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RUNNING HEAD: Adaptive Behavior
Adaptive Behavior and Functional Life Skills Across the Lifespan:
Conceptual and Measurement Issues
Marc J. Tassé, PhD
Nisonger Center
The Ohio State University
Tasse.1@osu.edu
File name: AB Chapter - Tasse – PREPRINT VERSION
35 pages (double-spaced)
9,100 words
May 5, 2020
To appear in: Russell Lang & Peter Sturmey (Eds), Evidenced-Based Practices for Teaching Adaptive
Behavior to People with Intellectual and Developmental Disability across the Life Span. New York: Springer
Publishing.
Adaptive Behavior 2
Abstract
Adaptive behavior is an important construct that is involved in diagnosis and determination
of the severity of a number of neurodevelopmental disorders. Adaptive behavior is also associated
with greater independence and overall quality of life. Adaptive behavior is defined as the skills that
are learned and performed to meet the everyday demands of one’s community or society. The
number and complexity of adaptive behaviors needed to meet these demands increase with
chronological age. Higher levels of adaptive behavior are associated with more positive life
outcomes and improved quality of life. This chapter presents a number of conceptual issues
regarding the construct of adaptive behavior, its importance in the field of intellectual disability and
other neurodevelopmental disorders, and presents a review of key measures that can be used to
assess adaptive behavior and inform on the development and evaluation of teaching and
interventions that target increasing adaptive behavior.
Keywords:
Adaptive behavior, adaptive skills, adaptive functioning, functional skills, assessment,
testing, teaching.
Adaptive Behavior 3
Adaptive Behavior and Functional Life Skills Across the Lifespan:
Conceptual and Measurement Issues
Adaptive behavior involves skills that people learn throughout their life and put forth to
meet the demands and expectations of their environment and society at large. Adaptive behavior is a
broad construct that encompasses practical skills (e.g., self-care, toileting, cooking, cleaning, caring
for one’s home, money concepts, and work skills), social skills (e.g., interpersonal skills, managing
one’s emotions, ), and conceptual skills (e.g., functional academics, communication skills, concept of
time, money management, and self-direction; American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Schalock et
al., 2010; Tassé et al., 2012). The complexity of the adaptive behavior increases with chronological
age and the onset of diverse social roles and responsibilities (e.g., going to school, participating in
sports and leisure activities, maintaining friendship, dating, independence/interdependence, financial
responsibilities, following rules, social responsibilities, employment, raising children, etc.).
Impairment in adaptive behavior is a crucial diagnostic criterion for a number of
neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013) and intellectual disability (APA, 2013; Schalock et al., 2010; World Health
Organization, 2002). The presence of deficits in adaptive behavior is also present in a number of
other conditions, including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, emotional and behavioral
disorders, hearing and motor impairments, communication disorders, and learning disabilities
(Harrison & Oakland, 2003). Research has shown that the strength of adaptive skills is a strong
predictor of success of post-high school outcomes for students with disabilities (Dell’Armo & Tassé,
2019). Conversely, the loss of adaptive skills in aging adults is an early indicator of age-related
decline (Takata et al., 2013) and the onset of dementia in persons with Down syndrome (Zigman,
Schupf, Urv, Zigman, & Silverman, 2002; 2009).
Adaptive Behavior 4
Deficits in adaptive behavior are attributable to a number of independent and overlapping
variables. Some of these factors include: (a) opportunities to develop/learn a skill/behavior, (b)
opportunities to perform or practice a learned skill, (c) intrinsic or extrinsic motivation to perform a
learned skill when called upon, (d) the awareness that a particular skill or behavior is needed in a
particular situation, (e) physical or mental health problems, and/or (f) brain disease or impairment.
One’s context also influences significantly a person’s adaptive behavior, situationally (e.g., in a
demand setting where the person is rewarded for emitting a specific adaptive behavior) or
permanently (e.g., growing up in a severely impoverished environment where there was a paucity of
opportunities to learn adaptive skills).
