Exploring Carnatic Classical Music in Drum & Bass : Towards a New Sound of the Asian Underground

Abstract

A relatively unexplored but musically rich musical tradition from the Indian subcontinent is Carnatic classical music, a rhythmically complex style which lends itself beautifully to the Drum & Bass template. This dissertation is aimed at understanding the origins, evolution and fundamental building blocks of both styles, and the possibilities of incorporating one into the other to create an exciting new style of Asian Underground Music.

Full text

Exploring*Carnatic*Classical*Music*in*Drum*&*Bass:**
Towards(a(New(Sound(of(the(Asian(Underground(
!
!
!
!
Satyajeet!Prabhu!
M.Phil!(Music!Composition)!–!2018-19!
!
Supervisor:!Richard!Duckworth!
!
!
!
This!dissertation!is!submitted!in!partial!fulfillment!of!requirements!for!!
M.Phil.!in!Music!Composition,!School!of!Creative!Arts,!!
Trinity!College!Dublin!
!
!
!
(Word!Count:!!4741)!

Declaration*
*
!
!
I!certify!that!this!dissertation!is!the!result!of!my!own!work,!that!
all!borrowed!language!and!ideas!–!whether!directly!quoted!or!
indirectly!applied!–!have!been!properly!documented,!and!that!
all!the!help!I!have!received!(other!than!that!from!my!
supervisor)!has!been!openly!acknowledged.!The!word!count!on!
the!title!page!is!accurate,!and!excludes!the!preliminary!pages!
(title!page,!contents,!etc.),!any!appendices,!notes,!bibliography!
and!filmography.!!
!
!
Signed:!!
!!!!!!!(Satyajeet!Prabhu)!
!
Date:!

Acknowledgements*
*
!
First!and!foremost,!I!would!like!to!acknowledge!my!‘crew’;!fellow!producers,!DJs!and!
Label!owners!for!kickstarting!and!supporting!my!musical!musical!journey!throughout!
–!Balasubramanyam!Swayampakula!aka!Dakta!Dub,!pioneer!of!reggae!and!sound!
system!movement!in!India,!who!has!been!working!relentlessly!for!around!two!
decades!to!introduce!Indian!youth!to!conscious!bass!music!and!sound!system!culture!
and!connecting!like-minded!Indian!artists!like!myself.!Harshavardhan!S!aka!Shivacult,!
carnatic!vocalist!and!music!producer!extrordinaire!who!has!been!a!long!term!
collaborator!and!shares!the!same!vision!of!exploring!the!Carnatic!aesthetic!in!bass!
music.!Manjinder!Sandhu!aka!Nuphlo,!label!owner!of!Hundred!Colours!Music!(UK)!
and!Sankar!Suri!aka!Dimm!Summer,!label!owner!of!High!Chai!Music!(US)!-!veterans!of!
the!Asian!Underground!movement!who!were!the!first!people!to!give!an!upcoming!
producer!like!myself!an!opportunity!to!showcase!my!music!and!are!still!actively!
guiding!me!and!supporting!my!work.!
!
I!would!like!to!thank!my!supervisor!Richard!Duckworth,!who!being!an!electronic!
music!artist!himself,!comprehended!my!vision!for!this!dissertation!and!extended!
complete!support!(including!offering!his!own!musical!gear)!and!constant!guidance.!
!
Lastly,!I!would!like!to!thank!Evangelia!Rigaki,!Head!of!Department,!for!having!faith!in!
me!and!accepting!me!to!this!program!despite!my!limited!background!in!music!
education,!on!the!basis!of!my!body!of!work.!

Abstract**
!
Underground!music!comprises!musical!genres!beyond!mainstream!culture.!In!regard!
to!electronic!music!today,!most!of!it!could!be!considered!underground!music!as!it!
has!always!catered!to!a!niche!but!devoted!audience.!!
!
One!such!genre!of!underground!electronic!music!is!Drum!&!Bass,!a!style!that!
emerged!in!the!UK!in!the!early!90s!has!now!spread!across!the!globe!as!a!popular!
form!of!dance!music.!It!has!also!found!unique!expressions!as!producers!across!the!
world!are!experimenting!using!traditional!sounds!and!folk!music!within!the!template!
of!the!genre!to!create!unique!fusion!music!aimed!at!the!dancefloor.!
A!particular!style!of!Drum!&!Bass!emerged!in!the!late!90s!in!the!UK!as!British!South!
Asian!musicians!blended!traditional!South!Asian!sounds!from!Indian!Classical!and!
folk!music!with!underground!dance!music!in!a!phenomenon!that!came!to!be!known!
as!the!Asian!Underground.!This!music!is!now!finding!popularity!in!the!Indian!
subcontinent!where!a!new!generation!of!musically!aware!club-goers!wants!to!
consume!internationally!relevant!but!locally!flavoured!electronic!music.!!
!
A!relatively!unexplored!but!musically!rich!musical!tradition!from!the!Indian!
subcontinent!is!Carnatic!classical!music,!a!rhythmically!complex!style!which!lends!
itself!beautifully!to!the!Drum!&!Bass!template.!!This!dissertation!is!aimed!at!
understanding!the!origins,!evolution!and!fundamental!building!blocks!of!both!styles,!
and!the!possibilities!of!incorporating!one!into!the!other!to!create!an!exciting!new!
style!of!Asian!Undeground!Music.!!

Table*of*Contents!
*
Introduction***********1*
Background!of!Study!
Literature!Review!!
Chapter*1:*Sound*of*the*Asian*Underground********3*
1.1!Drum!&!Bass!Music!–!Origins!
1.2!Cultural!implications!and!the!rise!&!fall!of!Jungle!
1.3!Evolution!of!Drum!&!Bass!
1.4!Fusion!in!Bass!Music!and!the!Asian!Underground!
Chapter*2*:*Drum*&*Bass*Composition********8!
2.1!The!Sampler!
2.2!The!Break!
2.3!The!Bass!
2.4!Composition!
2.5!Arrangement!
Chapter*3:*Carnatic*Classical*Music**********16*
3.1!Overview!
3.2!Carnatic!Music!!
3.3!Composition!&!Improvisation!
3.4!Rhythmic!Complexity!
Chapter*4:*Developments*towards*Carnatic*Drum*&*Bass******21*
4.1!Carnatic!in!modern!music!!
4.2!Drawing!parallels!-!Tālas!&!Breaks!
4.3!Carnatic!in!Bass!Music!today!
Conclusion************24*
References************
Appendix***********
Bibliography************

