It was determined that the parota (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) stores the greatest amount of carbon, followed closely by the coconut palm. In addition, it was identified that this species, together with the mango (Mangifera indica), are the main sources of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. The study reveals that native trees are responsible for the elimination of approximately 77.54% of the contamination, with species such as soursop (Annona muricata) and ash (Fraxinus uhdei) standingout for their ability to not emit VOCs. The results obtained are relevant for the selection of mainly native species in future tree plantings and highlight the need to promote the conservation and adequate management of green spaces in urban areas.
... Forests are large and persistent sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ; Pan et al., 2011) and large-scale afforestation and reforestation have been suggested as methods for mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration (Law et al., 2018;Nave et al., 2018;Bastin et al., 2019;Pugh et al., 2019;Domke et al., 2020). However, intensification of forestry (Kastner et al., 2021), including removal of organic residues for bioenergy (Daiogloua et al., 2019), has led to concern about sustainability of base-cation supply (Achat et al., 2018;Akselsson et al., 2019), and better understanding of the ecological and biogeochemical consequences of different management practices is needed (Palmer, 2021). ...
Tree growth in boreal forests is driven by ectomycorrhizal fungal mobilisation of organic nitrogen and mineral nutrients in soils with discrete organic and mineral horizons. However, there are no studies of how ectomycorrhizal mineral weathering and organic nitrogen mobilisation processes are integrated across the soil profile.
We studied effects of organic matter (OM) availability on ectomycorrhizal functioning by altering the proportions of natural organic and mineral soil in reconstructed podzol profiles containing Pinus sylvestris plants, using ¹³CO2 pulse labelling, patterns of naturally occurring stable isotopes (²⁶Mg and ¹⁵N) and high‐throughput DNA sequencing of fungal amplicons.
Reduction in OM resulted in nitrogen limitation of plant growth and decreased allocation of photosynthetically derived carbon and mycelial growth in mineral horizons. Fractionation patterns of ²⁶Mg indicated that magnesium mobilisation and uptake occurred primarily in the deeper mineral horizon and was driven by carbon allocation to ectomycorrhizal mycelium. In this horizon, relative abundance of ectomycorrhizal fungi, carbon allocation and base cation mobilisation all increased with increased OM availability.
Allocation of carbon through ectomycorrhizal fungi integrates organic nitrogen mobilisation and mineral weathering across soil horizons, improving the efficiency of plant nutrient acquisition. Our findings have fundamental implications for sustainable forest management and belowground carbon sequestration.
... A considerable quantity of carbon dioxide is absorbed by the world's forests and tends to lessen climate change (Palmer, 2021;Zeng et al., 2020;Griscom et al., 2017;Buditama, 2016;Pendleton et al., 2012;McLeod and Salm, 2006). To confront the effects of climate change, trees in the forest are one of the most potential parts (Scheidel and Work, 2018). ...
The Sundarbans, a natural shield on earth, is one and only place that has many noteworthy environmental and geographical values with breathtaking natural beauties. Near the Sundarbans area, proliferation of aquaculture in this delta contributes appreciably to the national economy. Although aquaculture has become a means of daily livelihood, this sector is nevertheless threatened by a complex of climate change impacts. Cyclones, rising temperatures, rising sea levels, coastal flooding, and erosion make coastal farming difficult. As a panacea, the Sundarbans can play a critical role in preserving coastal aquaculture. As noticed, forests have high potential to recover from unusual consequences of climate change. Practicing safe aquaculture should be opted to refrain from endangering the Sundarbans. This review addressed various climate change impacts on coastal farming and identified the capabilities of the Sundarbans to protect coastal aquaculture from calamitous impacts. Findings show clues for researchers to analyze problems, consequences, and mitigations.
... However, what was once a field concerned with forest management and wood used for various purposes [1] has evolved to encompass a broader scope of activities, responding to the growing demands and needs of society. Currently, climate change is one of the most relevant topics in science worldwide, [2] and, therefore, the planting, managing, and protecting of trees and forests emerge as crucial solutions to tackle this issue [3,4]. The adoption of renewable energy provides a promising avenue to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while providing multiple socio-economic and environmental benefits [5]. ...
Our study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of forestry programs in Brazil, including a comparative analysis with other countries while considering geographical factors. Over the past 25 years, the number of forestry programs in Brazil has increased from 43 to 75, leading to a rise in the annual number of graduates from 850 to 1500. Nevertheless, our findings reveal that only 60% of the available vacancies at universities are filled. On average, each institution enrolls 169 students (from 40 to 360 students per program). We also observed that, on average, each program employs 13 professors with a background in forest engineering (from 4 to 33). The results show that, among the professors from the ten oldest programs in the country, 78% had no prior professional experience outside academia, and 48% remained affiliated with the same university where they completed their undergraduate or graduate studies. There is a concerning and significant decline in the number of applicants for forestry programs, representing a strategic risk for the country. We identified a direct relationship between the number of programs, the population size, and the country’s total forest cover area when comparing Brazil with 12 other countries.