Although the concept of adaptive behavior has evolved over time, it remains remarkably
similar to the definition initially proposed by American Association on Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) more than 50 years ago (see Heber, 1959). Heber (1959),
initially proposed introducing this concept into the diagnostic criteria of intellectual disability in a
draft version of the American Association on Mental Deficiency’s (now AAIDD) terminology and
classification manual. Heber defined this second diagnostic criterion as deficits in at least one of the
following: “maturation, learning, and social adjustment” (see Heber, 1959; p. 3). After receiving
feedback and comments from the field, Heber (1961) revised slightly the AAIDD diagnostic criteria
for intellectual disability proposed in 1959 and formally introduced in the definition of intellectual
disability the concept of “adaptive behavior.” Heber described the concurrent impairments in
adaptive behavior as consisting of deficits in one of the three previously mentioned domains:
maturation, learning, and/or social adjustments (see Heber, 1961; p. 3). The Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) incorporated AAIDD’s (Heber, 1961) proposed
construct of adaptive behavior in its 2nd revision of the DSM, published in 1968 (DSM-II; American
Psychiatric Association, 1968).
Adaptive Behavior 5
Fast forward 50 years, and our current diagnostic definitions of intellectual disability look
surprisingly similar to these two earlier definitions of AAIDD (Heber, 1961) and DSM-II (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013; Tassé et al., 2016). The current AAIDD definition (see Schalock et
al., 2010) and DSM-5 (APA, 2013) both require the presence of significant impairments in adaptive
behavior when diagnosing intellectual disability and operationalize it as the presence of deficits in
one or more of the following: conceptual (aka learning), social (aka social adjustment), and/or
practical adaptive skills (aka maturation).
Disorders Associated with Deficits in Adaptive Behavior
There are a number of conditions and situations in which the assessment and teaching of
adaptive behavior is a critical and essential component of the clinician’s or educator’s responsibility.
Before we discuss some of these specific conditions, it is important to point out that the presence of
problem behavior may at times coexist in a person who has deficits in adaptive behavior. First, we
much mention that problem behavior (e.g., aggression, stereotypy, elopement, etc.) are not
necessarily “maladaptive” or purposeless, nor are problem behavior and adaptive behavior on
opposite sides of the same construct. Problem behavior can, in fact, be very “adaptive” and serve as
an effective response to the person’s environment and the contingencies in the environment (e.g.,
scream to get someone’s attention, hit a teacher to get out of a task, etc.). Problem behaviors most
often serve a function (e.g., get something, avoid something, communicate a desire, sensory
regulation) and a function-based intervention will use teaching and reinforcing of alternative
behaviors to replace the problem behavior. Often, these alternative behaviors are adaptive skills.
For example, if the function of a student’s problem behavior of slapping a classmate is motivated by
a desire to escape the demands of the classroom by being removed from the classroom contingently
on the aggressive behavior, perhaps an alternative behavior to this aggression might be to teach the
Adaptive Behavior 6
student to ask for help, or communicate (e.g., words, picture/symbol, sign language) more
effectively when he/she is feeling overwhelmed by a the task or demand that is too difficult.
Incorporating the teaching of alternative adaptive skills should be considered an essential
component of all behavior change interventions. Research has shown that conducting parent
training that focuses on enhancing adaptive behavior and behavior management strategies results in
improved adaptive behavior and a reduction in challenging behaviors (Scahill et al., 2012; Scahill et
al., 2016). There is a growing body of research that has shown that poor adaptive behavior in
childhood is a barrier to achievements in social relationships, inclusion, independence, and
employment (Bruininks, Hill, & Morreau, 1985; Davis, Shurtleff, Walker, Seode;, & Duguay, 2004:
Papazoglou, Jacobson, & Zabel, 2013).