!
1!
Introduction*
Background+of+Study*
The+foundation+for+this+study+was+laid+in+early+2013+when+I+started+my+own+musical+
project+Barasingha+to+explore+Indian+Classical+music+in+Drum+&+Bass+music,+a+style+of+UK+
dance+music,+which+I+had+then+become+recently+acquainted+with.+My+earliest+works+in+
this+area+were+also+recognized+by+Asian+Underground+record+labels+in+the+UK+and+US+
encouraging+me+to+focus+on+this+style.+In+my+undergraduate+music+education+in+India,+I+
was+introduced+to+the+science+of+Carnatic+classical+rhythms+and+since+then+I+have+been+
working+towards+deepening+my+knowledge+of+this+art+while+improving+upon+my+Drum+&+
Bass+production+techniques+to+try+and+bring+these+worlds+together+through+my+own+
work.+This+dissertation+is+an+attempt+to+formalize+my+learnings+so+far+and+explore+
possibilities+of+diving+further+into+this+vast+musical+area.++
Literature+Review++
The+dissertation+is+split+up+into+four+sections+–+concerning+the+history+of+Drum+&+Bass,+
concerning+composition+and+arrangement+in+Drum+&+Bass+music,+concerning+Indian+
classical+music+and+finally+developments+towards+incorporating+the+Carnatic+system+of+
music+in+Drum+&+Bass.+I+shall+discuss+the+key+sources+of+literature+that+have+informed+
each+of+these+sections.+
There+are+not+many+books+written+on+Drum+&+Bass+music+with+a+very+objective+view+of+
the+subject.+Brian+Belle+Fortune’s+All+Crews+is+considered+the+most+accurate+insider+
account+of+the+era+but+it+tends+to+have+a+rather+reflective+style+of+writing.+The+most+

!
2!
useful+book+I+found+on+the+subject+was+Modulations:+A+History+of+Sound:+Throbbing+
Words+on+Sound,+essentially+a+compendium+of+chapters+written+by+various+authors+on+
the+different+genres+of+UK+underground+music+and+edited+by+Peter+Shapiro.+The+chapter+
on+Jungle+written+by+Chris+Sharp+is+perhaps+the+most+detailed+account+of+the+evolution+
of+Jungle+(and+consequently+Drum+&+Bass)+and+addresses+every+aspect+including+origins,+
labels,+key+artists,+musical+styles+and+technology+in+a+clean+chronological+order+with+crisp+
language.+
On+the+subject+of+composition+in+Drum+&+Bass,+Mark+Butler’s+book+Unlocking+the+Groove+
is+an+in-depth+source+on+the+musical+interpretation+of+rhythms+in+Drum+&+Bass+(and+
other+breakbeat+driven+music)+and+the+science+behind+the+manipulation+of+breakbeats+
by+Drum+&+Bass+producers.+
Lastly,+on+the+subject+of+Carnatic+music,+I+was+able+to+get+my+hands+on+a+rare+publication+
Alaap+–A+Discovery+of+Indian+Classical+Music+by+Indian+publisher+Times+Music+which+
exhaustively+covers+every+concept+of+Carnatic+(and+Hindustani)+Classical+music+in+a+
simple+but+detailed+manner+so+as+to+be+understood+by+the+uninitiated.+A+number+of+
concepts+were+also+explained+from+my+personal+knowledge+of+the+subject+on+account+of+
my+leaning+Carnatic+rhythms+in+my+undergraduate+music+studies.+
Besides+these+essential+books,+a+number+of+academic+essays,+journal+and+online+articles+
were+referred+to+for+individual+subsections+and+have+been+cited+appropriately.+
* *

!
3!
Chapter*1:*Sound*of*the*Asian*Underground*
*
1.1 Drum+&+Bass+Music+–+Origins++
What+is+known+and+recognized+today+as+Drum+&+Bass+(abbreviated+as+D&B+or+DnB)+
music+traces+its+roots+to+the+late+80’s+and+early+90’s+dance+music+culture+that+emerged+in+
the+UK.+The+success+of+the+Chicago+Acid+House+movement+in+the+United+States+spread+to+
the+shores+of+the+UK+in+the+mid-80s+and+took+on+a+life+of+its+own+under+the+umbrella+
term+‘Rave’+music.+At+the+end+of+what+is+considered+the+golden+age+of+rave+music+(1988-
90),+a+sub-genre+known+as+Breakbeat+Hardcore+(or+Oldschool+Rave+Hardcore)+emerged+
which+replaced+programmed+four-on-the-floor+house/techno+beats+with+hip-hop+style+
breakbeats+sampled+from+recordings.1+
Reggae+music+and+sound+system+culture+had+become+an+integral+part+of+the+British+
music+ecosystem+by+the+1980s+because+of+its+Jamaican+immigrant+population2+and+it+was+
not+long+before+its+influences+crossed+over+into+rave+culture.+While+there+are+multiple+
accounts+of+its+origins3,+a+new+style+of+music+emerged+which+combined+the+heavy+
basslines+and+simple+melodies+of+Jamaican+sound+system+music,+with+the+rolling+grooves+
of+breakbeat+hardcore+to+create+a+new+genre+which+came+to+be+simply+known+as+
‘Jungle’.+Jungle+went+on+to+scale+new+heights+of+popularity+like+no+other+sub-genre+in+
Rave+music+and+also+birthed+the+modern+version+of+Drum+&+Bass+music.+To+this+day,+
dedicated+listeners+of+Drum+&+Bass+music+refer+to+themselves+as+junglists.+
+

!
4!
1.2 Cultural+implications+and+the+rise+&+fall+of+Jungle+
In+his+article+The+Cultural+Politics+of+Dance4,+writer+David+Hesmondhalgh+notes+the+
segregation+between+white+and+black+dance+music+culture+in+the+British+dance+music+
press+during+that+period.+Pre-rave,+the+scene+was+divided+between+white+youth,+which+
who+were+portrayed+as+representing+club+culture,+and+the+black+and+British-Asian+youth,+
who+were+catered+to+by+Hip-Hop,+R&B+and+Jamaican+sound+systems.+Jungle,+for+the+first,+
time+seemed+to+bring+the+two+factions+onto+the+same+dancefloor.+
The+years+1993+&+1994+saw+jungle+discard+its+breakbeat+roots+and+grow+into+its+own+
form,+which+is+still+retained+to+this+day+in+its+modern+day+successor+Drum+&+Bass.+Record+
labels+such+as+Moving+Shadow+and+Suburban+Bass+and+associated+artists+like+Foul+Play+
and+Omni+Trio+released+records+which+firmly+established+the+sound+of+the+genre+and+
made+way+for+other+maverick+producers+such+as+Photek,+LTJ+Bukem,+Goldie+and+others+
to+take+it+into+newer,+fresher+territories.+
Around+the+same+period,+a+new+trend+emerged+of+using+Raggai+vocal+samples.+The+year+
1994+saw+the+jungle+tune+“Incredible”,+a+collaboration+between+ragga+MC+General+Levy+
and+producer+M+Beat+enter+the+UK+top-ten+charts.+The+media+not+only+turned+its+
attention+to+the+scene+but+also+portrayed+a+racially+biased+view+of+Jungle+as+a+black+
genre,+ignoring+the+diversity+of+the+creators+and+audience+involved+in+its+development.+
The+old+producers+of+jungle+chose+to+distance+themselves+from+the+label+‘jungle’+but+
continued+to+develop+the+original+jungle+sound+under+the+tag+of+‘Drum+&+Bass’.+
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
i!Ragga,+a+more+aggressive+offshoot+of+reggae+music,+which+emerged+in+the+late+80s+UK+was+popular+
among+black+youth+but+was+infamous+for+its+use+of+violent,+homophobic+and+sexist+lyrics.!

