Ethnoveterinary and fodder plants used among transhumant communities around Georgia-Turkey border, in the Western Lesser Caucasus

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Manuscript received: 10/03/2021 - Revised manuscript received: 19/04/2021 - Published: 02/05/2021
http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.21.28.1-26
Ethnoveterinary and
fodder plants used among
transhumant communities
around Georgia-Turkey
border, in the Western
Lesser Caucasus
Ceren Kazancı, Soner Oruç and Marine Mosulishvili
Research
Abstract
Background: Livestock are an integral part of the
transhumant life in the Caucasus. Maintaining the
health and wellbeing of the animals has been a
critical responsibility for pastoral communities. This
study presents the wild plant species used for
ethnoveterinary and fodder purposes by
transhumant people on the both sides of Georgia-
Turkey border.
Methods: During two summers (2017–2018), 119
participants were interviewed (74 in Turkey and 45 in
Georgia) with semi-structured questionnaires.
Cultural importance index (CI) and Relative
frequency of citation (RFC) were used to evaluate
the relative importance of species among
communities.
Results: In total 113 citations of 38 wild plant species
for ethnoveterinary purposes, and 186 citations of 61
wild plant species as fodder were obtained in the
study area. The most important species in
ethnoveterinary were Veratrum album and Achillea
millefolium in Georgia, and Veratrum album and
Picea orientalis in Turkey. Aerial parts of the plants
were the most frequently used part in Georgia while
the root was in Turkey. Gastrointestinal problems
were the most commonly mentioned diseases in
Georgia while dermatological and parasitic diseases
in Turkey. The majority of the plant species were
mentioned to treat the ailments of cattle (37 species).
Fabaceae, Polygonaceae and Asteraceae were the
most mentioned families used as fodder in both
countries. There were also several plants used as
bedding for livestock and against evil eye in the study
area.
Conclusions: Pastoral way of life in the Western
Lesser Caucasus still reflects living evidence of
plant-based traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge
and practices to support the health of livestock. The
results of this study could be a base for future
ethnoveterinary and animal feed research and
contribute to organic animal husbandry in the region.
Keywords: Ethnoveterinary, Fodder plants,
Transhumant people, Traditional knowledge, the
Caucasus, Cross-cultural study, Turkey, Georgia
Correspondence
Ceren Kazancı1*, Soner Oruç2, Marine
Mosulishvili1
1School of Natural Sciences and Medicine, Ilia State
University, Tbilisi 0162, Georgia
2Faculty of Forestry, Artvin Çoruh University, Seyitler
Yerleşkesi, Artvin 08100, Turkey
*Corresponding Author:
ceren.kazanci.1@iliauni.edu.ge
Ethnobotany Research & Applications
21:28 (2021)

2
აბსტრაქტი
ისტორია: კავკასიაში მეცხოველეობა
მწყემსების სეზონური ცხოვრების განუყოფელი
ნაწილია. მწყემსებისთვის მეტად
მნიშვნელოვანია ცხოველების კარგად ყოფნა
და მათი ჯანმრთელობისა შენარჩუნება. ეს
კვლევა ეხება მცენარეთა იმ ველურ სახეობებს,
რომლებსაც მომთაბარე მწყემსები იყენებენ
როგორც ეთნოვეტერინარული (სამკურნალო)
მიზნებისთვის ისე ცხოველების საკვებად,
საქართველო-თურქეთის საზღვრის ორივე
მხარეს.
მეთოდები: ორი ზაფხულის განმავლობაში
(2017–2018) ნახევრად სტრუქტურირებული
კითხვარებით გამოიკითხა 119 მონაწილე (74
თურქეთში და 45 საქართველოში. კულტურული
მნიშვნელობის ინდექსი - CI (Cultural importance
index) და ციტირების ფარდობითი სიხშირე -
RFC (Relative frequency of citation), გამოყენებულ
იქნა თემებში სახეობების შედარებით
მნიშვნელობის შესაფასებლად.
შედეგები: საკვლევ ტერიტორიაზე ჯამში
აღრიცხული იქნა ეთნოვეტერინარული
მიზნებისათვის, 38 ველური მცენარეული
სახეობის - 113 ციტირება და ცხოველთა
საკვებად გამოყენების, მცენარეთა 61 სახეობის
- 186 ციტირება. ეთნოვეტერინარიაში ყველაზე
მნიშვნელოვანი სახეობები იყო:Veratrum album
და Achillea millefolium საქართველოში და
Veratrum album და Picea orientalis თურქეთში.
საქართველოში ყველაზე ხშირად
გამოიყენებოდა მცენარეთა მიწისზედა
ნაწილები, ხოლო თურქეთში - მცენარის
ფესვები. საქართველოში ყველაზე ხშირად
დასახელდა ცხოველთა კუჭ-ნაწლავის
პრობლემები, ხოლო თურქეთში
დერმატოლოგიური და პარაზიტული
დაავადებები. კვლევაში მცენარეთა ყველაზე
მეტი (37) სახეობა დასახელდა მსხვილფეხა
რქოსანი პირუტყვის დაავადებების
სამკურნალოდ. Fabaceae, Polygonaceae და
Asteraceae იყო ცხოველთა საკვებად
გამოიყენებული, ყველაზე ხშირად
დასახელებული მცენარეთა ოჯახები - ორივე
ქვეყანაში. კვლევის არეალში ასევე არსებობდა
რამდენიმე მცენარე, რომლებიც გამოიყენება
შინაური ცხოველების საწოლად და ავი თვალის
საწინააღმდეგოდ.
დასკვნები: მცირე კავკასიონის დასავლეთ
ნაწილში პასტორალური ცხოვრების წესის
არსებობა - განაპირობებს მცენარეებზე
დაფუძნებული ტრადიციული
ეთნოვეტერინარული ცოდნის და ცხოველების
ჯანმრთელობის დაცვის პრაქტიკული
გამოცდილების დღემდე შემონახვას. ამ
კვლევის შედეგებმა შესაძლოა საფუძველი
ჩაუყაროს ეთნოვეტერინარიისა და ცხოველთა
საკვების შემდგომ კვლევებს და ხელი შეუწყოს
რეგიონში ორგანული მეცხოველეობის
განვითარებას.
საკვანძო სიტყვები: ეთნოვეტერინარია,
ცხოველთა საკვები, მომთაბარე ადამიანები,
ტრადიციული ცოდნა, კავკასია,
კულტურათშორისი კვლევა, თურქეთი,
საქართველო
Özet
Giriş: Kafkaslar’da hayvancılık yaylacıların
yaşamının ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır. Yaylacı toplumlar
için hayvanların sağlığını ve refahını korumak son
derece önemli bir sorumluluktur. Bu çalışma,
Gürcistan-Türkiye sınırının her iki yakasında
yaşayan yaylacıların halk veterinerliğinde
(etnoveterinerlik) ve hayvan yemi olarak kullandıkları
yabani bitki türlerini sunmaktadır.
Yöntemler: 2017 ve 2018 yıllarının yaz aylarında 119
katılımcıyla (Türkiye'de 74 ve Gürcistan'da 45) yarı
yapılandırılmış görüşmeler gerçekleştirildi. Bilgisi
alınan yabani türlerin yaylacı toplumlar arasındaki
önemini değerlendirmek için Kültürel Önem (CI) ve
Göreceli Kayıt Sıklığı (RFC) indeksleri kullanıldı.
Bulgular: Çalışma alanında etnoveteriner amaçlı 38
yabani bitki türüne ait 113, yem olarak 61 yabani bitki
türüne ait 186 kullanım kaydedildi. Hayvan
hastalıklaında kullanılan en önemli türler olarak
Gürcistan'da Veratrum album ve Achillea millefolium,
Türkiye'de ise Veratrum album ve Picea orientalis
tespit edildi. Gürcistan'da bitkilerin daha çok toprak
üstü kısımları. Türkiye'de ise köklerinin kullanımı
bildirildi. Gürcistan'da en çok sindirim sistemi ile ilgili
sorunlar bildirilirken, Türkiye'de deri ve paraziter
hastalıklar kaydedildi. Kayıt altına alınan yabani bitki
türlerinin çoğunun büyükbaş hayvanların (37 tür)
rahatsızlıklarında kullanıldığı tespit edildi. Her iki
ülkede de Fabaceae, Polygonaceae ve Asteraceae
yem olarak kullanımı en çok bahsedilen ailelerdir.
Çalışma alanında ayrıca hayvanların altına yataklık
olarak serilen ve nazara karşı kullanılan birkaç bitki
türü de kayıt altına alındı.
Sonuçlar: Bu çalışma, Batı Küçük Kafkasya'daki
yayla yaşamında hayvanların sağlığını destekleyen
bitki temelli halk veterinerliği bilgi ve uygulamalarının
sürdürüldüğünün kanıtlarını yansıtmaktadır.
Çalışmanın sonuçları, gelecekteki halk veterinerliği
(etnoveterinerlik) ve hayvan yemi araştırmalarına
temel oluşturabilir ve bölgedeki organik hayvancılığa
katkı sağlayabilir.