Developmental Disabilities
Developmental disabilities is an administrative definition at the federal level that defines a
level of human functioning that determines individuals eligible for federal and state disability
benefits (e.g., early intervention, waiver services for community based services, social security
supplemental income, etc.). The definition for developmental disabilities is found in U.S. legislation
entitled Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Act (DD Act; PL 106-402, 2000) that is
operationalized based on the person’s level of functioning rather than on the presence of specific
conditions or disorders (meaning it is largely based on the person presenting certain prescribed
functional deficits). Developmental disabilities is not a condition defined in either the DSM (DSM-5;
American Psychiatric Association, 2013) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10;
World Health Organization, 1992). The DD Act (2000) defines developmental disabilities as
follows:
“(A) … a severe, chronic disability of an individual that:
Adaptive Behavior 7
i. is attributable to a mental or physical impairment or combination of mental and physical
impairments;
ii. is manifested before the individual attains age 22;
iii. is likely to continue indefinitely;
iv. results in substantial functional limitations in 3 or more of the following areas of major
life activity:
1. Self-care.
2. Receptive and expressive language.
3. Learning.
4. Mobility.
5. Self-direction.
6. Capacity for independent living.
7. Economic self-sufficiency; and
v. reflects the individual’s need for a combination and sequence of special, interdisciplinary,
or generic services, individualized supports, or other forms of assistance that are of
lifelong or extended duration and are individually planned and coordinated.
(B) Infants and young children. An individual from birth to age 9, inclusive, who has a substantial
developmental delay or specific congenital or acquired condition, may be considered to have a
developmental disability without meeting 3 or more of the criteria described in clauses (i)
through (v) of subparagraph (A) if the individual, without services and supports, has a high
probability of meeting those criteria later in life.” (DD Act, 2000; pp. 1683-1684)
It is important to note that a person’s cognitive ability is not a criterion in diagnosing a
developmental disability. Rather, its determination rests largely on the presence of deficits in
adaptive behavior, or what is called “areas of major life activity” in the DD Act.
Adaptive Behavior 8
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism spectrum disorder is a life-long neurodevelopmental disorder that has an onset
during early childhood. It is characterized by significant deficits in social communication skills and
the presence of restrictive and repetitive behavior and/or interests (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013). Deficits in social communication include skills such as social and emotional
reciprocity, interpersonal skills, emotion recognition and sharing, non-verbal communication skills,
eye contact, friendship and relationship skills, etc. Deficits in social skills and communication deficits
are core features of autism spectrum disorder (see DSM-5).
People with autism spectrum disorder present with varying levels of severity in symptoms
and functioning across the social and communication skills continuum as well as the severity of their
stereotypic behavior, behavioral rigidity, restrictive interests and activities, and sensory behaviors.
The DSM-5 proposed three levels of severity of autism spectrum disorder, based on the intensity of
supports needed around the person’s social communication deficits and their restricted and
repetitive behaviors. Hence, interventions almost always focus on teaching and enhancing these
adaptive skills to impact the core features of autism spectrum disorder and directly reduce the
severity of the condition and ameliorate the prognosis.
Intellectual disability
Adaptive behavior is perhaps best associated as a core feature of intellectual disability. The
condition of intellectual disability has long been conceptualized as consisting of problems in
adapting to societal demands and expectations, along with deficits in intellectual abilities. Adaptive
behavior has been an essential diagnostic criterion of intellectual disability for more than 50 years
(see American Psychiatric Association, 1968; Heber, 1961). Even before adaptive behavior was
included as a diagnostic criterion, Tredgold (1937; p. 4) described it as follows: “[Intellectual disability]
Adaptive Behavior 9
is a state of incomplete mental development of such a kind and degree that
the individual is incapable of
adapting himself to the normal environment of his fellows
in such a way to maintain existence
independently of supervision, control or external support.” [emphasis mine]. Edouard Seguin as early as the
mid-1800s differentiated the severity levels of intellectual disability on the basis of a combination of
deficits in intellectual ability and adaptive functioning (see Scherenberger, 1983).
An important assumption that is defined as essential to the application of the definition of
intellectual disability put forth by AAIDD stipulates the following: “With appropriate personalized
supports, the life functioning of the person with intellectual disability will improve.” (Luckasson et
al., 1992; Schalock et al., 2010; Schalock, Luckasson, & Tassé, in press). We argue that the most
important form of ongoing support is lifelong instruction. People with intellectual disability, as well
as any other disability, are capable of learning new adaptive skills throughout their life.