!
5!
1.3 Evolution+of+Drum+&+Bass++
Even+before+the+ragga+jungle+phenomenon+occurred,+jungle+producers+were+already+
branching+out,+taking+the+jungle+template+into+different+musical+areas.+The+sound+of+
hardcore+music+was+primarily+geared+towards+creating+intensity+at+drug-fuelled+rave+
parties.+As+the+rave+era+came+to+an+end,+producers+turned+their+attention+towards+
musicality+and+complexity,+which+was+helped+in+part+by+rapid+technological+
advancements+that+made+quality+gear+accessible+to+the+budget+producer.++
LTJ+Bukem,+a+veteran+of+the+80s+London+acid+jazz+scene,+gathered+like+minded+producers+
under+the+banner+of+Good+Looking+Records+and+created+a+unique+style+of+warm,+jazzy+
drum+and+bass+commonly,+but+condescendingly,+known+as+‘Intelligent+Drum+&+Bass’.+
In+1995,+Goldie+released+his+seminal+record+Timeless,+a+full-length+album+blending+
complex+breakbeat+rhythms,+jungle+basslines+with+orchestral+strings+and+live+vocals.+The+
album+received+critical+praise+in+British+music+press+and+established+Drum+&+Bass+as+a+
recognized+musical+genre.++
Drum+&+Bass+also+took+new+forms.+On+one+of+the+DnB+spectrum+there+was+the+
atmospheric,+jazzy+side+of+jungle+and+on+the+other+end+there+was+also+a+dark,+industrial+
sound+of+jungle+known+as+Techstep.+The+original+rave+inspired+sound+was+preserved+in+
the+sub-genre+called+Jump+up.+The+newly+relaunched+Ishkur’s+Guide+to+Electronic+Music5,+
the+cult+classic+dance+music+catalog+lists+the+various+subgenres+along+with+music+
examples+and+a+development+timeline+in+a+user-friendly+interface.+

!
6!
1.4 Fusion+in+Drum+&+Bass+and+the+Asian+Underground++
With+sampling+technology+at+their+command,+Drum+&+Bass+producers+were+expanding+
their+palette+of+sounds+from+jazz,+soul+and+funk+to+more+oriental+sounds+but+in+a+very+
sophisticated+manner.+A+great+example+is+Photek’s+‘Ni+Ten+Ichi+Ryu’,+a+sparse+but+
intricately+programmed+conceptual+track+that+samples+Japanese+folk+percussion+and+is+
based+on+the+Samurai+two-swords+technique.+Around+the+same+period,+on+the+other+side+
of+the+globe,+Japanese+producer+Soichi+Terada+released+his+album+Sumo+Jungle+
Grandeur,+a+jazz-jungle+exploration+punctuated+by+Japanese+vocals.+Such+global+fusions+
have+resulted+in+the+creation+of+a+myriad+of+locally+flavoured+styles.++
One+such+unique+fusion+in+Drum+&+Bass+that+emerged+from+the+UK+came+to+be+known+as+
Asian+Underground.+
Britain+has+a+large+South-Asian+diaspora,+commonly+referred+to+as+Asian+or+Asian+British+
most+of+whom+immigrated+to+the+UK+during+the+50s+and+the+60s+from+India,+Pakistan+
and+Bangladesh.+A+new+generation+of+British+born+Asian+youth+found+their+musical+
identity+in+Bhangra,+a+Punjabiii+folk+style,+which+they+actively+remixed+throughout+the+
80s+to+create+new+forms+sometimes+referred+to+as+British+Bhangra.+In+time+however,+the+
second+and+third+generation+youth+growing+up+in+the+era+of+explosion+of+UK+dance+music+
felt+the+need+to+evolve+their+music+in+line+with+the+new+sound.+The+racial+environment+in+
90s+Britain+denied+them+access+to+the+(primarily+white)+clubs.+Breakthrough+came+in+the+
fall+of+1993+in+the+form+of+Bombay+Jungle,+a+weekly+club+night+at+the+London+venue+Wag+
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
ii!Punjab!is!a!geopolitical!and!cultural!region!in!the!northern!part!of!the!Indian!subcontinent!which!
was!partitioned!by!the!British!and!divided!between!India!and!Pakistan!

!
7!
Club6.+Even+though+dedicated+to+Bhangra,+it+promised+a+safe+and+welcoming+club+space+
for+the+British+Asian+youth+and+also+encouraged+explorations+of+the+genre+through+other+
mediums+such+as+Hip+Hop.++
In+1995,+Talvin+Singh,+a+British+Asian+musician+trained+in+Indian+Classical+music,+along+
with+Bangladeshi+British+producer+Sam+Zaman,+better+known+as+‘State+of+Bengal’,+started+
a+club+night+Anokha+(meaning+unique+in+Hindi)+at+East+London+club+Blue+Note.7+
In+June+1997,+the+duo+also+released+a+compilation+album+titled+Anokha:+Soundz+of+the+
Asian+Underground.+The+album+showcased+up+and+coming+British+Asian+producers+
involved+in+creating+a+modern+fusion+of+Indian+classical+instrumentation+and+vocals+and+
Breakbeat,+Hip+Hop+and+Drum+&+Bass.+As+Talvin+Singh+himself+puts+it+in+the+documentary+
British+Asian+Sound+Systems8+
“When+Drum+&+Bass+started+happening,+and+jungle,+I+felt,+that+music+had+all+the+space,+
the+form,+it+had+the+freedom+for+me+to+express+the+Indian+Classical+music+side,+which+a+
lot+of+Asian+people+in+this+country+were+not+exposed+to.”+
The+success+of+the+event+and+the+album+firmly+established+the+label+Asian+Underground+
for+this+unique+style+of+music+in+British+music+press.+The+term+Asian+Underground+has+
now+been+expanded+to+encompass+all+forms+of+British+Asian+music+that+emerged+during+
that+era.+Although+Asian+Underground+as+a+scene+does+not+exist+as+a+scene+today,+the+
sound+it+represented+has+since+gone+on+to+influence+music+globally+and+is+slowly+making+
a+comeback+in+the+Indian+subcontinent.+