... Afforestation through ecological engineering (ecoengineering) is an efficient solution to enhance carbon sink of terrestrial ecosystems and has become one of the most cost-effective ways to mitigate climate change (Griscom et al. 2017;Bernal et al. 2018;Palmer 2021). In America (Domke et al. 2020), Europe (Kim et al. 2016), Asia (Lu et al. 2018), and many other regions, different eco-engineering programs (e.g. ...
Context
In the past decades, several ecological engineering (eco-engineering) programs have been conducted in China, leading to a significant increase in regional carbon sink. However, the contribution of different eco-engineering programs to carbon uptake is still not clear, as the location of different programs is difficult to identify, and their impacts are concurrent with climate change.
Objectives
We aim to detect the location of eco-engineering programs and attribute the impacts of eco-engineering and climate change on vegetation dynamics and carbon uptake in Northeastern China during 2000–2020.
Methods
We developed a new framework to detect the location of eco-engineering programs by combining a temporal pattern analysis method and Markov model, and to attribute the impacts of eco-engineering and climate change on vegetation greenness and carbon uptake by combining a neighbor contrast method within a sliding window and trend analysis on the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and gross primary production (GPP).
Results
We identified four main forestry eco-engineering programs: croplands to forest (CtoF), grasslands to forest (GtoF), savannas to forest (StoF), and natural forest conservation (NFC) programs, whose areas accounted for 2.11%, 1.89%, 3.41%, and 1.72% of the total study area, respectively. Both eco-engineering and climate change contributed to the increase in greenness and carbon uptake. Compared to climate change effect, eco-engineering increased NDVI and GPP by 121% and 21.43% on average, respectively. Specifically, the eco-engineering-induced increases in GPP were 54.1%, 9.46%, 8.13%, and 24.20% for CtoF, GtoF, StoF, and NFC, respectively.
Conclusions
These findings highlight the important and direct contribution of eco-engineering on vegetation greening with positive effects on carbon sequestration at a fine scale, providing an important implication for eco-engineering planning and management towards a carbon-neutral future.
... Forests are one of a few large terrestrial opportunities to sequester anthropogenic carbon emissions and thereby slow the pace of climate change (Ridder, 2007;Bonan, 2008). It is estimated that oaks sequester more carbon than any other woody group in the continental US (Kossoy et al., 2015;Cavender-Bares, 2016) thus their management has implications for ecosystem services well beyond potential gains from afforestation or reforestation efforts (Palmer, 2021). ...
Oaks (Quercus spp) are one of the most important sources of timber, mast for wildlife, and ecosystem services across the eastern US. Increasingly, this genus is at risk from diseases including oak wilt, which is one of the most serious threats to oaks, caused by the fungus, Bretziella fagacearum. The upper Midwest has over 5 million ha of oak forests, much of which is on rocky glaciated soils where traditional methods of containing below-ground spread of oak wilt (e.g., vibratory plow lines) are not feasible. We evaluated an alternative containment method of girdling and herbicide (GH) of oak wilt infected trees as well as neighboring oak trees likely connected via root grafts. Our results demonstrated that GH was effective at controlling below-ground spread of oak wilt (overall success rate: 55 %). Best control was achieved when infection centers were small (≤4 newly infected trees), where GH was 81 % effective at containing oak wilt. Containment was only 29 % in larger infection centers (≥5 newly infected trees). The best predictor of success was the number of newly infected trees (p = 0.02) even when considering other factors that could dictate the size of infection centers (e.g., diameter of trees, or number of neighboring trees treated). Our results illustrate the importance of early and rapid management of oak wilt infections and offer a starting place for continued improvement of the GH methodology.
... Forest management is considered to be one of the key instruments in sequestrating carbon and mitigating climate change [34]. As a response to rapid global warming, cities, regions and countries around the world are promoting afforestation and reforestation initiatives. ...
Extensive deforestation has been a major reason for the loss of climate connectivity, which is considered essential for species range shifts under climate change. Large-scale afforestation is likely to mitigate the negative impacts of forest loss. Over the past decades, the Chinese government launched a series of afforestation projects, but the effects of such efforts on range shifts have not been studied yet. Here, we evaluate changes of climate connectivity across Mainland China between 2015 and 2019 by assessing the extent and probability of species to track suitable climates under projected climate warming. We find that current afforestation efforts have improved climate connectivity and alleviated the negative impacts of forest loss. However, only ~55% of the trees planted in this period can facilitate range shifts. We prioritise candidate sites for future afforestation to effectively improve climate connectivity, based on their potential to serve as stepping stones. Future tree-planting projects should incorporate species range shifts and climate connectivity to achieve biodiversity conservation benefits under climate change.