3
Anahtar Kelimeler: Halk veterinerliği, Yem bitkileri,
Yaylacılar, Geleneksel bilgi, Kafkasya, Kültürler
arası çalışma, Türkiye, Gürcistan
Background
Livestock are an integral part of the transhumant life
in the Caucasus and beyond. Maintaining and
restoring the health and wellbeing of the animals has
been a critical responsibility for the pastoralist
communities who depended on their livestock.
Ethnoveterinary research is defined as the
systematic study and application of folk knowledge
and beliefs, practices that relate to any aspects of
animal health (McCorkle 1986). There has been a
growing interest in ethnoveterinary research in
Europe (Mayer et al. 2014 and the references there
in). This is mainly due to concerns for traditional
knowledge loss, increase in antibiotic use which
result in occurrence of antibiotic-resistant microbes
and antimicrobial resistance both in livestock and
humans, as well as potential health benefits of
traditional veterinary practices on organic animal
husbandry (Benítez 2012, Bartha et al. 2015, Mayer
et al. 2014, Oliveira et al. 2020, Pieroni et al. 2004,
2006).
Although the studies on folk veterinary knowlege in
Turkey is not new (Dinçer 1967&1980),
ethnoveterinary research specific to plant-based
remedies is an emerging field of study among
veterinary physicians (Özen & Doğan 2017, Sinmez
et al. 2018, Sinmez & Yaşar 2017, Yipel et al. 2017).
Majority of the information on plant-based
ethnoveterinary medicine in Turkey has been
presented in ethnobotanical research (Erarslan &
Kültür 2019 and the references there in). A recent
review on ethnoveterinary plants highlighted a rich
diversity of knowledge with 251 plant taxa used as
animal medicine in Turkey (Erarslan & Kültür 2019).
Similarly, ethnobotanical studies in Georgia also
reported at least 75 plant species used as animal
medicine and fodder (Bussmann 2017, Bussmann et
al. 2016a, 2016b, 2017, 2018, 2020a, 2020b).
However, more research is needed to reveal the full
potential of the ethnoveterinary knowledge and
practices in the Caucasus before they disappear.
The aims of this study were to document the wild
plants used as livestock medicine and fodder by
transhumant people living around Georgia-Turkey
border; to evaluate the similarities and difference in
ethnoveterinary knowledge and practices on both
sides of the border; to compare the results of this
study with the literature.
Material and Methods
Study area
The geographical area covered in this study is
located along the border between Georgia and
Turkey, in the Western Lesser Caucasus (Fig. 1). It
falls within the borders of Adjara and Samtskhe-
Javakheti regions in Georgia; and Artvin and
Ardahan provinces in Turkey.
The area includes the characteristics of three of the
world’s ecological regions: The Caucasus Mixed
Forest Ecoregion, the Euxine Colchic Deciduous
Forest Ecoregion and, to a lesser extent, the Eastern
Anatolian Montane Steppe Ecoregion (WWF 2006).
Its principal climates range from humid subtropical
and mildly dry subtropical mountainous to
continental climates. Dominant natural landscapes
extend from forest and high mountain vegetation to
Caucasian sub-alpine meadows and steppe
meadows with freshwater lakes, mainly located
along the Ardahan and the Samtskhe-Javakheti
border (Williams et al. 2006) (Fig. 2). The variety of
ethnolinguistic groups inhabiting the area includes
Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Kurds, Azeris, Laz
people, Hemshins, and Russians, with small-scale
agriculture and relatively large-scale livestock
farming as their main economic activities. Nearly all
participants in this study were transhumant,
maintaining an agro-pastoral way of life. Highland
pastures, referred to as “yayla” in Turkey, are known
as “mta” and/or “ialagi” (iala) in Georgia. People
move to their summer pastures at the end of May,
where for three to five months they live mainly in
wooden houses, with some living in dry stone
dwellings or even tents.
Ethnobotanical data collection
In the summer of 2016, two weeks of non-systematic
preliminary fieldwork were conducted, with the
undertaking of informal interviews in 20 highland
pastures and villages in Georgia and Turkey (Oruç &
Kazancı 2018). Over the following two summers
(2017–2018), a total of around 90 days of systematic
fieldwork were carried out during the period of
transhumance (approximately June 15 – September
15), visiting 102 highland pastures, 65 in Turkey and
37 in Georgia (Fig. 1). During that time, 119
participants were interviewed 74 in Turkey (41
women; 33 men), and 45 in Georgia (28 women; 17
men). The mean ages of participants were 57 (from
25 to 85) in Georgia and 58 (from 25 to 95) in Turkey.
A snowball technique was used to find participants
who held significant traditional knowledge regarding
wild plants and their usage. The majority of the
participants were elderly transhumant people. Each
participant was interviewed individually, for an

4
average of two hours, with semi-structured
questionnaires. Usually, the person’s relatives and
neighbors also contributed to the interview. In Turkey
mother languages of the participants were Turkish,
Georgian, Laz, Homshetsi or Kurdish. We conducted
the interviews in Turkish. In Georgia, mother
languages of the participants were Georgian,
Armenian, Russian or Azeri. Here, interviews were
conducted in Georgian, Russian, or Turkish with the
help of translators.
Figure 1. Map of study area showing the distribution of visited highland pastures and villages. Black dots
correspond to places in Turkey; white dots refer to places in Georgia. (Map generated by Ceren Kazancı using
QGIS)
The first author took notes directly in a notebook
during all interviews. Depending on the participants’
wishes, audio or video recordings were made of the
interviews. Information about plants collected from
the wild was documented, specifically with data
regarding their folk names in different languages and
dialects, collection time and place, parts used,
purpose of use, processes of preparation, and
sources of plant knowledge. In addition,
observations were made, and photos were taken in
byres, cellars and other relevant places whenever
possible, so as to document unmentioned uses and
also observe living ethnobotanical practices.
Initially, participants were asked to discuss points
about wild plants that immediately came to mind (~15
min). Then they were shown fresh plants and asked
to identify the vernacular names and usage of the
plants (~45 min). Depending on the weather and
participants’ willingness, a “walk around the house”
was undertaken to observe wild plants in the vicinity
(~15 min). To confirm previous information and to
gain further learning about various plants,
participants were shown an illustrated plant
catalogue, including 400 plant species from the flora
of the region (~45 min.). Certain participants were
visited a second time to complete the first interview
or to confirm information. All interviews conformed to
the International Society of Ethnobiology’s Code of
Ethics (ISE 2008).