!
8!
Chapter*2:*Drum*&*Bass*Composition*
Although+Drum+&+Bass+borrows+a+lot+of+elements+from+general+dance+music+repertoire,+
it+is+unique+in+the+use+of+certain+specific+tools+and+compositional+elements.+
2.1+The+Sampler+
The+term+‘Sampling’+in+the+modern+musical+context+almost+always+evokes+arguments+on+
legality+and+ethics+but,+as+a+technology,+one+cannot+deny+that+it+has+been+responsible+for+
democratizing+and+redefining+the+music+making+process+by+making+it+accessible+to+the+
individual+creators.+Sampling+(in+music)+is+“the+method+by+which+special+musical+
instruments+or+apparatus+digitally+‘record’+external+sounds+for+subsequent+resynthesis”9.++
By+the+end+of+the+80s,+high+quality+hardware+samplers+had+become+affordable+and+
indispensable+tools+in+the+arsenal+of+Hip+Hop+and+Drum+&+Bass+producers.+In+fact+
Jungle/Drum+&+Bass+as+a+genre+was+made+possible+only+because+of+the+technological+
capabilities+of+samplers,+the+gold+standard+of+which+was+the+Akai+S100010.++
A+great+example+of+creative+possibilities+enabled+by+the+sampler+is+DJ+Shadow’s+
influential+1996+album+Endtroducing,+composed+almost+entirely+of+samples+recorded+
from+obscure+vinyl+records+and+produced+on+an+Akai+MPC60+sampler.+
By+the+turn+of+millennium+with+the+advances+in+personal+computing,+sampling+
technology+has+entered+the+realm+of+pure+software+and+is+much+easier+to+use+and+
integrate+with+software+DAWs+(Digital+Audio+Workstation).+

!
9!
2.2+The+Break+
What+set+Drum+&+Bass+(and+its+predecessor+Hardcore+Breakbeat)+apart+from+other+dance+
music+genres+of+the+era+was+the+use+of+breakbeats,+or+simply+breaks.++
A+break+is+the+solo+drum+section+(essentially+a+‘break’+in+the+song)+in+funk+records+by+
artists+such+as+James+Brown+which+were+sampled+by+Hip+Hop+producers+in+the+late+80s+
as+rhythmic+base+for+MC’s+to+rap+over11++
Over+in+the+UK,+rave+music+producers+picked+up+on+this+technique,+sped+up+the+breaks+
considerablyiii+to+introduce+a+sense+of+urgency+into+the+usually+monotonous+4/4+beats+of+
house+and+techno+music,+spawning+breakbeat+hardcore.+With+the+advent+of+advanced+
samplers+such+as+the+Akai+S1000,+with+its+sophisticated+sample+manipulation+features,+
focus+now+shifted+to+creating+rhythmic+complexity+using+these+breaks,+marking+the+
transition+from+Hardcore+into+the+age+of+Jungle+and+Drum+&+Bass.12+
Breaks+are+usually+2+measure+long+loops+of+live+drums+(and+sometimes+percussion)+and+it+
is+this+humanness+-+expressive+timing,+dynamic+variations+and+syncopation+-+which+sets+
breaks+apart+from+programmed+drums.13+
The+most+widely+recognized+and+sampled+break+in+dance+music+is+the+“Amen”+break14.+
The+Amen+break+and+the+other+commonly+used+breaks+in+Jungle+and+Drum+&+Bass+such+
as+the+Think+break,+the+Hot+Pants+break+and+the+Apache+break15,+have+an+essential+
rhythmic+pattern+by+which+Drum+&+Bass+as+a+genre+is+usually+recognized+today.++
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
iii!Tempos!–!Hip!Hop:!80-90!bpm,!Breakbeat!hardcore:!126-130!bpm,!Jungle/DnB:!160-170!bpm!

!
10!
+++++++++++++ +
Setting+the+tempo+of+the+track+in+the+area+of+170+bpm,+the+Kick+(or+the+bass+drum)+is+
placed+on+the+1+and+the+(3&).+The+Snare+on+the+2+&+4,+a+constant+eighth-note+hi-hat+(or+
cymbal)+and+finally+weak+snare+hits+on+sixteenth-notes,+which+gives+the+overall+break+its+
‘rolling’+feel.++
Individual+instruments+cannot+be+isolated+in+a+break.+So+Jungle/Drum+&+Bass+producers,+
instead+of+looping+the+beat,+use+a+number+of+creative+techniques+to+create+variations+in+
the+break.+They+do+this+by+chopping+the+break+into+multiple+parts+at+key+points+such+as+
the+kick+and+the+snare+and+then+reorganize+these+parts+preventing+the+listener+from+
getting+used+to+the+pattern+and+creating+an+impression+of+a+live+drum+performance.+
Other+techniques+include+pitch+shifting+or+reversing+individual+parts+or+splicing+an+
entirely+different+break+in+between+the+original+break.+Over+time,+producers+have+
strayed+away+from+directly+using+standard+breaks+as+the+basis+for+their+drums+in+favour+
of+creating+their+own+breaks+of+using+individual+hits+from+different+breaks+or+recorded+
samples+giving+this+entire+approach+of+break+manipulation+the+term+‘breakbeat+science’.+

!
11!
2.3+The+Bass+
“A+crucial+historical+trace+lies+in+the+indebtedness+to+Caribbean+music+that+can+be+heard+
most+clearly+in+the+dominant+presence+assigned+to+the+bassline.+While+the+density+and+
ferocity+of+the+drum+programming+is+often+at+odds+with+the+more+minimal+use+of+melodic+
textures,+it+is+the+rumbling+basslines+that+connect+these+two+poles+and+provide+the+
principal+rhythm+for+dancing”16+
In+contrast+to+the+bass+instrument+or+the+musical+register+used+in+acoustic+music+as+part+
of+harmony,+bass+in+dance+music+is+used+as+a+sonic+tool+to+induce+haptic+sensation+of+
sound+in+the+body.+Robert+Fink+chronicles+modern+bass+culture+in+his+book+The+Relentless+
Pursuit+of+Tone+:+Timbre+in+Popular+Music.+He+notes+that+human+beings+are+hearing+
impaired+below+100+Hz+but+are+capable+of+feeling+the+movement+of+waves+at+high+levels+
of+loudness+without+damaging+their+hearing.+This+fact+was+used+by+the+sound+system+
operators+in+the+90s+who+would+mix+the+sound+to+have+high+levels+of+bass+but+controlled+
mids+and+highs+in+order+to+“envelope+dancers+in+a+shared+physical+experience+of+sound+
without+punishing+their+ears”17+and+it+was+not+long+before+Drum+&+Bass+producers+took+
advantage+of+this+situation.++
Bass+in+Drum+&+Bass+music+mainly+refers+to+sub-bass+(frequencies+below+70Hz).+In+this+
frequency+range+only+pure+sine+tones+exist+(as+harmonics+automatically+fall+out+of+the+
sub-bass+range)+and+producers+use+the+movement+of+these+sine+tones+(which+can+be+
physically+felt+on+sound+systems)+as+a+creative+effect.+