... Vegetation is a general term for all surface plant communities, including forests, grasslands, shrubs, etc., and is a key factor in the Earth's terrestrial ecosystem (Arneth, 2015). Vegetation communities are the places where many animals and microorganisms depend, among which forest and grassland ecosystems are important carbon pools (Palmer, 2021). In addition, vegetation has a wide range of socioeconomic benefits, providing a continuous supply of wood and energy for human beings, supporting human livestock development, and providing an ecological barrier to food security. ...
Climate change often leads to the vulnerability of vegetation cover, while the impact of human activities on vegetation cover is undoubtedly more complex in this context, especially in Ethiopia. This paper analyzed the spatiotemporal dynamics of vegetation growth in Ethiopia from 2003 to 2018 by the enhanced vegetation index (EVI) based on different time scales and explored the coefficient of variation and driving factors of the fractional vegetation coverage (FVC). The results indicated that the EVI mainly presents a “double peak” pattern, with large spatiotemporal differences between quarters and months in Ethiopia. The FVC increased by 0.0005 per year, but vegetation showed a browning trend after 2013. The FVC degraded area accounted for 43.9% of the total area, of which the significantly degraded area accounted for 7.51% due to human activities, mainly in northern, central, and southern Ethiopia. The effects of precipitation and maximum temperature on vegetation differed on time scales. Spatially, the vegetation on the northwest side of the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley (MERV) was dominated by a combination of maximum temperature and precipitation, while vegetation on the southeast side of MERV was mainly influenced by precipitation. However, the spatial overlay analysis with degraded and healthy vegetation zones revealed that human activities were the key driver of vegetation cover change rather than climate change. This study provides support for further development of vegetation health conservation policies in Ethiopia and monitoring of vegetation dynamics in other countries around the world.
... Ecological restoration aims to reconstruct the ecosystem "as it would be had it not been degraded, adjusted as necessary to accommodate changed or predicted biotic or environmental conditions," and it includes the reinstatement of hydrological functions (McDonald et al., 2016). Native forest restoration is increasingly viewed as a "nature-based" approach to counter the effects of climate change (Palmer, 2021). ...
Forest restoration aims to increase forest cover, structure, function, and/or species composition, and it influences hydrology through the partitioning of precipitation into evapotranspiration and streamflow. This paper provides a conceptual framework for forest restoration and hydrology, reviews the literature on forest hydrology that is relevant to forest restoration, and assesses practical forest restoration approaches, their hydrologic effects, and tradeoffs. The hydrologic effects of three types of forest are assessed: mature and old-growth forests, which often are the reference model for restoration; managed forest plantations, which dominated early efforts for forest restoration; and the early stages of native forest succession, an increasingly popular, ecologically-oriented or nature-based approach to forest restoration. This review indicates that mature and old-growth forests have high evapotranspiration and consistent water yield, provided by moderated peak discharges and sustained low flows, while water yield is low from managed forest plantations, especially during dry periods. The early stages of native forest succession may provide greater water yield and increased low flows compared with managed plantations. Inclusion of native species and natural processes in forest restoration can increase some hydrological benefits relative to other forest restoration approaches. Although forest restoration affects hydrology, few studies examine the hydrologic effects of specific forest restoration practices such as choice of species, silvicultural practices, legacies of past land use, and geographic setting. Forest managers and ecologists can play valuable roles by designing studies that explore the hydrologic effects of forest restoration approaches on time scales relevant to ecological succession and forest management under a changing climate.
Trees play a vital role in ecosystems as they preserve biodiversity, contribute to primary productivity, and support ecological functions. From an economic perspective, humans derive significant benefits from trees. Multiple factors, including biotic and abiotic stresses, adversely affect tree species, leading to extensive tree mortality and consequently disrupting ecological balance. Abiotic stresses such as cold, salinity, and drought are projected to escalate due to global climate change, posing adverse consequences for tree populations. These effects may include biodiversity loss, disturbances in the carbon cycle, and a reduction in the services provided by trees. Trees have evolved a range of mechanisms, including biochemical, physiological and molecular strategies, to adjust to these stressors. Understanding abiotic stress-tolerance processes will enable constructive pyramiding of some tolerances in a single tree via genetic engineering. Furthermore, developing phenotyping technology broadens the range of features that may be assessed, providing us with a less ill knowledge of stress tolerance. A comprehensive understanding of these tolerance mechanisms is essential for developing artificial techniques to mitigate environmental stress. This book chapter highlights the major abiotic stresses in trees, their impacts, response mechanisms and strategies to mitigate these issues in trees.