5
Figure 2. Landscapes a) Artvin, highland houses and livestock in subalpine b) Ardahan, cattle and geese graze
together in highland meadows c) Adjara, highland houses usually settled nearby forest edge d) Samstkhe-
Javakheti, sheep flock nearby Kartsakhi lake.
Taxonomic Identification of plants
Preliminary identification of plant species was carried
out in the field by the authors. The plants were
photographed together with their coordinates and
then herbarium specimens were prepared by the first
author for further identification. Relevant flora
resources were used for identification (Davis 1965-
1985; Davis et al. 1988; Güner et al. 2000;
Ketskhoveli et al. 1971-2011; Komarov 1968-2002).
Some of the species were identified through detailed
plant and habitat descriptions and previously
recorded folk names. Identified specimens from
Georgia were stored in the National Herbarium of
Georgia, specimens identified in Turkey were stored
in the Herbarium of Artvin Çoruh University. Species
were named based on current accepted names from
the Plant List (2013). Furthermore, plant synonyms
were given after Güner et al. (2012) and Gagnidze
(2005).
Data analysis
All reported plant species and their relevant
ethnobotanical data were entered into a Microsoft
Excel spread sheet in a use-report (UR) based order.
Each different use in every use-category counted as
one UR. In this paper, ethnobotanical data of only
wild (non-cultivated) plants used as ethnoveterinary,
and fodder purposes as well as plants used against
evil eye for animal health care from 2017 and 2018
fieldwork were considered in the analysis.
Ethnoveterinary uses include wild plants used for the
treatment of gastrointestinal, dermatological,
parasitic, reproductive, respiratory, musculoskeletal,
and poisoning. Two indices were used to compare
the relative importance of species in each country.
a) The Cultural Importance index (CI) (Pardo-de-
Santayana et al. 2007).
!" =
$
%&'
(
!"#$
!"%
NU: Total number of uses; i: varies from one use to
NU; N: number of participants in the survey; UR: Use
report.
b) Relative frequency of citation (RFC) (Tardío &
Pardo-de-Santayana 2008): RFC = FC/N
FC (frequency of citation) = number of informants
who mention the use of the species; N = number of
participants in the survey.

6
Results and Discussion
In total, 113 citations (51 Georgia, 62 Turkey) of 38
wild plant species (27 Georgia, 21 Turkey) for
ethnoveterinary purposes, and 186 citations of 61
wild plant species (38 Georgia, 46 Turkey) as fodder
were obtained in the study area. 35 citations of 12
species (4 Georgia, 11 Turkey) were also used to
protect animals against evil eye. Among recorded 88
species, 10 species in ethnoveterinary use, 23
species as fodder and 3 species used against evil
eye, were common in both countries. Table 1
summarizes the information about the usage of the
88 wild plant species. Comparing 136 species-use
combinations of these species, participants in both
countries share similar knowledge of 34 use
incidences for 28 wild plant species in common. Most
important of these species are Veratrum album,
Trifolium spp., Viburnum lantana, Malus montana,
Achillea millefolium, Sorbus aucuparia, Picea
orientalis, Ruscus colchicus, Sambucus ebulus and
Viscum album. Table 1 also shows the similarities
and differences between information reported in this
study and reports from 14 literature sources mainly
from Turkish Caucasus and South Caucasus as well
as with a comprehensive review about
ethnoveterinary medicine from Turkey. Of this
study’s 88 wild plant species and 136 species-use
combinations, 50 of the plant species and only 30 of
the recipes are similar to those in the mentioned
literature reports. The most frequently cited species
in the literature consistent with this study’s reports
are: Veratrum album, Helleborus orientalis, Viscum
album, Quercus petrea sp. iberica, Sambucus
ebulus, Berberis vulgaris and Artemisia absinthium.
Common species would be indicative of consensus
and high cultural value for the ethnoveterinary
knowledge of certain wild plant species in the
Caucasus. Moreoever there are several species
which have not been reported in the mentioned
literature namely, Atriplex hortensis, Achillea
millefolium, Eryngium giganteum, Senecio sp.,
Tanacetum sp., Betula litwinowii, Sedum sp.,
Dryopteris filix-mas, Gentiana sp., Origanum
vulgare, Picea orientalis, Polygonum bistorta,
Sibbaldia parviflora and Sorbus aucuparia.
For ethnoveterinary medicine, most frequently used
families in Georgia are Asteraceae (8 species) and
Melanthiaceae (1), whereas in Turkey they are
Melanthiaceae (1 species), Rosaceae (3), and
Pinaceae (1). In Georgia, the most important species
are Veratrum album and Achillea millefolium, while
in Turkey they are Veratrum album and Picea
orientalis (Fig. 3).
Among these species, Veratrum album was reported
throughout the study area in each administrative
region with similar usage in both countries. However,
in the literature it has been reported only in Georgia
(Bussmann et al. 2016a, 2016b, 2017, 2018, 2020a,
2020b). On the other hand, Achillea millefolium and
Picea orientalis were mainly mentioned in Samtskhe-
Javakheti and in Artvin respectively. Interestingly,
Achillea and Picea have not been reported in the
compared literature before. More work is needed for
detailed evaluation of ethnoveterinary use of these
species in Turkey, Georgia and the Caucasus.
Regarding the plant parts used for ethnoveterinary,
aerial part (mainly with flowers) with 45% of the UR
were the most frequently used part in Georgia. It is
followed by root (24%) and entire plant (10%).
However, root with 42% of the UR is mostly preferred
in Turkey, followed by aerial part (34%) and resin
(11%) (Table 2). Most of the root usage originates
from Veratrum album to cure parasitic diseases in
both countries. On the other hand, aerial part with
flowers has an important role in gastrointestinal
disorders in Georgia. Among the preparation
methods, the most common preparation in both
countries were decoction of plant in water/milk (53%
of UR in Georgia, 48% in Turkey). It was followed by
water infusion of the plants (22% of the UR) in
Georgia, whereas poultice or plaster (26%) in
Turkey. The remedies were applied mainly internally
in Georgia (76% of UR), whereas externally (71%) in
Turkey (Table 2).
The most cited plant species used for
ethnoveterinary, fodder and against evil eye were
presented in Table 3. Wild plants have important
roles especially for gastrointestinal disease (53%
UR) in Georgia, while dermatological (35% UR) and
parasitic diseases (34%) were the most commonly
mentioned problems in Turkey (Fig. 4). Almost all the
plant species were mentioned to treat ailments of
cattle (37 species), while 4 species were mentioned
for calf, 3 species for chicken, 2 for sheep.
The most common gastrointestinal complaints and
their treatments differ in both countries. In Georgia,
giving a water infusion of Achillea millefolium aerial
parts with flowers to cattle is a cure for stomachache
and diarrhea, whereas in Turkey giving a water
infusion of Verbascum sp. aerial part or a water
decoction of Sorbus aucuparia young branches with
leaves are used as wormer. The use of Verbascum
with same purpose and application was also
reported in Turkey (Altundağ 2009, Erarslan & Kültür
2019).

7
Table 1. Wild plants mentioned for ethnoveterinary and fodder use in the Western Lesser Caucasus.
Latin names of families and
species (collector or digital
photograph number)a
Recorded local
namesb
Recorded plant
part/s, preparation
and administrationc
Use categoriesd
Domestic CIe RFCf
animals
Geo Tur Geo Tur
n=45 n=74 n=45 n=74
Use in the literatureg
ADOXACEAE
Sambucus ebulus L.
(FP-SO 19)
(CK, SO 1452, 1502)
antsli (Geo), buzyna
(Rus), antsli, inchiri
(Laz)
1 aerial parts
2 roots, in fodder
3 roots, infusion in
water, externally
fodder 1
antidote 2
stomachache 3
cattle
0,07
0,08
0,07
0,08
2, 9, 15 (gastrointestinal,
respiratory, dermal,
wound, inflammatory
swelling, analgesic,
mastitis, ticks, chick
disease, acaricide)
Sambucus nigra L.
(CK, SO 798)
didgula, dudgula
(Geo),denderejik (Kur),
antsli, düldül ağacı
1 young branches
with
leaves
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
15 (antifungal,
antiparasitic, wound)
Viburnum lantana L.
(CK, SO 455)
(CK, SO 1498, 1664, 1673,
1704)
uzani, uzni (Geo),
germeşe (Tur),
garnavaşi,uzan, uzani,
germoşe, germeşe
1 branches, hang on
animals' forehead or
tail, touch animal
with stick of it
2 young branches
with leaves,
decoction in water,
internally, small
amount
3 young branches
with leaves
belief (evil eye) 1
diarrhea 2
fodder 3
cattle
0,11
0,09
0,07
0,09
5
Viburnum orientale Pall.
(CK, SO 104, 532
gelbaraca,zakule
1 young branches
with
leaves
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
AMARANTHACEAE
Atriplex hortensis L.
(CK, SO 1535)
reş pancar (Kur), siyah
pancar, unuca (Tur)
1 aerial parts,
decoction
in milk, poultice
inflammation 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
5 (fodder)
APIACEAE
Chaerophyllum sp.
(CK, SO 509)
buten (Rus), ghimi,
gimi (Geo), mendek,
mendik, harhanduk
(Arm),kımı, kımi, atol
(Tur)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
pig
0,02
−
0,02
−
14