!
12!
One+of+the+earliest+bass+‘instruments’+to+be+used+in+this+context+was+the+kick+sound+
sampled+from+the+Roland+TR-808+drum+machine.+The+808+kick+sound+is+comprised+of+two+
distinct+parts:+the+initial+click,+meant+to+emulate+the+attack+sound+of+a+drum+beater+and+
a+sustained+deep+bass+tone,+meant+to+emulate+a+decaying+thump.+Producers+realized+
that+by+pitching+down+the+808+kick+and+using+the+sustained+bass+tail,+they+could+create+
booming+bass+on+the+sound+system18.+Several+other+techniques+were+used+to+create+
these+bass+movements+and+are+now+considered+iconic+sounds,+such+as+the+‘Reese’+bass+
and+the+‘Dread’+bass.+
With+the+advent+of+highly+advanced+software+synths,+even+the+bass+has+come+a+long+
way.+A+notable+example+is+the+subgenre+‘Neurofunk’19+which+is+popular+for+creating+
outworldly+bass+acrobatics+using+extremely+sophisticated+sound+design+techniques.+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

!
13!
+2.4+Composition+
The+Compositional+approach+in+Drum+&+Bass+falls+somewhere+between+sonic+artistry+
and+musicianship.+As+author+Curtis+Roads+observes+in+his+book+Composing+Electronic+
Music+:+A+New+Aesthetic+-+
“In+instrumental+composition,+the+basic+materials+–+the+notes+–+evolved+out+of+a+long+
tradition.+Their+properties+are+well+known.+It+only+takes+a+second+to+inscribe+a+note+on+a+
piece+of+paper.+This+situation+stands+in+stark+contrast+to+that+of+electronic+music,+where+
the+first+stage+of+composition+is+the+potentially+time+consuming+construction+of+the+
sound+materials+to+be+deployed+in+the+piece.”20+
The+use+of+music+and+sound+in+D&B+is+generally+to+convey+themes+and+the+focus+is+on+
creating+atmospheres+to+carry+the+drums+and+the+bass.+Sub-genres+exist+in+D&B+on+this+
very+basis.++
The+sound+of+hardcore+and+early+jungle+reflected+a+bleak+and+moody+atmosphere+in+
post-rave+era+Britain+as+people+woke+up+to+the+joyless+inner+city+life+and+urban+decay+
around+them.+Tunes+were+made+with+dark+atmospheres+and+sinister+sounds+sampled+
from+video+games+and+horror+and+action+movies.+The+‘intelligent’+sound+of+jungle+
explored+musicality+by+sampling+lush+jazz+chords+and+instruments+to+create+uplifting+
atmospheres.+Artists+such+as+Roni+Size+and+4Hero+who+were+signed+to+major+labels+tried+
to+fashion+Drum+&+Bass+in+the+style+of+jazz,+writing+tunes+with+real+instrumentation+and+
sprawling+arrangements+released+as+full+length+albums+but+majority+of+the+underground+

!
14!
producers+dedicated+themselves+to+the+original+pursuit+of+explorations+in+drums+and+
bass.++
‘Composers’+of+the+genre+are+few+and+far+in+between.+Artists+such+as+Photek+and+Hidden+
Agenda+refrained+from+sticking+to+any+formula+and+purely+explored+drum+&+bass+as+a+
template+to+conceive+their+original+aesthetic.+The+case+remains+the+same+today.+As+more+
trained+musicians+have+turned+Drum+&+Bass+producers,+the+genre+is+witnessing+an+
upsurge+in+album+format+releases+written+in+original+styles.+Producers+like+Calibre,+Naibu+
and+Kimyan+Law+are+being+celebrated+for+their+own+unique+brands+of+D&B+that+explore+
musicality+without+losing+the+intensity+of+the+original+sound.+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

!
15!
2.5+Arrangement+
A+Drum+&+Bass+DJ+is+as+much+a+part+of+the+ecosystem+as+the+producer.+Tracks+are+
structured+so+that+a+DJ+can+play+them+one+after+the+other+in+an+unbroken+flow+in+a+single+
continuous+performance+(known+as+a+DJ+“set”)+lasting+an+hour+or+more.+As+opposed+to+
the+verse-chorus-bridge+structure+used+in+pop+music,+DnB+uses+a+different+system+as+
explained+below+using+the+track+‘24/7’+by+Drum+&+Bass+duo+Pola+&+Bryson:+
Fig:+Sections+in+a+Drum+&+Bass+arrangement+
1. Buildup:+The+16-32+bar+section+where+elements+are+progressively+added+or+
effected+to+create+a+sense+of+drive+or+a+build+up+of+energy+ending+on+a+high+point.+
2. Drop:+The+densest+part+of+the+track+that+occurs+at+the+end+of+the+buildup+meant+
to+create+an+explosion+of+energy+on+the+dance+floor.+
3. Breakdown:+A+short+8-16+bar+section+of+gradual+or+sudden+reduction+in+density+to+
create+a+sense+of+space+and+anticipation+leading+to+yet+another+buildup+and+drop.+
Thus,+dynamics+in+Drum+&+Bass+tracks+are+created+through+the+arrangement+and+these+
sections+also+serve+as+breakpoints+for+the+DJ+to+segue+one+track+into+the+next.+There+may+
be+multiple+buildups+and+breakdown+in+a+track+but+there+are+no+more+than+two+drops.+
With+this+structure,+a+track+generally+has+a+running+length+of+3-6+minutes.++

!
16!
Chapter*3:*Carnatic*Classical*Music*
3.1+Overview+
Most+people+are+familiar+with+Indian+classical+music+through+its+peculiar+style+and+use+of+
certain+sounds.+However,+Indian+classical+is+a+very+sophisticated+system+of+music+with+its+
own+complex+set+of+rules+requiring+intense+training+by+its+practitioners.+Indian+classical+
music+has+two+major+traditions:+The+Hindustani+or+North+Indian+classical+and+Carnatic+or+
South+Indian+classical.+While+both+these+traditions+have+their+roots+in+ancient+Vediciv+
literature+of+Hinduism,+they+branched+out+after+the+14th+century,+as+a+result+of+the+
invasion+of+north+India+by+Islamic+conquerors,+and+evolved+independently+acquiring+
distinct+identities.++
Hindustani+music+has+more+Persian+and+Arab+influences,+which+can+also+be+observed+in+
its+instrumentation,+and+is+more+improvisation-oriented.+On+the+other+hand,+Carnatic+is+
more+structured+and+the+focus+is+on+exploring+beauty+through+complexity.+
Indian+classical+music+is+entrenched+in+spirituality+and+natural+harmony+and+its+ethos+is+
reflected+in+its+fundamental+elements:+
Svara:+Roughly+corresponding+to+the+note,+Indian+classical+also+employs+7+notes+in+an+
octave+(12+in+Carnatic+which+includes+certain+notes+having+same+pitches+but+different+
nomenclature).+However,+unlike+western+music,+Indian+classical+music+is+not+fixed+pitch.+
Once+the+Sa+(the+‘Do’+in+western+solfege)+is+decided+upon,+the+other+pitches+are+
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
iv!Vedas!are!body!of!religious!texts!composed!during!1500-500!BCE!and!originating!in!India!