As forest-based carbon offset programs gain increasing attention, quantifying their impacts beyond project boundaries remains an open issue, particularly in subtropical and temperate regions. Here we focus on the local spillover effects of 36 forest offset projects in China’s voluntary carbon market. Using matching and difference-in-difference analysis, we compare the forest status of the project areas and buffer zones to their reference areas. Results show overall positive forest gains of 2.25% to 4.25% in project sites, with neighboring areas seeing spillover gains of 0.91% to 1.60%, exhibiting heterogeneity in individual projects. Further analysis finds limited evidence of leakage, possibly due to China’s land policies and project features; instead, positive spillovers are facilitated by knowledge diffusion and information flow, supported by reduced wildfire activities and project application patterns. This study demonstrates that well-designed forest offset programs can yield benefits beyond their boundaries, providing insights for offset policy design and project implementation.
Mangrove restoration is recognized as an effective strategy for enhancing the carbon storage capacity of natural ecosystems, advancing toward the “carbon neutrality” goal. The carbon storage effects of ecological restoration efforts remain insufficiently understood as previous studies have focused on carbon storage dynamics in ecosystems, yet the specific impacts of targeted mangrove restoration are less explored. This study utilizes multi-temporal remote sensing data and actual restoration data from Dongzhai Harbor Hainan Island to identify the mangrove wetland coverage and quantify the spatiotemporal evolution of carbon storage under various restoration efforts using the InVEST model. Additionally, we employed the PLUS model to simulate and compare carbon storage potential under multiple development goals. The findings reveal the following: (a) Mangrove restoration significantly increased the area of land with high carbon sink capability, resulting in a regional carbon storage increase of 210,001.68 tons from 2015 to 2021, with 97% of this increase attributable to ecological restoration. (b) Mangrove coverage is crucial for regional carbon storage, with an average of 443 tons of carbon stored per hectare. Decreases in carbon storage occurred mainly during the conversion of mangroves to aquaculture, and forests/agriculture to residential areas. Increases in carbon storage were seen in the reverse transitions. (c) Comparing the scenarios focused solely on mangrove protection with cultivated land protection, the carbon storage in Dongzhai Harbor is projected to reach its maximum by 2045 under the carbon storage priority scenario. Our findings build a scientific foundation for formulating effective mangrove conservation and restoration strategies.
Wood is one of the key forest Ecosystem Services (ES) of growing ecological, social and economic importance; therefore, we need more precise information about its long-term usage. To achieve this, it is necessary to examine the spatio-temporal aspects of wood ES potential, supply and demand. In this study, we analyse spatio-temporal patterns of wood ES supply and demand at continental, national and regional scales to identify areas of increasing and decreasing supply and demand levels in Europe. In addition, we present background information about the potential of European forests to provide wood ES and its relationship to supply and demand. Our results showed that the overall European wood supply and demand as well as the wood ES potential were characterised by increasing trends. Furthermore, this increase was also regional, particularly in central and northern Europe. This study demonstrates not only the significance of spatio-temporal data in ES mapping, but also the importance of considering a broader range of components of the ES cascade model when assessing change. Our research has shown that potential, supply and demand can all increase in the same area, but also that low supply and demand do not guarantee wood potential growth. In addition, we found that a broad scale assessment helps to identify more general patterns and trends, but analysing data at a more accurate scale provides more comprehensive insights for identifying areas that may require targeted action for sustainable forest management.
Widespread afforestation has been proposed internationally to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide; however, the specific hydrological consequences and benefits of such large-scale afforestation (e.g. natural flood management) are poorly understood. We use a high-resolution land surface model, the Joint UK Land Environment Simulator (JULES), with realistic potential afforestation scenarios to quantify possible hydrological change across Great Britain in both present and projected climate. We assess whether proposed afforestation produces significantly different regional responses across regions; whether hydrological fluxes, stores and events are significantly altered by afforestation relative to climate; and how future hydrological processes may be altered up to 2050. Additionally, this enables determination of the relative sensitivity of land surface process representation in JULES compared to climate changes. For these three aims we run simulations using (i) past climate with proposed land cover changes and known floods and drought events; (ii) past climate with independent changes in precipitation, temperature, and CO2; and (iii) a potential future climate (2020–2050). We find the proposed scale of afforestation is unlikely to significantly alter regional hydrology; however, it can noticeably decrease low flows whilst not reducing high flows. The afforestation levels minimally impact hydrological processes compared to changes in precipitation, temperature, and CO2. Warming average temperatures (+3 °C) decreases streamflow, while rising precipitation (130 %) and CO2 (600 ppm) increase streamflow. Changes in high flow are generated because of evaporative parameterizations, whereas low flows are controlled by runoff model parameterizations. In this study, land surface parameters within a land surface model do not substantially alter hydrological processes when compared to climate.