8
Heracleum spp.
(CK, SO 470)
(CK, SO 1338)
dilkha, dilgha,
telaharshi (Geo),kekre,
kekro (Tur-Kur), dilka,
telehaş, datibaba,
kokulu pototo, kekro
1 aerial parts
2 aerial parts, mix
with Petasites boil in
water, internally
fodder 1, 2
increase milk
production 1
cattle
0,07
0,07
0,07
0,07
2 (mastitis),
10, 15
AQUIFOLIACEAE
Ilex colchica Pojark.
(CK, SO 74, 86)
badzgari (Geo)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
goat
0,02
−
0,02
−
2
ARALIACEAE
Hedera colchica (K.Koch)
K.Koch
CK, SO 84)
(FP-SO 12)
suro (Geo),suro (Geo),
sici (Laz)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
0,04
0,02
0,04
2, 9
ASPARAGACEAE
Ruscus colchicus Yeo
(CK, SO 807)
dzmerkhli
(Geo),zımerkli,
zermek, zermak,
mercan otu (Tur),
paskar
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,04
0,09
0,04
0,09
9
ASTERACEAE
Achillea millefolium L.
(CK, SO 476, 495, 533)
(CK, SO 1341, 1548)
hazerantertik (Arm),
melagunda (Geo),
besmertnik (Rus),
pharsmanduki (Geo),
tisiachelistnik
(Rus)hırpkesen, kılıç
otu, civanperçemi (Tur)
1 aerial parts with
flowers, infusion in
water, internally
2 aerial parts with
flowers, decoction in
water, internally
diarrhea 1, 2
stomachache 1, 2
swollen stomach 2
increase milk
production 2
calf
chicken
cattle
0,20
0,01
0,18
0,01
Anthemis sp.
(CK, SO 27)
gvirila (Geo),
romashka (Rus),
papatya (Tur)
1 flowers, decoction
in water,
externally
bath 1
calf
0,02
−
0,02
−
15 (diarrhea)
Arctium platylepis (Boiss &
Balansa) Sosn ex Grossh.
(CK, SO 485)
(CK, SO 1387)
dzirkvena, orovandi,
ghalaghunta
(Geo)ghabalak,
sherepuk, lopukh
(Rus),
düğe tabanı, kabalak
(Tur), dilhuna, hozik,
alahunda (Kur)
1 leaves, poultice,
externally
2 aerial parts
wound 1
fodder 2
cattle
rabbit
0,02
−
0,02
0,01
14 (swelling of leg), 15

9
Artemisia absinthium L.
(CK, SO 502)
abzinda (Geo), ghelich
oti, polin (Rus),hevşan,
pire otu (Tur)
1 aerial parts with
flowers, decoction in
water, internally
swollen stomach 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
2 (antibiotic),
3, 4 (fever), 5 (wound), 15
(parasitic disease, cold,
wound)
Cichorium intybus L.
(CK-SO 43)
tsikoryi (Rus),
vardkachacha
(Geo),marçkakaç
1 aerial parts, in
fodder
swollen stomach 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
5 (wound), 14,
15 (increasing milk
production)
Eryngium giganteum M Bieb
(CK, SO 486, 508)
samkbila ekala (Geo),
push (Kur), nazar
dikeni, çakır dikeni
(Tur), kelem (Kur)
1 aerial parts with
flowers, hang in barn
2 aerial parts with
flowers, decoction of
1 stem in 2lt water,
internally
belief (evil eye) 1
diarrhea 2
cattle
0,02
0,03
0,02
0,03
Petasites spp.
(FP-SO 41)
bulgo, bulgho,
barambo (Geo), dilma
(Geo),burgvay, burgo
(Laz), davut yaprağı
(Tur)
1 aerial parts
2 aerial parts,
decoction in water
mix in fodder
fodder 1, 2
cattle
0,11
0,01
0,11
0,01
2, 10, 15 (wound)
Senecio sp.
(FP-SO 42)
khboshubla (Geo),
kharisshubla
1 aerial parts with
flowers,
decoction in water,
externally
scabby 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
Tanacetum macrophyllum
(Waldst & Kit.) Sch Bip.
syn: Pyrethrum macrophyllum
(Waldst & Kit.) Willd.
(CK, SO 37)
samthatha
(Geo),sandal otu, acı
papatya, (Tur) sendel
1 aerial parts with
flowers,
infusion in water,
internally
indigestion 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
Taraxacum spp.
(CK, SO 69, 545)
(CK, SO 1289)
babuatsvera (Geo),
khatutik (Arm),kaz otu,
sütlü ot, hindi yemi
(Tur) pızbizek (Kur)
1 aerial parts, raw
fodder 1
rabbit
goose
chick
turkey
0,02
0,07
0,02
0,05
14 (bloody diarrhea)
Tragopogon sp.
(CK, SO 494)
(FP-SO 15)
phamphara (Geo),
sindz (Arm), yemlik
(Tur),pampara, yemlik,
sıpınk (Kur)
1 aerial parts, raw
fodder 1
goose
−
0,01
−
0,01
Tussilago farfara L.
(FP-SO 45)
(FP-SO 46)
viristerpa (Geo),
barambu,
porikuda,dilma (Geo),
biryüzlü yaprak (Tur)
1 leaves
2 leaves, infusion in
water mix in fodder
fodder 1
increase milk
production 1, 2
cattle
0,07
0,03
0,07
0,03
15 (inflammatory disease)

10
BERBERIDACEAE
Berberis vulgaris L.
(CK, SO 458, 500)
(CK, SO 56, 1651, 1693)
kotsakhuri (Geo),
barbaris (Rus), sarılık
ağacı karmuk (Tur),
koçahur
1 branches with
leaves
2 branches with
leaves, decoction in
water, internally
3 branches, hang on
animals
fodder 1
antidote 2
belief (evil eye) 3
cattle
0,04
0,03
0,04
0,03
5 (anastaltic in injuries of
horses), 8, 15 (jaundice),
7 (vascular stomatitis)
BETULACEAE
Betula litwinowii Doluch.
(CK, SO 22, 1590, 1695)
arki (Geo), beryoza
(Rus), gechin
(Arm),kayın (Tur), arki
1 inner barks, black
chewing gum,
plaster
wound 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
Carpinus betulus L.
(CK, SO 1044, 1488)
tskhmela (Geo),gürgen
(Tur), tskhemla
1 branches with
leaves
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
BORAGINACEAE
Symphytum spp.
(CK, SO 474)
saro (Geo), okopnik
(Rus),mıtskapa, gelin
otu (Tur), su dodopali
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
0,04
0,02
0,04
BRASSICACEAE
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.)
Medik.
(CK, SO 538)
(CK, SO 289)
mtskemsis chanta
(Geo), pastushya
sumka (Rus),acı gıcı,
kaz otu, çoban
dürmeği, ördek otu,
civciv otu
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
goose
−
0,08
−
0,08
Cardamine sp.
(FP-SO 20, 21, 22)
tere (Tur), tita, acıgıcı,
kıçi, sukupiyi (Laz),
gedim (Arm)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
goose
−
0,01
−
0,01
BUXACEAE
Buxus sempervirens L.
bza (Geo),şimşir (Tur)
1 branches, hang on
animals' forehead
belief (evil eye) 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
CONVOLVULACEAE
Convolvulus arvensis L.
(CK,SO 30)
khviara (Geo), patatuk
(Arm),tıshapa,
sarmaşık (Tur)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
rabbit
cattle
0,02
0,03
0,02
0,03
15 (wound)