!
17!
determined+in+a+relative+manner.+
Rāga:+Rāga+roughly+corresponds+to+the+western+scale+or+melodic+mode+but+it+is+much+
more+than+that.+Rāga+is+more+akin+to+a+melodic+framework+within+which+a+musician+
improvises.+Rāgas+are+made+up+of+5+or+more+svaras+and+define+a+specific+order+to+be+
followed+while+ascending+and+descending+the+scale.+They+are+designed+with+the+
intention+of+invoking+certain+moods+in+the+listener+and+also+have+associations+with+times+
of+the+day+and+seasons.+
Tāla:+Synonymous+to+the+western+rhythm,+Tāla,+however,+covers+the+whole+subject+
matter+of+musical+meter.++
Lastly,+Indian+classical+music+is+primarily+concerned+with+exploration+of+melody.+The+only+
polyphony+that+is+used+is+a+continuous+background+drone+(played+on+a+Tanpura+or+a+
Shruti+box)+playing+upto+three+notes+(root,+fifth+and/or+third).++
3.2+Carnatic+Music+
Though+sharing+the+same+fundamental+elements+as+Hindustani+classical,+Carnatic+
classical+has+its+own+unique+language,+instrumentation+and+style+of+composition+and+
performance21.+
It+has+its+own+system+of+72+Melakarta+(parent)+rāgas+from+which+many+more+Janya+
(descendant)+rāgas+are+derived+through+permutation+and+combination+(upto+30,000+
possible+combinations).+Additionally,+it+employs+melodic+ornamentation+or+

!
18!
embellishments+on+notes+known+as+Gamakas+(upto+15+types),+which+play+an+important+
role+in+rāga+identity+in+Carnatic+music.++
Carnatic+music+has+its+own+typical+instrumentation+and+classified+into+stringed,+wind+and+
percussion.+Veena+(an+ancient+Indian+stringed+instrument+belonging+to+the+lute+family)+is+
the+principal+stringed+instrument+used+in+Carnatic+music+but+the+violin+and+the+mandolin,+
borrowed+from+the+west,+have+become+important+instruments+in+the+Carnatic+
repertoire.+The+bamboo+flute+and+the+Nadaswaram+were+the+original+wind+instruments+
in+Carnatic+music+but+the+western+clarinet+has+become+popular+as+a+concert+instrument+
for+its+rich+tonal+qualities.++
Rhythm+being+a+key+element+in+Carnatic+music,+there+is+a+wider+selection+of+percussion+
instruments+among+which+the+Mridangam,+a+double+faced+cylindrical+drum+of+ancient+
origins,+is+the+principal+instrument.+Other+percussive+instruments,+usually+supporting+the+
Mridangam,+include+the+Ghatam+(Earthen+pot),+the+Kanjira+(hand+drum+similar+to+the+
tambourine),+the+Jalra+(hand+cymbals+used+for+keeping+the+tempo),+and+the+Morsing+
(similar+to+a+Jaw+harp).+Another+percussive+instrument+is+the+Tavil,+a+barrel-shaped+drum+
which+is+usually+paired+with+the+Nadaswaram.+
A+Carnatic+performance,+known+as+a+Katcheri,+usually+consists+of+a+principal+performer+
(vocalist),+a+melodic+accompaniment+(such+as+violin),+a+rhythm+accompaniment+
(primarily+mridangam),+and+a+constant+backing+drone+(played+on+the+Tambura+or+
shrutibox).+

!
19!
3.3+Composition+&+Improvisation+
Composition+in+Carnatic+is+an+extensive+subject.+Unlike,+Hindustani+music,+Carnatic+music+
and+its+intricacies+are+taught+through+compositions.++
Compositions+are+usually+written+in+a+particular+rāga+and+improvisations+are+performed+
to+showcase+the+beauty+of+the+rāga.+Of+the+multitude+of+compositional+forms22,+the+two+
most+significant+are+the+Varnam+and+Kriti.+Varnams+are+short+pieces+that+incorporate+all+
the+rules+of+the+rāga+and+are+used+as+vocal+exercises+or+to+warm-up+at+the+beginning+of+a+
performance.+Kritis+(literally+meaning+‘creation’)+are+the+most+popular+structured+
compositions+in+Carnatic+music+having+defined+sections+similar+to+the+verse-chorus+
format+of+western+composition.+Carnatic+performances,+however,+go+beyond+mere+
performance+of+these+compositions.+
Usually+the+main+item+of+a+concert+is+the+Rāgam-Tānam-Pallavi+(abbreviated+as+RTP),+a+
structured+improvisation+of+a+composition+intended+to+display+virtuosity.+It+begins+with+
Rāgam+or+free-style+improvisation+of+the+Rāga+(also+called+Alapana).+This+is+followed+by+
Tānam+or+rhythmic+improvisation+of+the+Rāgam.+Pallavi+(western+equivalent+of+refrain)+is+
the+section+where+the+musician+uses+the+syllables+of+a+couplet+taken+from+the+
composition+and+performs+complex+and+intricate+patterns+while+keeping+the+basic+Tālam+
or+beat.+The+latter+part+of+Pallavi+is+called+Kalpanaswara+or+improvisation+using+solfege+
instead+of+using+the+syllables+of+the+Pallavi.23+
+

!
20!
3.4+Rhythmic+complexity++
The+Carnatic+rhythmic+system+is+quite+sophisticated.+Just+like+the+western+musical+meter,+
Carnatic+music+has+its+own+system+of+notating+rhythms+using+sequences+of+hand+&+finger+
movements+(called+Angas).+Time+signatures+are+constructed+using+a+combination+of+one+
of+the+five+subdivisions+or+Jatis+(3,4,5,7+&+9)+and+one+of+the+seven+pre-defined+Anga+
sequences+called+Tālas.+This+method+of+approaching+musical+meter+allows+musicians+to+
perform+complicated+time+signatures+in+a+very+instinctive+manner.24+
Fig:+The+Carnatic+Suladi+Sapta+(35)+tāla+system+
Carnatic+music+also+uses+a+system+of+vocal+syllables+called+Konnakol+for+pronunciation+
and+communication+of+rhythms25.++
There+is+an+entire+system+of+creating+aesthetically+pleasing+rhythmic+patterns+using+
mathematics+known+as+Korvai+which+is+employed+in+Thani+Avarthanam+or+the+percussion+
solo+section+towards+the+end+of+the+RTP+where+rhythmic+skills+of+the+percussionists+are+
put+on+display.+When+multiple+percussionists+are+involved,+they+may+engage+in+a+
percussive+dialogue+which+can+be+an+enthralling+display+of+rhythmic+gymnastics.26++