Smart solutions are pivotal in addressing the intertwined challenges of environmental sustainability and climate change by leveraging technology, data, and innovation. This research paper explores sustainable urban planning as a key practice in creating cities that are environmentally friendly, socially inclusive, economically viable, and resilient to climate change impacts. The paper outlines principles and strategies guiding sustainable urban planning, emphasizing the importance of an integrated approach, prioritizing people and places, embracing green infrastructure, fostering sustainable transportation, promoting resource efficiency, and engaging with communities. The objectives of the paper are to understand the concept of sustainable urban planning, examine the issues of rapid urbanization, assess the impact of rapid urbanization on climate change, identify and assess existing smart solutions, and examine the socioeconomic impacts of sustainable practices. The methodology involves a comprehensive academic literature review, case studies, and reports on smart solutions for environmental sustainability and climate change. Data collection primarily utilizes secondary sources, including newspaper articles and research papers, and involves reviewing and analysing relevant policies at local, national, and international levels. The discussion highlights the multi-faceted approach required to address environmental sustainability and climate change, presenting smart solutions such as renewable energy sources, energy-efficient technologies, circular economy practices, and sustainable agriculture. Examples of successful sustainable urban planning initiatives, including Copenhagen, Medellin, and Singapore, are discussed. The paper concludes with practical recommendations based on research findings and emphasizes the need for international cooperation to address global environmental challenges effectively. Introduction Smart solutions are key to tackling the intertwined challenges of environmental sustainability and climate change. These solutions leverage technology, data, and innovation to address complex issues efficiently and precisely. Addressing environmental sustainability and climate change requires a multi-faceted approach that involves individuals, businesses, governments, and communities. Sustainable urban planning is crucial for creating cities that are environmentally friendly, socially inclusive, economically viable, and resilient to the impacts of climate change. Sustainable urban planning is a practice that focuses on promoting the long-term viability of cities by reducing consumption, waste, and harmful impacts on people and places while enhancing the overall well-being of both people and place. It involves developing strategies and practices in cities that ensure loveable, self-sustaining communities over the long term (Mohanty. M 2020). Sustainable urban planning is vital for creating cities that meet the needs of current and future generations while minimizing environmental impact. It is a complex undertaking, but several key principles and strategies guide this approach, such as:
Societal Impact Statement
Madagascar is famous for its unique forests and their fauna. Most of the island is covered by flammable grassy ecosystems long considered to be of human origin and threatening the remaining forests. Yet new studies show that many plants and animals of the grassy systems are unique to Madagascar and restricted to these open habitats. Open grassy ecosystems have markedly different management requirements from forests and bring different contributions to society. We argue that the grassy ecosystems can benefit Madagascar if understood and managed wisely using expanded knowledge bases that also include collaboration with locals.
Summary
Until recently, nearly all research and interests in Madagascar focused on forested habitats. To help place Madagascar's grassy ecosystems in context, we provide a summary of the origin, development, and evolution of open tropical, C4 grassy ecosystems elsewhere, especially those from Africa; we summarize similarities and differences with the distribution of C3 and C4 grasses in the Malagasy landscape, their plant traits, and inferences on the evolutionary legacy of grasses. We also discuss the animal communities that use and have coevolved in these grassy systems; to help resolve controversies over the pre‐settlement extent of grassy ecosystems, we suggest a variety of complementary geochemical, palaeobotanical, and molecular genetic tools that have been effectively used elsewhere to untangle forest/grassy ecosystem mosaics and the ecological and evolutionary processes that influence them. Many of these tools can and should be employed in Madagascar to fully understand the spatio‐temporal dynamics of open, grassy, and closed forest systems across the island; as regards conservation, we discuss the ecosystem services provided by grassy systems, which are too often ignored in general, not only as a biome, vis‐à‐vis forests, but also for their global importance as a carbon sink and role they play in water management and providing goods to local villagers. We conclude by outlining the necessary research to better manage open ecosystems across Madagascar without threatening endangered forest ecosystems.
This work proposed a promising biorefinery method for the deconstruction of moso bamboo by using p-toluenesulfonic acid (P-TsOH) pretreatment to product high-purity cellulose (dissolving pulp). The cellulose pulp with high α-cellulose content (82.36 %) was successfully prepared for 60 min at low pretreatment temperature (90 °C) and atmospheric pressure. After the simple bleaching and cold caustic extraction (CCE) processes, the properties of cellulose pulp, such as α-cellulose content, polymerization, ISO brightness, all met the standard of dissolving pulp. In general, the cooking method through P-TsOH pretreatment can shorten the preparation time, which can effectively reduce energy consumption and chemical consumption. Therefore, this work may provide a new perspective for the green preparation of dissolving pulp that can be used to produce lyocell fiber after ash and metal ion treatment.