11
CRASSULACEAE
Sedum sp.
(FP-SO 52)
tknikura (Geo),
kldisvashla (Geo),
saknatura (Geo),
mamur (Arm),ukdavra,
katakuta, camış kulağı
(Tur), hatun parmağı,
kaya elması, at dişi
(Tur), tknikura
1 aerial parts
2 aerial parts,
poultice
3 aerial parts, raw
fodder 1
wound 2
internal worms 3
chicken
cattle
−
0,05
−
0,03
DIPSACACEAE
Cephalaria gigantea (Ledeb.)
Bobrov
(CK, SO 1015,1494)
polio (Geo),kanteper
(Tur), poliyo
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
14
DRYOPTERIDACEAE
Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott
(CK, SO 1346)
etseri (Geo), blentso
(Laz), gvimra
(Geo),imkhri, etseri
(Geo)
1 entire plant, dried
2 roots, internally
fodder 1
indigestion 2
cattle
0,09
0,01
0,09
0,01
10
EQUISETACEAE
Equisetum arvense L.
(FP-SO 56)
datvipanchari,
nadzvabalakha (Geo),
shvita,datvisepeta,
kolabeşk, kırkkilit otu,
atkuyruğu (Tur)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,04
−
0,04
15 (bloody urination)
FABACEAE
Astracantha microcephala
(Willd.) Podlech
syn: Astragalus microcephalus
Willd.
CK, SO 1583, 1713)
geven (Tur)
1 roots, plaster,
externally
2 roots, mix with hay
in ploughing time
(karakotan)
3 roots, decoction in
water, internally
4 branches, hang on
animals' forehead
wound 1
fodder 2
foot-and-mouth
disease 3
belief (evil eye) 4
cattle
−
0,09
−
0,09
6, 7 (blacklegs)
Trifolium alpestre L.
(FP-SO 58)
(FP-SO 59)
samkura, tsteli
samkura (Geo), yonca
(Tur), klever (Rus),üç
kulak otu (Tur),
samkuri
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
0,01
0,02
0,01

12
Trifolium ambiguum M.Bieb.
(FP-SO 60)
yonca, klever (Rus),
yereknuk (Arm),tut otu,
üç kulak (Tur)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
0,01
0,02
0,01
Trifolium canescens Willd.
(FP-SO 61)
tut,
üç kulak otu, yonca
(Tur),
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,03
−
0,03
Trifolium pratense L.
(FP-SO 63)
samkura (Geo),
yereknuk (Arm), üç
kulak, yonca (Tur),üç
kulak, samkura (Geo),
yonca, elma otu
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,03
−
0,03
10, 14 (increase milk
secretion)
Trifolium sp.
samkura (Geo), klever
(Rus), yereknuk (Arm),
yonca (Tur),yonca,
samkura (Geo), üç
kulak, kır yoncası,
samkuri, üç yaprak
1 aerial parts
2 aerial parts, mix
with Urtica, Rumex,
Anthemis, flour and
cream, poultice,
externally
fodder 1
increase milk
production 1
fracture 2
wound 2
calf
cattle
0,18
0,18
0,18
0,18
3, 9, 12, 15 (swelling,
difficulty of birth,
retained plecenta,
increasing milk secretion)
Vicia villosa Roth
(FP-SO 64)
harci, koranga,
gıvartlay, yonca otu,
külül, gül kürülü (Tur)
1 aerial parts with
flowers
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,07
−
0,07
1 (increasing milk
secretion), 10, 11, 14, 15
(gastrointestinal disease,
dermal disease, wound,
parasitic disease,
increasing milk secretion,
swelling, vitamin
deficiency, difficulty of
birth, retained placenta,
appetizer)
FAGACEAE
Fagus orientalis Lipsky.
(CK, SO 1434)
tsipeli (Geo),tsipela
(Geo)
1 young branches
and leaves
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
5, 11
Quercus macranthera
Fisch & C.A.Mey ex Hohen.
(CK, SO 1796)
mukha (Geo), pelut,
dub (Arm),palut ağacı
(Tur)
1 acorns, raw
fodder 1
sheep
−
0,01
−
0,01
Quercus petraea subsp iberica
(Steven ex M.Bieb.) Krassiln
syn: Quercus iberica Steven ex
M.Bieb.
(CK, SO 126, 259)
(CK, SO 785, 1046, 1049,
1057, 1487)
mukha (Geo), dub
(Arm) ghoris tsabli
(Geo),pelit, pelut,
palut, meşe (Tur), ko
(Arm)
1 acorns, raw
2 outer bark,
decoction in water
3 young branches
with leaves
fodder 1, 3
stomachache 2
pig
cattle
sheep
0,07
0,05
0,07
0,05
3, 5 (diarrhea,
toothache)

13
Quercus pontica K.Koch
(CK, SO 72)
tkis mukha (Geo)
1 acorns, raw
fodder 1
pig
0,02
−
0,02
−
GENTIANACEAE
Gentiana asclepiadea L.
(CK, SO 64, 93, 530)
(FP-SO 65)
asistava (Geo),
mayasir otu (Tur),
asistava
1 aerial parts with
flowers, raw
2 aerial parts with
flowers, infusion in
water, internally
stomachache 1
diarrhea 2
cattle
0,02
0,01
0,02
0,01
HYPERICACEAE
Hypericum bupleuroides
Griseb.
(CK, SO 47)
tiknikuda
1 entire plant
fodder 1
lamb
0,02
−
0,02
−
Hypericum perforatum L.
(CK, SO 475)
(CK, SO 1480)
krazana (Geo),
zveroboy (Rus),sarı
çiçek, kaymak çiçeği,
sarı kanataron,
mayasıl otu (Tur)
1 aerial parts with
flowers, dried and
powdered, poultice
wound 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
15 (gastrointestinal,
respiratory, dermal
disease, mastitis)
JUNCACEAE
Juncus sp.
(CK, SO 34, 65)
dzrokhis balakhi (Geo),
tchilophi (Geo),cil
(Tur), çilopay
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
LAMIACEAE
Mentha longifolia (L.) L.
(CK, SO 683)
tentso (Geo), veluri
pitna (Geo), pitna
(Geo), daghdz (Arm),
nana, gareuli pitna
(Geo),yarpuz (Tur),
tentso, pitna (Geo),
yabani nane, nane
(Tur), punk (Kur)
1 aerial parts with
flowers,
decoction in water,
externally
foot-and-mouth
disease 1
wound 1
cattle
−
0,03
−
0,03
15 (parasitic, reproductive,
respiratory disease,
diarrhea)
Origanum vulgare L.
(CK,SO 478)
(CK,SO 1283)
tavshava (Geo),
dushitza (Rus),
marmichi (Geo), urtz
(Arm),çay otu, çam
çayı, kekik (Tur)
1 aerial parts with
flowers, infusion in
water, internally
2 aerial parts with
flowers, in fodder
diarrhea 1
stomachache 2
fodder 2
cattle
0,04
0,01
0,04
0,01
Salvia glutinosa L
(CK, SO 51, 95)
purchumela
(Laz),adaçayı,
purçumela (Laz),
purşukuna
1 young aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−

14
MELANTHIACEAE
Veratrum album L.
CK, SO 52)
(CK, SO 1546)
shkhama (Geo),
shkhami, aputaraki
(Geo),şıkhami,
abitarat, abutarat
(Geo), çoplama,
şamay, avu,
camışkıran (Tur)
1 aerial parts, dried
2 roots, decoction in
water, bath,
externally
3 entire plant,
decoction in water,
bath
4 roots, decoction in
water, internally
fodder 1
scabby 2
wound 2
lice 2
mastitis 2
stomachache 4
internal worms 4
indigestion 4
constipation 4
sheep
cattle
0,27
0,34
0,27
0,34
2, 3, 4, 9, 12
OLEACEAE
Fraxinus angustifolia subsp
oxycarpa (Willd.) Franco &
Rocha Afonso
(CK, SO 1482)
ipni (Geo),dişbudak
(Tur), ipni (Geo)
1 young branches
and leaves
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
15 (chicken disease)
PAPAVERACEAE
Chelidonium majus L.
(FP-SO 70)
khristesiskhla (Geo)
1 aerial parts,
poultice
stop bleeding 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
9, 15 (liver disease)
PINACEAE
Picea orientalis (L.) Peterm.
(CK, SO 110, 446)
(CK, SO 658, 1041, 1676)
nadzvi (Geo), yolka
(Rus), ladin (Tur),
nadzvi (Geo)
1 resin, mix resin
with butter and
spores of puffball
mushroom, (guda
soko)
2 resin, salve, mix
with beewax, olive
oil, butter
wound 1, 2
foot-and-mouth
disease 1
cattle
0,04
0,09
0,02
0,09
Pinus sylvestris var hamata
Steven
syn: Pinus sosnowskyi Nakai
(CK, SO 77, 447)
pichvi (Geo), kataris
pichvi (Geo), sosna
(Rus), katari
(Geo),çam, sarıçam
(Tur), katari, pichvi
(Geo)
1 young seed cones
fodder 1
pig
0,02
−
0,02
−
5, 15 (wound,
insect repellent)