!
21!
Chapter*4:*Developments*towards*Carnatic*Drum*&*Bass**
4.1+Carnatic+in+modern+music++
Indian+classical+in+general+and+Carnatic+classical+in+particular+have+always+found+favour+
with+jazz+musicians27.+English+guitarist+John+McLoughlin+was+one+of+the+earliest+adopters+
of+Carnatic+classical+in+his+progressive+jazz+fusion+group+Shakti+which+featured+some+of+
the+prominent+Carnatic+instrumentalists+of+that+era+such+as+the+Violin+maestro+L.Shankar+
and+Ghatam+proponent+Vikku+Vinayakram.+Modern+progressive+rock+and+jazz’s+leanings+
towards+polyrhythms+and+odd+time+signatures+is+bringing+Konnakol+into+the+spotlight,+
with+more+and+more+musicians+taking+interest+the+Carnatic+discipline+of+spoken+rhythms.++
Globally,+Carnatic+music+is+still+limited+to+the+‘World+Music’+genre+or+generic+fusion,+with+
Carnatic+musicians+collaborating+with+western+musicians+to+create+crossover+material+
and+not+much+interest+shown+in+exploring+the+intricacies+or+composition.+In+India,+on+the+
other+hand,+young+classically+trained+musicians+who+are+exposed+to+western+styles,+are+
experimenting+with+fusion+but+with+Carnatic+music+as+the+centerpiece.+A+great+example+
is+the+South+Indian+music+channel+Kappa+TV+whose+live+music+show+Music+Mojo+is+
bringing+a+lot+of+fresh+talent+to+the+forefront.+
+
+
+
+
+

!
22!
4.2+Drawing+parallels+–+Tāla+&+Breaks+
As+far+as+electronic+music+is+concerned,+Drum+&+Bass+is+one+genre+that+seems+to+share+a+
common+feature+with+Carnatic+music+of+exploring+musicality+through+rhythmic+
complexity.+The+Tāla+in+Carnatic+can+be+compared+with+the+break+in+Drum+&+Bass.+In+
fact,+tabla,+the+principal+percussion+instrument+in+Hindustani+music+(which+uses+the+
same+fundamental+concept+of+tāla),+has+already+been+widely+used+by+Asian+Underground+
producers+in+drum+&+bass+music.+Music+writer+and+musician+George+Howlett+makes+a+
wonderful+comparison+of+jungle+music+and+Hindustani+classical+tabla+playing+in+his+blog+
Raga+Junglism28.+He+even+compares+the+Bol+(the+Hindustani+equivalent+of+Konnakol)+to+
MCing+in+ragga+jungle+music.+Carnatic+rhythmic+framework+goes+much+deeper+and+opens+
up+possibilities+for+further+explorations+in+breakbeat+science.+
Parallels+can+also+be+drawn+with+respect+to+composition+in+drum+&+bass+where+song+
structures+have+a+striking+similarity+with+the+general+structure+of+Carnatic+performances.+
Excluding+the+improvisation+aspect+one+might+even+go+the+extent+of+loosely+comparing+
the+Rāgam,+Thānam,+and+Pallavi+to+Buildup,+Breakdown+and+Drops+in+Drum+&+Bass+
tracks,+in+terms+of+how+compositions+are+structured+in+increasing+levels+of+intensity.+
+
+
+
+
+

!
23!
4.3+Carnatic+in+Bass+Musicv+today+
A+new+generation+of+classically+trained+musicians+in+the+Indian+subcontinent+are+at+the+
forefront+of+this+movement+of+introducing+Carnatic+music+into+modern+bass+music+
forms.++
Viveick+Rajagopalan,+a+mridangam+player+and+educator,+is+making+headlines+for+training+
street-style+rappers+in+the+art+of+Konnakol+and,+in+the+process,+helping+to+create+a+very+
unique+synthesis+of+Carnatic+rhythms+and+Hip+Hop+poetry29.+
Their+collaboration,+in+turn,+with+classically+trained+tabla+player+and+a+veteran+producer+
of+Asian+Underground+music+Mayur+Narvekar,+better+known+as+Bandish+Projekt,+has+
spawned+tracks+such+as+“Kar+Natak”,+a+great+example+of+the+use+of+Konnakol+in+Drum+&+
Bass.+
Classically+trained+vocalist+and+music+producer+Harshavardhan+S+is+creating+his+own+
brand+of+Carnatic+infused+dub+as+Shivacult,+and+exploring+the+Ragam-Thanam-Pallavi+
format+with+live+vocals,+electronics+and+dubbing.+He+even+operates+the+website+
Indianclassical.org30+to+educate+interested+listeners+on+the+fundamental+concepts+of+
Carnatic+music+through+interactive+tools.+
These+artists+are+not+only+introducing+young+Indian+audiences+to+new+musical+
possibilities+but+also+educating+them+on+their+own+culture+along+the+way.+
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
v!Bass+music+is+the+umbrella+term+used+for+all+the+different+genres+of+club+music+coming+out+of+the+UK+
since+the+2000s+and+even+Drum+&+Bass+falls+in+this+category+along+with+other+modern+bass+heavy+
percussion+driven+genres+such+as+Garage,+Dubstep+and+Grime+and+Hip+Hop.!

!
24!
Conclusion***
Fads+and+fashions+in+electronic+music+come+and+go+quite+rapidly.+The+resilience+of+Drum+
&+Bass+and+its+relevance+after+almost+three+decades+of+existence+is+indeed+a+mystery.+
Something+about+its+form+makes+it+an+attractive+canvas+for+incorporating+more+
traditional+and+sophisticated+forms+of+music+such+as+Jazz+and+Indian+classical.+This+has+
two-fold+benefits.+Firstly,+it+is+bringing+a+certain+depth+to+dance+music+and+helping+it+to+
be+recognized+as+an+art+form+rather+than+a+modern+day+youth+culture+phenomenon.+
Secondly,+it+is+bringing+classical+music+out+of+its+self-imposed+stagnation,+breathing+new+
life+into+it+and+promising+its+survival+through+a+new+generation+of+musicians+who+are+
making+use+of+the+training+to+create+something+entirely+fresh+but+rooted+in+the+tradition.+
The+exploration+of+Carnatic+music+in+electronic+music+is+in+its+infancy.+The+few+
developments+towards+the+movement+that+have+been+described+have+occurred+not+
more+than+three+years+ago.+But+this+is+just+the+tip+of+the+iceberg.+Carnatic+classical+is+an+
immense+playing+field+and+offers+tremendous+possibilities+for+its+incorporation+in+Drum+
&+Bass+and+in+electronic+music+in+general.++
+
+
!
+