Widespread afforestation has been proposed internationally to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide, however the specific hydrological consequences and benefits of such large-scale afforestation (e.g., Natural Flood Management) are poorly understood. We use a high-resolution land surface model, JULES, with realistic potential afforestation scenarios to quantify possible hydrological change across Great Britain in both present and projected climate. We assess whether proposed afforestation produces significantly different regional responses across regions; whether hydrological fluxes, stores and events are significantly altered by afforestation relative to climate; and how future hydrological processes may be altered up to 2050. Additionally, this enables determination of the relative sensitivity of land surface process representation in JULES compared to climate changes. For these three aims we run simulations using: (i) past climate with proposed land cover changes and known floods and drought events; (ii) past climate with independent changes in precipitation, temperature, and CO2; and (iii) a potential future climate (2020–2050). We find the proposed scale of afforestation is unlikely to significantly alter regional hydrology, however it can noticeably decrease low flows whilst not reducing high flows. The afforestation levels minimally impact hydrological processes compared to changes in precipitation, temperature, and CO2. Warming average temperatures (+ 3 °C) decreases streamflow, while rising precipitation (130 %) and CO2 (600 ppm) increase streamflow. Changes in high flow are generated because of evaporative parameterisations whereas low flows are controlled by runoff model parameterisations. In this study, land surface parameters within a land surface model do not substantially alter hydrological processes when compared to climate.
Increasing anthropogenic disturbances in the Indian Himalayan mountains including forest degradation for extractive and intensive agriculture and fulfilling livelihood securities of local communities have become a major source of soil degradation and carbon (C) stock depletion in the region. The low-temperature conditions are prevalent in high-altitude mountain ecosystems, resulting in a reduced rate of litter decomposition and the addition of higher carbon values. Soil organic matter (SOM) substantially impacts productivity and resilience, improves soil quality, increases fertilizer input efficiency, reduces soil erosion and sedimentation, and reduces nonpoint source pollution in important terrestrial ecosystems. The increased total organic carbon (TOC) content in forest soil results from a considerable annual addition of organic matter (OM) in the form of leaf litter, which stays in the soil owing to the unavailability of disturbance and lack of annual tillage as in the case of agroecosystems. Trees are one of the world’s most cost-effective carbon sinks. Restoring tree cover through forest conservation and planting trees as a nature-based solution help in terms of carbon benefits and mitigating the risks and challenges of climate change. Assessing the soil quality of the Indian Himalayan regions (IHRs), especially the soil carbon pool, is critical for establishing future strategies for restoration and enhancing economic and ecological sustainability in the IHRs.
Our analysis shows that the preservation of intact forest ecosystems is indispensable to protect climate and biodiversity in the long term, and the health and well-being of humanity. Despite this, the destruction of the last intact ecosystems (especially primary and old-growth forests) is increasing at rapid pace. This applies particularly to tropical forests but also to the last European primeval forests. The cause lies in humankind’s gigantic hunger for resources, whether it be woody biomass or arable land to produce beef, feedstuffs such as soya, palm oil, rubber, etc. The transition to a post-fossil society and the partial replacement of fossil fuels with woody biomass is further pushing this development and therefore requires appropriate legal containment to finally achieve sustainable resource and forest management. Apart from that, demand-sight mitigation measures that steer consumption patterns (particularly but not only) in the western world, i.e. meat and biomass consumption, alongside frugality strategies are highly necessary.At the same time, the book critically reviewed the potentials of afforestation and reforestation for climate mitigation, which is often presented as the new saviour to fulfil the commitments of the Paris Agreement and to reach climate neutrality in the future. It became clear that ultimately only biodiverse and thus resilient forests can function as a C sink in the long term (!). However, in the short term, the C storage capacity of newly planted forests is almost negligible and very small. In fact, due to necessary interventions in the soil, young forests are frequently a source of CO2 and do not function as a sink. Potential trade-offs with regard to food security, biodiversity protection, e.g. of species-rich grasslands and wetlands, and the total amount of land available also come into play. In addition, existing forests worldwide are currently reducing their original sink capacity and release more CO2 into the atmosphere. This is because of changing environmental conditions such as long dry seasons often coupled with unsustainable forest management. Overall, the expected future sink capacity of newly planted or existing forests is therefore often overestimated.Nevertheless, monitoring and measuring GHG fluxes in forest ecosystems as accurately as possible is a necessary prerequisite for policy approaches (see Chap. 5). It became clear that this is very challenging. To date, it is hardly possible to achieve an accurate measurement of GHG fluxes in forest ecosystems and to monitor the development of forest ecosystems in a globally comprehensive and accurate manner. The problem of depicting is comparatively large in forest ecosystems as they are influenced by multiple factors. Efforts to reduce the problem of depicting as best as possible are therefore necessary. However, the problem will always remain to a certain extent which in turn has to be considered when developing policy instruments.