15
PLANTAGINACEAE
Plantago major L.
(CK, SO 515, 535)
(CK, SO 53, 1563)
mravaldzargya (Geo),
podoroznik (Rus),
yezan lezu (Arm), bağa
yaprağı, yedi damar
(Tur), ohte damar, şvit
damari, belhavıs,
belhebis (Kur), yara
yaprağı, balarzarghva,
sinirli ot, damarlı ot
(Tur), belhebis
1 entire plant,
decoction in water,
internally
2 leaves, poultice,
externally
diarrhea 1
wound 2
cattle
0,02
0,01
0,02
0,01
15 (abscess, wound)
POACEAE
Phragmites australis (Cav.)
Trin ex Steud.
(CK, SO 63)
gamuş,kamış, saz otu
(Tur)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
POLYGONACEAE
Polygonum aviculare L.
(CK, SO 300)
matitela (Geo), gusina
gashka, cancar (Arm),
gorets sporish (Rus),
kuş ekmeği, kuş otu,
kuş pancarı, kuş
pepeği, kuş pepesi,
madımak, madımalak
(Tur), matitel (Geo),
pencer, telce (Tur)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
chicken
duck
0,07
−
0,07
−
5
Polygonum carneum K Koch
syn: Polygonum bistorta subsp
carneum Coode & Cullen
(CK, SO 68)
dvaluri (Geo), dvalura
(Geo), çayır pancarı,
dağ pancarı, kızılcık
pancarı, pancar otu,
pazı pancarı, pencar,
yabani pancar, yayla
lahanası, yayla pancarı
(Tur), ğali, tiphala,
dvaluri (Geo), yaylaşi
luku (Laz)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
give easy birth 1
cattle
0,09
−
0,09
−

16
Polygonum cognatum Meisn.
syn: Polygonum alpestre
C.A.Mey.
(FP-SO 72)
matitela (Geo), cancar
(Arm), madımak (Tur),
kuş ekmeği, kuş
pepesi, kuş otu, kuş
pancarı (Tur), matitel
(Geo), paluği cuçki
(Kur)
1 leaves, in yoghurt
fodder 1
gosling
−
0,01
−
0,01
Rumex alpinus L
(CK, SO 70)
(CK, SO 654)
ghvalo (Geo),poliyo,
gvalo, öküz tırşosu,
yabani evelik, palak
yaprağı (Tur)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
0,01
0,02
0,01
2
Rumex crispus L.
(CK, SO 654, 776)
aveluk (Arm), ghvalo
(Geo), övelik,evelik
evelek (Tur), ghvalo
(Geo)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
5 (antidiarrheal)
Rumex sp.
(CK, SO 1511)
kokomzhava (Geo),
ghvalo (Geo),ghvalo,
peçek, palak, poliyo,
kukumjava
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
goose
cattle
0,02
0,09
0,02
0,09
POLYPODIACEAE
Pteridium aquilinum (L.)
(CK, SO 91, 514)
etsris gvimra (Geo),
tabela, bilançro (Laz)
1 roots, dry in fodder
2 aerial parts, dried
indigestion 1, 2
fodder 2
cattle
0,04
0,01
0,04
0,01
15 (urinary disease,
analgesic)
RANUNCULACEAE
Helleborus orientalis Lam.
kharadzira
(Geo),halazina, dabak
otu (Tur)
1 roots, raw in fodder
2 roots, hang on
throat of animals
3 entire plant,
decoction in water,
externally
inflammation 1, 2
foot-and-mouth
disease 3
cattle
−
0,04
−
0,03
2 (wound), 3, 4, 12 (bad
liquid, gas, wounds), 9
(cleans blood of cattle), 15
(antipyretic, analgesic,
sunstroke, joint ailments,
cold, diarrhea, mastitis,
keratitis, malaria, edema,
aphrodisiac, animal
weekness, immuno
stimulant)
RHAMNACEAE
Paliurus spina-christi Mill.
(CK, SO 8, 18)
karadiken (Tur)
1 branches, hang on
animals
forehead
belief (evil eye) 1
cattle
−
0,03
−
0,03
15 (mastitis)

17
ROSACEAE
Alchemilla sp.
(CK, SO 33, 519)
marmuchi (Geo), yağlı
ot, sütlü ot, ayı
pençesi, aslan pençesi
(Tur)
1 aerial parts, in
fodder
increase milk
production 1
cattle
0,02
0,04
0,02
0,04
1, 15
Crataegus monogyna Jacq
syn: Crataegus
kyrtostyla Fingerh.
(CK, SO 1784)
tsiteli kuneli (Geo),
kirkat, kurkantela
(Geo), alucha (Arm),
kırkat, alıç (Tur), at
götü
1 branches, hang on
animals' forehead
belief (evil eye) 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
15 (gastrointestinal,
reproductive disease,
snake bite)
Malus montana Uglitzk.
(CK, SO 445)
veluri vashli (Geo),acı
elma, piç elma, kına
tura, meşe elması,
yabani elma (Tur)
1 branches, hang on
animals
forehead
belief (evil eye) 1
cattle
0,04
0,12
0,04
0,12
15 (difficulty of birth,
increase milk secretion)
Prunus avium (L.) L.
syn: Cerasus avium (L.)
Moench
(CK, SO 33, 859, 1061, 1445,
1662)
veluri bali, gareuli bali
(Geo), yabani kiraz,
bali, acı kiraz (Tur), mır
kirazı
1 branches, hang on
animals' forehead
belief (evil eye) 1
cattle
−
0,03
−
0,03
1 (diarrhea), 15 (intestinal
disease)
Prunus divaricata Ledeb.
(CK, SO 453, 459, 464)
tkemali (Geo), cancur
(Arm), sarol, temal,
tkemali (Geo), muş,
çançur, yabani erik
(Tur)
1 fruits, raw
swollen stomach 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
15 (wound,
gastrointestinal parasite)
Pyrus communis L.
(CK, SO 450, 462)
panta (Geo),yaban
armudu (Tur), panta
1 branches, hang on
animals' forehead
belief (evil eye) 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
Rosa spinosissima L.
syn: Rosa
pimpinellifolia L
(CK, SO 24, 1019, 1024, 1529,
1669, 1711)
shavi askili (Geo),
masur (Arm), shipovnik
(Rus),kara tiken, kara
esgül, kara kuşburnu
(Tur), şilan (Kur)
1 branches, hang on
animals' forehead
belief (evil eye) 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
Sibbaldia parviflora Willd.
yağlı ot (Tur)
1 aerial parts with
flowers, in fodder
increase milk
production 1
cattle
−
0,03
−
0,03
Sorbus aucuparia L.
syn: Sorbus
caucasigena Kom ex Gatsch.
(CK, SO 75, 456)
(CK, SO 1459, 1591, 1660)
mchknavi (Geo),
çıknavi, cinav, ayı
kakası (Tur)
1 young branches
with leaves, in fodder
2 fruits, raw
3 young branches
with leaves,
decoction in water,
internally
increase milk
production 1
fodder 1, 2
worm 3
stomach-ache 3
chicken
cattle
calf
0,16
0,04
0,16
0,03