!
25!
References*
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1+Peter+Shapiro,+ed.,+Modulations:+A+History+of+Electronic+Music:+Throbbing+Words+on+
Sound+(New+York,+NY:+Caipirinha,+2000),+135+
2+Harry+Sword,+“Retracing+the+Roots+of+British+Sound+System+Culture,”+Vice+(blog),+
January+4,+2016,+https://www.vice.com/en_uk/article/zng9y8/british-sound-system-
culture-092.+
3+Stuart+Rathbone,+“EXPLORING+THE+JUNGLE:+CONTEMPORARY+ARCHAEOLOGY+GETS+A+
LITTLE+BIT+DARKER,”+accessed+August+31,+2019,+231+
https://www.academia.edu/34842527/EXPLORING_THE_JUNGLE_CONTEMPORARY_AR
CHAEOLOGY_GETS_A_LITTLE_BIT_DARKER.+
4+David+Hesmondhalgh,+“The+Cultural+Politics+of+Dance+Music,”+Soundings,+no.+5+(1997),+
175-176+
5+“Ishkur’s+Guide+to+Electronic+Music,”+accessed+August+31,+2019,+
http://music.ishkur.com/#.+
6+Falu+Bakrania,+Bhangra+and+Asian+Underground:+South+Asian+Music+and+the+Politics+of+
Belonging+in+Britain+(Durham:+Duke+University+Press+Books,+2013),+1+
7+Adwait+Patil,+“A+Look+Back+As+The+Asian+Underground+Turns+20,”+NPR.org,+accessed+
August+31,+2019,+https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/04/06/522732985/a-
look-back-as-the-asian-underground-turns-20.+
8+Dazed,+“British+Asian+Sound+Systems+–+the+Full+Documentary+Is+Here,”+Dazed,+January+
30,+2015,+https://www.dazeddigital.com/music/article/22764/1/music-nation-british-
asian-sound-systems.+
9+Hugh+Davies,+“A+History+of+Sampling,”+Org.+Sound+1,+no.+1+(April+1996):+3,+
https://doi.org/10.1017/S135577189600012X.+
10+Peter+Shapiro,+ed.,+Modulations:+A+History+of+Electronic+Music:+Throbbing+Words+on+
Sound+(New+York,+NY:+Caipirinha,+2000),+139.+
11+“44th+Anniversary+of+the+Birth+of+Hip+Hop,”+accessed+August+31,+2019,+
https://www.google.com/doodles/44th-anniversary-of-the-birth-of-hip-hop.+
12+Jason+Hockman,+Breakbeat+Deconstruction:+From+Hip+Hop+to+Drum+&+Bass+and+beyond+
|+Loop,+2017,+
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJf9Jptq7VY&fbclid=IwAR1f0OZ6_3TFzg6nocwpLck
7Y2gB-f4tbAAlxNvYcqGiaIejZ06dSz1irLE.+
13!Mark+J.+Butler,+Unlocking+the+Groove:+Rhythm,+Meter,+and+Musical+Design+in+Electronic+
Dance+Music,+Pap/Cdr+edition+(Bloomington:+Indiana+University+Press,+2006),+87-88!
14+Michael+Sundius,+“A+History+of+the+Amen+Break:+From+The+Winstons+to+Futurama+and+
Om+Unit+-+Blog+|+Splice,”+accessed+August+31,+2019,+https://splice.com/blog/amen-
break/.+
15+Chris+Read,+“Top+10+Iconic+Drum+&+Bass+/+Jungle+Breakbeats,”+accessed+August+31,+
2019,+https://www.whosampled.com/news/2015/03/05/top-10-iconic-drum-bass-
jungle-breakbeats/.+
16+Steven+Quinn,+“Rumble+In+The+Jungle:+The+Invisible+History+of+Drum’n’Bass”,+
Transformations,+no.3+(May+2002):+4+

!
26!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
17+Robert+Fink,+ed.,+The+Relentless+Pursuit+of+Tone:+Timbre+in+Popular+Music+(New+York,+
NY:+Oxford+University+Press,+2018),+96+
18+Gavin+B,+“808+Bass+and+Beyond:+Evolution+of+an+Iconic+Sound,”+Future+Audio+
Workshop,+March+27,+2019,+https://futureaudioworkshop.com/808-bass-and-beyond-
part-i/.+
19!Rhiannon+McCarter,+“What+Is+Neurofunk?,”Most+Addictive+Music+(blog),+July+9,+2016,+
http://mostaddictive.net/what-is-neurofunk/.!
20+Curtis+Roads,+Composing+Electronic+Music+(Oxford ;+New+York:+Oxford+University+Press,+
2015),+3-4+
21+Vikram+Sampath,+“Ariyakkudi,+Maestro+Who+Woke+up+Snoring+Crowds+at+Concerts+&+
Made+Modern-Day+Carnatic+Music,”+ThePrint+(blog),+June+23,+2019,+
https://theprint.in/opinion/treasured-tunes/ariyakkudi-maestro-who-woke-up-snoring-
crowds-at-concerts-made-modern-day-carnatic-music/253379/.+
22+Sri+Aurobindo+Society,+Alaap:+A+Discovery+of+Indian+Classical+Music.+(Times+Music,+
1999).+
23+Vishnu+Vasudev,+“Why+the+RTP+Can+Be+the+Most+Accessible+Form+of+Carnatic+Music,”+
Medium,+March+18,+2017,+https://medium.com/@vishnuvasudev_63314/the-four-
improvisations-of-carnatic-music-in-one-major-exposition-14d0e071832e.+
24+BC+Manjunath,+Fibonacci+Konnakol,+2018,+
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mOMLRMfIYf0.+
25+Matthew+Montfort,+“South+Indian+Solkattu,”+Ancient-Future.Com:+World+Music+
Training,+accessed+August+31,+2019,+http://www.ancient-future.com/solkattu.html.+
26+Guru+Karaikudi+Mani+and+Guru+G+Harishankar,+2018,+
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kBi7N0JetWA.+
27+Jannick+MLI+Frampton,+“Modal+Jazz+and+Hindustani+Classical+Music,”+Medium,+April+24,+
2017,+https://medium.com/@fjannick17/modal-jazz-and-hindustani-classical-music-
9701e5b1e9de.+
28+George+Howlett,+“Rāga+Jungle:+Turntables,+Tablas,+&+Tālas,”+Rāga+Junglism+(blog),+
June+22,+2016,+https://ragajunglism.org/2016/06/22/raga-jungle-turntables-tablas-
talas/.+
29+Soumayani+Ghoshal,+“Viveick+Rajagopalan:+Carnatic+Goes+Ghetto+as+Konnakol+Meets+
Desi+Rap+|+Hyderabad+News+-+Times+of+India,”+The+Times+of+India,+accessed+August+31,+
2019,+https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/hyderabad/carnatic-
goes-ghetto-as-konnakol-meets-desi-rap/articleshow/68667171.cms.+
30!Harshavardhan+S,+“Anugraha+Sangeetha+Shiksha,”+accessed+August+31,+2019,+
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,
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Discography,
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N&%G.'(_"*3&%.'Anokha'(Soundz'Of'The'Asian'Underground),(B"%G8(!S(B>7N-(;;9:'(]/%&(
X1`8$?4(P<R(!S(U9A=<A9=;'(;QQT'(9(^(i&%6*,(
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?&4`(
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F."%%1*(A(_1*13&4&8%(F8$D8$"5&8%'(9I(Z831/Y1$(9:;A(P2jR,(
.55D40EE[[[,?"f1??&G&5"*,`8/E/+4&`E"$5&`*1E99TIAE;E/+4&`=%"5&8%=Y$&5&4.="4&"%=
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