Large-scale global reforestation goals have been proposed to help mitigate climate change and provide other ecosystem services. To explore reforestation potential in the United States, we used GIS analyses, surveys of nursery managers and foresters, and literature synthesis to assess the opportunities and challenges associated with meeting proposed reforestation goals. We considered a scenario where 26 million hectares (64 million acres) of natural and agricultural lands are reforested by 2040 with 30 billion trees at an estimated cost of 24–$53) billion USD. Cost per hectare will vary by region, site conditions, and other factors. This scenario would require increasing the number of tree seedlings produced each year by 1.7 billion, a 2.3-fold increase over current nursery production levels. Additional investment (not included in the reforestation cost estimate) will be needed to expand capacity for seed collection, seedling production, workforce development, and improvements in pre- and post-planting practices. Achieving this scenario will require public support for investing in these activities and incentives for landowners.
To constrain global warming, we must strongly curtail greenhouse gas emissions and capture excess atmospheric carbon dioxide1,2. Regrowing natural forests is a prominent strategy for capturing additional carbon³, but accurate assessments of its potential are limited by uncertainty and variability in carbon accumulation rates2,3. To assess why and where rates differ, here we compile 13,112 georeferenced measurements of carbon accumulation. Climatic factors explain variation in rates better than land-use history, so we combine the field measurements with 66 environmental covariate layers to create a global, one-kilometre-resolution map of potential aboveground carbon accumulation rates for the first 30 years of natural forest regrowth. This map shows over 100-fold variation in rates across the globe, and indicates that default rates from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)4,5 may underestimate aboveground carbon accumulation rates by 32 per cent on average and do not capture eight-fold variation within ecozones. Conversely, we conclude that maximum climate mitigation potential from natural forest regrowth is 11 per cent lower than previously reported³ owing to the use of overly high rates for the location of potential new forest. Although our data compilation includes more studies and sites than previous efforts, our results depend on data availability, which is concentrated in ten countries, and data quality, which varies across studies. However, the plots cover most of the environmental conditions across the areas for which we predicted carbon accumulation rates (except for northern Africa and northeast Asia). We therefore provide a robust and globally consistent tool for assessing natural forest regrowth as a climate mitigation strategy.
Several initiatives have been proposed to mitigate forest loss and climate change through tree planting as well as maintaining and restoring forest ecosystems. These initiatives have both inspired and been inspired by global assessments of tree and forest attributes and their contributions to offset carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions. Here we use data from more than 130,000 national forest inventory plots to describe the contribution of nearly 1.4 trillion trees on forestland in the conterminous United States to mitigate CO 2 emissions and the potential to enhance carbon se-questration capacity on productive forestland. Forests and harvested wood products uptake the equivalent of more than 14% of economy-wide CO 2 emissions in the United States annually, and there is potential to increase carbon sequestration capacity by ∼20% (−187.7 million metric tons [MMT] CO 2 ±9.1 MMT CO 2) per year by fully stocking all understocked productive forestland. However, there are challenges and opportunities to be considered with tree planting. We provide context and estimates from the United States to inform assessments of the potential contributions of forests in climate change mitigation associated with tree planting.
Forest restoration occupies centre stage in global conversations about carbon removal and biodiversity conservation, but recent research rarely acknowledges social dimensions or environmental justice implications related to its implementation. We find that 294.5 million people live on tropical forest restoration opportunity land in the Global South, including 12% of the total population in low-income countries. Forest landscape restoration that prioritizes local communities by affording them rights to manage and restore forests provides a promising option to align global agendas for climate mitigation, conservation, environmental justice and sustainable development. An analysis of the overlap between tropical forest restoration, human populations, development and national policies for community forest ownership shows that 294.5 million people live within forest restoration opportunity land in the Global South.
As climate change continues to threaten human and natural systems, the search for cost-effective and practical mitigation solutions is gaining momentum. Reforestation has recently been identified as a promising nature-based climate solution. Yet there are context-dependent biophysical, financial, land-use and operational constraints to reforestation that demand careful consideration. Here, we show that 121 million ha of presently degraded land in Southeast Asia, a region noted for its significant reforestation potential, are biophysically suitable for reforestation. Reforestation of this land would contribute 3.43 ± 1.29 PgCO2e yr⁻¹ to climate mitigation through 2030. However, by taking a combination of on-the-ground financial, land use and operational constraints into account, we find that only a fraction of that mitigation potential may be achievable (0.3–18%). Such constraints are not insurmountable, but they show that careful planning and consideration are needed for effective landscape-scale reforestation.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide enrichment (eCO2) can enhance plant carbon uptake and growth1–5, thereby providing an important negative feedback to climate change by slowing the rate of increase of the atmospheric CO2 concentration⁶. Although evidence gathered from young aggrading forests has generally indicated a strong CO2 fertilization effect on biomass growth3–5, it is unclear whether mature forests respond to eCO2 in a similar way. In mature trees and forest stands7–10, photosynthetic uptake has been found to increase under eCO2 without any apparent accompanying growth response, leaving the fate of additional carbon fixed under eCO2 unclear4,5,7–11. Here using data from the first ecosystem-scale Free-Air CO2 Enrichment (FACE) experiment in a mature forest, we constructed a comprehensive ecosystem carbon budget to track the fate of carbon as the forest responded to four years of eCO2 exposure. We show that, although the eCO2 treatment of +150 parts per million (+38 per cent) above ambient levels induced a 12 per cent (+247 grams of carbon per square metre per year) increase in carbon uptake through gross primary production, this additional carbon uptake did not lead to increased carbon sequestration at the ecosystem level. Instead, the majority of the extra carbon was emitted back into the atmosphere via several respiratory fluxes, with increased soil respiration alone accounting for half of the total uptake surplus. Our results call into question the predominant thinking that the capacity of forests to act as carbon sinks will be generally enhanced under eCO2, and challenge the efficacy of climate mitigation strategies that rely on ubiquitous CO2 fertilization as a driver of increased carbon sinks in global forests.