18
SALICACEAE
Salix caprea L.
(CK, SO 82, 98, 506, 522)
(CK, SO 1034)
mdgnali (Geo), tsitsela
(Geo), mdgnali (Geo),
yabani söğüt, tüylü
söğüt (Tur)
1 young branches
with leaves
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
0,01
0,02
0,01
3, 4
Salix sp.
(CK, SO 208)
tiriphi (Geo), dzetsni
(Geo), söğüt, köy
söğüdü, meşe söğüdü,
su söğüdü (Tur)
1 young branches
with leaves
fodder 1
cattle
0,04
−
0,04
−
15 (constipation,
increase milk secretion)
SANTALACEAE
Viscum album L.
(FP-SO 5)
phitri (Geo),pintri, fitri
(Geo), çaabu (Laz)
1 entire plant, in
fodder
2 entire plant,
infusion in water,
internally
get easy birth 1
fodder 1
cough 2
cattle
0,09
0,07
0,09
0,07
10 (diarrhea), 11, 15
(respiratory disease,
increasing milk secretion,
cough, endoparasites,
diarrhea, gastrointestinal
parasites)
SAPINDACEAE
Acer campestre L.
(CK, SO 79)
leki
nekerchkhali (Geo),lek
1 young branches
with
leaves
fodder 1
cattle
0,09
0,01
0,09
0,01
Acer heldreichii subsp
trautvetteri (Medw.)
A.E.Murray
(CK, SO 444)
leki (Geo),
nekerchkhali (Geo), eki
(Geo)
1 young branches
with leaves
2 branches, hang on
animals' forehead
fodder 1
belief (evil eye) 2
cattle
0,02
0,05
0,02
0,05
Acer platanoides L.
(CK, SO 1481)
leki, nekerchkhali
(Geo), leki, korapi
(Geo)
1 young branches
with leaves
fodder 1
cattle
0,02
−
0,02
−
SCROPHULARICEAE
Verbascum spp.
(CK, SO 1547, 1592)
marjerk, mavuljak,
öküzkuyruğu (Tur)
1 aerial parts with
flowers, infusion in
water, internally
2 aerial parts with
flowers, infusion in
water, externally
worms 1
lice 2
sheep
cattle
−
0,03
−
0,04
14 (worms), 15 (injuries,
antiparasitic, wound, cold,
diarrhea, worms)
TYPHACEAE
Typha sp.
cil otu, çil (Tur)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
cattle
−
0,01
−
0,01
ULMACEAE
Ulmus glabra Huds.
tela (Geo), kara ağaç,
karağacı, moşi,
morkan ağacı (Tur)
1 young branches
with leaves
fodder 1
increase milk
production 1
cattle
−
0,04
−
0,04
10

19
URTICACEAE
Urtica dioica L.
CK, SO 510)
(CK, SO 1526)
krapiva (Rus),
chinchari (Geo),
aghinch, yeghinch
(Arm), kecan, ısırgan
(Tur), çinçar, cincar
(Geo), ağinç (Arm),
gezgezik (Kur), dıçkıci
(Laz)
1 aerial parts
2 aerial parts, mix
with Polygonum
bistorta, Symphytum,
Heracleum and boil
them before mix in
fodder
fodder 1, 2
cattle
pig
chicken
goose
0,07
0,04
0,02
0,04
2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15
(abscess, wound)
Urtica urens L.
yabani ısırgan (Tur)
1 aerial parts
fodder 1
turkey
−
0,01
−
0,01
15 (reproductive disease,
dermal disease, wound)
a “CK, SO (number)”: Collection number of species “FP-SO (number)”: Field photo number of the specimen Bold numbers indicate specimens from
Georgia, the others from Turkey.
b Recorded local names of species in both countries during the fieldwork Names written in Italics are from Turkey, the rest are from Georgia Arm: Armenian, Geo:Georgian, Kur:
Kurdish, Laz: Laz language, Tur:Turkish, Rus: Russian.
c Each different number (1,2,3…) indicates a plant part used in a remedy
d Numbers written in bold are shared reports between participants in both countries, Italics are associated with the recipes from Turkey, the rest are from Georgia
Each number (1,2,3…) in the use category match with the plant parts used.
e Cultural importance value (CI) of species in Georgia (Geo) and in Turkey (Tur) “n” indicates the participant number of each country.
f Relative requency of citation (RFC) values of species in Georgia (Geo) and in Turkey (Tur).
g Numbers and its corresponding references: (1) Akbulut et al 2014, (2) Bussmann et al 2018, (3) Bussmann et al 2016a, (4) Bussmann et al 2016b, (5) Bussmann 2017,(6) Güneş
& Özhatay 2011, (7) Macit & Köse 2015, (8) Sezik et al 1997, (9) Bussmann et al 2020b, (10) Saraç et al 2013, (11) Bussmann et al 2020a, (12) Bussmann et al 2017 (13) Sezik et
al 1991,(14) Altundağ 2009, (15) Eraslan & Kültür 2019

20
Figure 3. Cultural importance (CI) index of the 10 most important species used in ethnoveterinary medicine in each
country.
Table 2. Comparison of UR (%) for plant parts used, preparations, and applications for ethnoveterinary purposes
in Georgia and in Turkey.*
Plant parts used
UR (%)
Geo
UR (%)
Tur
Preparations
UR (%)
Geo
UR (%)
Tur
roots
23,53%
41,94%
decoction in water/milk
52,94%
48,39%
aerial parts with flowers
29,41%
12,90%
dried or raw in fodder
19,61%
17,74%
aerial parts
15,69%
20,97%
poultice or plaster
5,88%
25,81%
resin
3,92%
11,29%
infusion in water
21,57%
6,45%
entire plant
9,80%
1,61%
hang on throat of animal
−
1,61%
leaves
5,88%
4,84%
Applications
UR (%)
Geo
UR (%)
Tur
young branches with
leaves
3,92%
4,84%
internally
76,47%
29,03%
fruits
3,92%
0,00%
externally
23,53%
70,97%
flowers
1,96%
0,00%
inner barks
−
1,61%
* Note that the information (words) in each row do not match with each other (See in Table 1 for the preparation
and application of each plant part). Information was ranked in accordance of importance based on mean UR (%)
values of the countries.
Figure 4. Percentage of use reports (UR%) and number of species for each ethnoveterinary use category in each
country.
The most common gastrointestinal complaints and
their treatments differ in both countries. In Georgia,
giving a water infusion of Achillea millefolium aerial
parts with flowers to cattle is a cure for stomachache
and diarrhea, whereas in Turkey giving a water
infusion of Verbascum sp. aerial part or a water

21
decoction of Sorbus aucuparia young branches with
leaves are used as wormer. The use of Verbascum
with same purpose and application was also
reported in Turkey (Altundağ 2009, Erarslan & Kültür
2019).
Related to dermatological problems, Picea orientalis
is the most important plant for wound healing in
animals in both countries. Macerated resin of Picea
orientalis, locally called “pisi”, is mixed with butter
and spores of puffball mushroom, and applied as a
plaster for any kind of wound and foot-and-mouth
disease in both countries. One unique report from
Turkey also describes using it in a homemade wound
healing salve, a mixture of Picea resin, beeswax,
butter and olive oil, which is used for foot-and-mouth
disease.
Table 3. The most cited species for ethnoveterinary,
fodder and against evil eye use in each country.
Georgia
(UR)
Turkey
(UR)
Fodder
Trifolium spp.
9
18
Rumex spp.
2
9
Acer spp.
7
4
Ruscus colhicus
2
7
Quercus spp.
3
5
Sambucus ebulus
1
6
Viscum album
2
5
Urtica dioica
3
4
Polygonum spp.
6
1
Sorbus aucuparia
6
1
Capsella bursa-pastoris
−
6
Taraxacum sp.
1
5
Petasites sp.
5
1
Belief (evil eye)
Malus montana
2
9
Viburnum lantana
4
6
Gastrointestinal disease
Achillea millefolium
8
1
Veratrum album
4
−
Dermatological disease
Picea orientalis
2
7
Helleborus orientalis
−
3
Parasitic disease
Veratrum album
6
20
Reproductive disease
Alchemilla sp.
1
3
Heracleum sp.
1
2
Tussilago farfara
2
1
A decoction of Astracantha microcephala root or
whole Helleborus orientalis was also mentioned to
cure foot-and-mouth disease in Turkey.
For parasitic diseases, Veratrum album was major
plant mentioned for the treatment of lice and scabby
in both countries. Sheep and cattle with scabies are
bathed in the decoction of Veratrum album roots.
The extent of similar naming and use of Veratrum
album roots against ectoparasites in the whole study
regions presents the special cultural value of the
species in the Caucasus. This appears to be related
to consensus on therapeutic efficacy of the species
to cure parasitic symptoms of cattle and sheep.
The other traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge and
practices in the study area were related to
reproductivity, respiratory, musculoskeletal and
poisoning in livestock.
Raw use of Viscum album or Polygonum bistorta in
fodder was mentioned to ease birth in Georgia.
Alchemilla sp., Heracleum sp. and Tussilago farfara
were mentioned to increase milk production in both
countries. Decoction of Veratrum album roots was
stated to cure mastitis in Turkey. In addition, Viscum
album was mentioned for cough in Georgia. In
Turkey, Trifolium spp. was mentioned for fracture.
Regarding poisoning, tea of Berberis vulgaris
branches with leaves, and roots of Sambucus ebulus
in fodder are known as antidote in Georgia.
Among the wild plants used as fodder, Fabaceae,
Polygonaceae and Asteraceae were most
mentioned families in both countries. Trifolium spp.
is the most widely used plant as fodder in both
countries. Rumex spp., Ruscus colchicus,
Sambucus ebulus, Capsella bursa-pastoris follows it
in Turkey. While in Georgia, Acer spp., Polygonum
spp., Sorbus aucuparia and Petasites sp. are
preferred. Among them, collecting and adding aerial
parts of Ruscus colchicus, Viscum album, Sambucus
ebulus, and Sorbus aucuparia to cattle’s fodder as
nutraceutical appear to be specific to Adjara and
Artvin.
Use of Ruscus colchicus as fodder for cattle has also
been reported in Georgia (Bussmann et al. 2020b,
Bussmann 2017). Ruscus colchicus was reported as
an excellent food plant due to its benefits on high milk
yield (Khidasheli & Papunidze 2014). Shared
ethnoveterinary knowledge and practices of the
communities for this species called with the same
local names might be related to the similar cultural
background of the communities living in these
regions.
The popularity of some species exclusively in
Ardahan could be related to existence of variety of
livestock in the region. For instance, Polygonum
cognatum, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Rumex spp.,
and Tragopogon species were mentioned for raising
geese in Ardahan. This tradition might contribute to
the diversification of ethnoveterinary knowledge and
practice in the study area.