Relation Between Adaptive Behavior and Intellectual Functioning
It is not surprising that the exact relationship between intelligence and adaptive behavior is
misunderstood and erroneously confounded as causal. In fact, earlier definitions of intelligence
incorporated elements in its definition that included terms such as “adaptation” or “one’s ability to
respond to their environment’s expectations and demands” (see Binet & Simon, 1905; Sternberg et
al., 2000; Thorndike, 1920). Nonetheless, in a study of the relationship between adaptive behavior
and intelligence, Keith and his colleagues (1987) tested three hypotheses of the relationship between
these two constructs: (a) separate but related constructs, (b) completely independent constructs, or
(c) different facets of a unitary construct. Based on their findings, they concluded that adaptive
behavior and intelligence are related but separate constructs. This finding has been supported over
the years by a number of research studies examining the correlational relationship between adaptive
behavior and intelligence that has consistently reported that the correlation between FSIQ and
composite adaptive behavior score is moderate (De Bildt, Kraijer, Systema, & Minderaa, 2005;
Adaptive Behavior 10
Harrison, 1987; Harrison & Oakland, 2003; McGrew, 2012; Papazoglou, Jacobson, McCabe,
Kaufmann, & Zabel, 2014; Sabat, Tassé, & Tenorio, 2019). The correlation between IQ and
adaptive behavior is strongest between the full-scale IQ score and conceptual adaptive skills and to a
lesser extent with social and practical adaptive skills (Carpentieri & Morgan, 1996; Sabat et al., 2019).
There may be concern that the correlation coefficients may be attenuated between these two
constructs on account of range restrictions of scores on the intelligence and adaptive behavior tests.
Alexander (2017) in a large meta-analytic study of 148 samples containing a total of 16,464
participants, after correcting for range restriction and attenuation reported an estimated population
correlation coefficient = 0.51. These results confirmed an overall moderate relationship between
intelligence and adaptive behavior. Alexander also reported that moderator analyses confirmed that
the correlation coefficients between IQ and adaptive behavior were strongest as the IQ score
decreased; Hence, even it is ever more crucial to consider adaptive behavior measures as intellectual
abilities increase.
Meyers, Nihira, and Zetlin (1979) eloquently summarized the differences between these two
related but separate psychological constructs as follows: “(a) adaptive behavior emphasizes everyday
behavior, whereas intelligence emphasizes thought processes; (b) adaptive behavior focuses on common or typical
behavior. whereas intelligence focuses on maximum performance; and (c) adaptive behavior stresses non-abstract, non-
academic aspects of life, whereas intelligence stresses those aspects that are abstract and academic.” (pp. 433-434).
Importance of Adaptive Behavior
The importance of adaptive behavior has only grown over the last century of research and
intervention in the field of intellectual disability. A person’s functioning in terms of adaptive
behavior and intellectual skills must be weighed equally and considered jointly when diagnosing
intellectual disability (Tassé, Luckasson, & Schalock, 2016). In fact, both AAIDD and DSM have
moved to place equal, if not more, importance on adaptive behavior than intellectual functioning in
Adaptive Behavior 11
their conceptualization of intellectual disability. For example, the DSM-5 has abandoned the use of
IQ scores in defining the severity of a person’s intellectual disability and has replaced IQ with the
person’s level of adaptive behavior (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Hence, the
determination of severity of intellectual disability (mild, moderate, severe, profound) is best
determined on the basis of the severity of deficits in adaptive behavior rather than intellectual
functioning, the reason being that deficits in adaptive behavior are a better correlate with intensity of
support needs than deficits in intellectual functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2013;
Simoes, Santos, Biscaia, & Thompson, 2016), and, equally important, research has shown that higher
levels of adaptive behavior are strongly correlated with improved quality of life (Chou et al. 2013;
Claes et al. 2012; Nota et al. 2007; Simoes, Santos, Biscaia, & Thompson, 2016).
There is a growing consensus on the importance of focusing our interventions and
treatments on increasing the learning and performance of adaptive behavior. This book has, to that
end, several chapters that present different interventions and approaches to teaching adaptive
behavior and functional skills across the lifespan. In this chapter, we will present the important
elements related to the concepts and assessment of adaptive behavior, which are a critical first step
to the identification of strengths and areas of needed intervention. We will present some of the
tools that exist that can aide in assessing the outcomes and effectiveness of an intervention.