The potential for global forest cover
The restoration of forested land at a global scale could help capture atmospheric carbon and mitigate climate change. Bastin et al. used direct measurements of forest cover to generate a model of forest restoration potential across the globe (see the Perspective by Chazdon and Brancalion). Their spatially explicit maps show how much additional tree cover could exist outside of existing forests and agricultural and urban land. Ecosystems could support an additional 0.9 billion hectares of continuous forest. This would represent a greater than 25% increase in forested area, including more than 200 gigatonnes of additional carbon at maturity.Such a change has the potential to store an equivalent of 25% of the current atmospheric carbon pool.
Science , this issue p. 76 ; see also p. 24
Significance
Most nations recently agreed to hold global average temperature rise to well below 2 °C. We examine how much climate mitigation nature can contribute to this goal with a comprehensive analysis of “natural climate solutions” (NCS): 20 conservation, restoration, and/or improved land management actions that increase carbon storage and/or avoid greenhouse gas emissions across global forests, wetlands, grasslands, and agricultural lands. We show that NCS can provide over one-third of the cost-effective climate mitigation needed between now and 2030 to stabilize warming to below 2 °C. Alongside aggressive fossil fuel emissions reductions, NCS offer a powerful set of options for nations to deliver on the Paris Climate Agreement while improving soil productivity, cleaning our air and water, and maintaining biodiversity.
Regrowth of tropical secondary forests following complete or nearly complete removal of forest vegetation actively stores carbon in aboveground biomass, partially counterbalancing carbon emissions from deforestation, forest degradation, burning of fossil fuels, and other anthropogenic sources. We estimate the age and spatial extent of lowland second-growth forests in the Latin American tropics and model their potential aboveground carbon accumulation over four decades. Our model shows that, in 2008, second-growth forests (1 to 60 years old) covered 2.4 million km2 of land (28.1% of the total study area). Over 40 years, these lands can potentially accumulate a total aboveground carbon stock of 8.48 Pg C (petagrams of carbon) in aboveground biomass via low-cost natural regeneration or assisted regeneration, corresponding to a total CO2 sequestration of 31.09 Pg CO2. This total is equivalent to carbon emissions from fossil fuel use and industrial processes in all of Latin America and the Caribbean from 1993 to 2014. Ten countries account for 95% of this carbon storage potential, led by Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela. We model future land-use scenarios to guide national carbon mitigation policies. Permitting natural regeneration on 40% of lowland pastures potentially stores an additional 2.0 Pg C over 40 years. Our study provides information and maps to guide national-level forest-based carbon mitigation plans on the basis of estimated rates of natural regeneration and pasture abandonment. Coupled with avoided deforestation and sustainable forest management, natural regeneration of second-growth forests provides a low-cost mechanism that yields a high carbon sequestration potential with multiple benefits for biodiversity and ecosystem services.
- R Dave
Dave, R. et al. Nature 570, 164 (2019).
- B W Griscom
Griscom, B. W. et al. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114,
11645-11650 (2017).
- M Jiang
Jiang, M. et al. Nature 850, 227-231 (2020).
- J.-F Bastin
Bastin, J.-F. et al. Science 365, 76-79 (2019).
- S C Cook-Patton
Cook-Patton, S. C. et al. Nature 585, 545-550 (2020).
- J Fargione
Fargione, J. et al. Front. For. Glob. Change 4, 629198 (2020).
- R Chazdon
Chazdon, R. et al. Sci. Adv. 2, e1501639 (2016).
- G M Domke
Domke, G. M. et al. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117,
24649-24651 (2020).
- Y Zeng
Zeng, Y. et al. Nat. Clim. Change 10, 842-844 (2020).
- J T Erbaugh
Erbaugh, J. T. et al. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 4, 1472-1476 (2020).