22
Figure 5. Young branches and leaves of trees and shrubs harvested to feed the cattle on the road to plateau in
Artvin, Turkey.
Figure 6. Animal fodder prepared by cooking mix wild plants in Adjara, Georgia
Some species have indirect veterinary uses for the
well-being of livestock, such as those used as
bedding to protect them against colds and serious
diseases, and against evil eye. It was reported that
the above-ground parts of Dryopteris filix-mas and
Pteridium aquilinum species were covered on the
floor of the barn to protect the animals from cold in
Adjara and Artvin, and then used as fertilizer for
vegetable gardens. Plants used against evil eye
constitute 10% of the URs with 12 species in the
study area. Viburnum lantana and Malus montana
were the most mentioned species in both countries.
It is believed that branches of these species hanged
on cattle’s forehead protect them from illnesses. The
use of Viburnum lantana against evil eye in cattle has
also been reported in Georgia (Bussmann et al.

23
2020b, Bussmann 2017). Viburnum lantana is used
mostly in Adjara and Artvin. This commonality might
also be connected with similar cultural ties of the
communities in Adjara and Artvin.
In sum, we found few difference in plants used in
ethnoveterinary and fodder purposes between
transhumant communities on both sides of Georgia-
Turkey border. The similarities may be related to the
similar environmental conditions across the border or
historical contact of the communities especially
before the current position of the border was
establish in 1921, or more likely the common cultural
background of majority of the participants may have
result in many similarities. They are mostly apparent
between Artvin and Adjara where the participants
have same mother language (Georgian), share
common cultural background and having ongoing
cultural ties.
Conclusions
The findings of this study suggest that pastoral way
of life in the Western Lesser Caucasus still reflects
living evidence of plant-based traditional
ethnoveterinary knowledge and practices to support
the health of livestock. We found few difference in
plants used in ethnoveterinary between communities
on both sides of Georgia Turkey border. There
seems to be several plants documented in this study
especially for gastrointestinal and parasitical disease
that might be an alternative to modern veterinary
drugs. The results of this study could be a base for
future ethnoveterinary and animal feed research in
the region. Since there is an ongoing abandonment
of highlands and traditional practices, particular
attention is suggested to be given to pastoral
communities in future studies. We hope that this
study will stimulate further ethnoveterinary study in
Turkey, Georgia and in the Caucasus in order to
document this valuable cultural heritage and to
promote plant-based therapies and organic animal
husbandry for the well-being of livestock and
humans before it is totally replaced by modern
pharmaceuticals.
Declarations
List of abbreviations: UR: Use-report CI: Cultural
importance RFC: Relative frequency of citation
Ethics approval and consent to participate: All
interviews conformed to the International Society of
Ethnobiology’s Code of Ethics. Scientific Research
and Ethical Committee of Artvin Çoruh University in
Turkey (Issue date-no: 14/02/2018-E.2708)
approved the study.
Official research and plant collection permits were
obtained from the Ministry of Forest and Water
Affairs (Issue date-no: 09/02/2018-E.8919), as well
as from the Scientific Research and Ethical
Committee of Artvin Çoruh University in Turkey
(Issue date-no: 14/02/2018-E.2708). Ilia State
University in Georgia was informed, and necessary
official scientific research and travel permits were
obtained from the Department of Land Border
Protection of the Border Police of the Ministry of
Internal Affairs of Georgia.
Consent for publication: The persons showed in
images gave their consent for publication.
Competing interests: The authors declare that they
have no competing interests.
Funding: In Georgia, Ilia State University partially
funded the fieldworks of this study for three summer
seasons (2016-2017-2018). GIZ Georgia also
partially supported the fieldwork in 2017 as a
scholarship to first author, Ceren Kazancı. Authors
and people in crowd funding contributed to the rest.
In Turkey, funding support for this study was
provided from crowdfunding, the authors’ own
budgets and the first authors’ parents. The funding
sources did not have a role in the writing of the paper
or the decision to submit the paper for publication.
Authors’ contributions: C.K.
(ceren.kazanci.1@iliauni.edu.ge) and S.O
(soneroruc@gmail.com) designed the study,
organized and conducted all the fieldwork and wrote
all sections of the manuscript together. C.K.
conducted the interviews, identified the plant
specimens, constructed the database, analyzed the
data and generated the table and map of the study
area. M.M. (marine_mosulishvili@iliauni.edu.ge)
partially participated in the fieldworks in Georgia,
made advice and revisions during plant
identifications and for the manuscript. All authors
read and approved the manuscript.
Acknowledgements
This study was possible with the help of friendly
people from Artvin, Ardahan, Adjara and Samtskhe
Javakheti who shared their knowledge and
experience. We are grateful to them for their
willingness to interview and allocating significant
time for us. Heartfelt thanks to all of them.
We would like to thank to our friends Nikita Ivanov,
Shota Gelashvili, Nini Khuroshvili, Oli Lamm, Tamar
Nadiradze, Sopo Kiknavelidze and Natalie
Kuljanishvili for their translation of the interviews and
field assistance during the surveys in Georgia. We
also thank to our friends Zeynep Türkmen, Nihan
Dilşad Dağtaş, Kasım Kırlangıç, Ali Haydar Altuğ,
Muharrem Çavuşoğlu, Birsen Civelek, Utkan Bugay,
Bilgen Kazancı and Çağla Kazancı for their valuable
assistance and support during our fieldworks in
Turkey. Many thanks to Prof. Özgür Eminağaoğlu
and Dr. Hayal Akyıldırım Beğen for providing us a

24
work environment in the Herbarium of Artvin Çoruh
University in Turkey and for their help during
identification of the plant specimens. Thanks to
Çağatay Altın and Nature Conservation and National
Park Branch of Ardahan for their concerns during our
fieldwork in Turkey. Moreover, many thanks to Dr.
Temur Vasadze, Dr. Nino Memiadze and the staff of
the Batumi Botanical Garden, Goderdzi Alpine
Botanical Garden; Dr. Manana Khutsishvili, Eto
Svanidze and the staff of the National Herbarium of
Georgia, Javakheti Protected Areas Administration
and Border police and army in Georgia. Many thanks
to Prof. Zaal Kikvidze for his interest and kind support
during funding applications in Georgia and to all
funders including hundreds of nature and culture
lovers who valued and made precious contributions
to our study with their small drops via crowdfunding.
We are also indebted to Dr. Füsun Ertuğ for her long-
termed encouragement, love and support for our
ethnobotanical research.
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