Assessment of Adaptive Behavior
Coulter and Morrow (1978) observed that the field’s interest in the assessment of adaptive
behavior falls into two primary purposes. Adaptive behavior assessment continues to be driven
essentially by these two goals: (1) establish a diagnosis/determine eligibility (i.e., does the person
present with significant deficits in adaptive behavior) and (2) identify areas of deficits and relative
strengths that can inform intervention objectives and strategies (i.e., individual education plan,
individual support plan, identify strengths and weaknesses).
Adaptive Behavior 12
Edgar Doll (1936) was the first recognize the important of adaptive behavior and develop a
standardized measure, called the Vineland Social Maturity Scale. Since the first publication of the
Vineland Social Maturity Scale, more than 200 measures of adaptive behavior and functional skills have
been identified (Reschly, Myers, & Hartel, 2002; Schalock, 1999). Some of these instruments might
consist of a brief inventory, checklist, or questionnaire dealing with a very specific skill area (e.g.,
social skills, communication, motor skills, vocational skills) and most of these 200 assessments are
not comprehensive of adaptive behavior. Some are direct measures, while others are created to
assess the person’s adaptive behavior by getting input from a third-party respondent (e.g., parent,
caregiver, teacher, direct support professional, etc.). Almost all use as rating scales are designed to
allow the respondent to complete the scale on their own by entering their ratings directly onto the
form. A few more rigorous standardized scales, predominantly developed for diagnostic purposes,
rely more heavily on a semi-structured interview procedure between a trained professional and the
respondent (e.g., parent/caregiver, teacher or direct support staff, etc.).
Although there was a time when the validity and psychometric properties of adaptive
behavior scales were viewed with skepticism (see Witt & Martens, 1984; Zigler, Balla, & Hodapp,
1984), this has changed over the last couple of decades. There are currently several existing
standardized adaptive behavior scales that have been robustly developed and have strong
psychometrically properties that rely on comprehensive norm-based evaluations of adaptive
behavior across the lifespan and include well written items that encompass all three critical domains:
conceptual (i.e., communication, functional academics, self-direction, budgeting/paying bills), social
(i.e., interpersonal skills, emotion regulation, social problem solving, wariness, following rules and
laws), and practical (i.e., self-care, domestic skills, money and time concepts, vocational/work skills)
adaptive skills. These are several of these instruments that are considered examples of “gold
standard” measures of adaptive behavior and include: Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, 3rd
Adaptive Behavior 13
edition (Harrison & Oakland, 2015); Adaptive Behavior Diagnostic Scale (Pearson, Patton, &
Mruzek, 2016); Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale (Tassé et al., 2018); and Vineland Adaptive
Behavior Scales (Sparrow, Cicchetti, & Saulnier, 2016). We do not include in this list, the Scales of
Independent Behavior, Revised (SIB-R; Bruininks et al., 1996). Despite being a highly respected,
well-constructed, and psychometrically robust measure of adaptive behavior, the SIB-R has become
somewhat outdated since its last revision and re-norming in 1996 (i.e., almost 25 years
ago). Unlike with tests of intelligence, aging norms on scales of adaptive behavior do not cause a
spurious rise in adaptive behavior scores (i.e., the Flynn effect). It remains, nonetheless, important
to periodically revise item content and refresh normative data on these tests. Item content on
measures of adaptive behavior need to be periodically refreshed to keep up with changing societal
norms and expectations. For example, more current adaptive behavior scales may include more
technology items such as using a cell phone or microwave and should have deleted outdated items
such as using a pay phone or using a telephone book to find a phone number. We will briefly
present these four aforementioned standardized adaptive behavior instruments.
Adaptive Behavior Assessment System – 3
nd Edition
The Adaptive Behavior Assessment System – 3nd Edition (ABAS-3; (ABAS-3; Harrison &
Oakland, 2015) is in its third edition, having been first published in 2000. The ABAS-3 was the first
comprehensive norm-referenced measure of adaptive behavior to offer standard scores for the three
adaptive behavior domains: conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. The ABAS-3 can be
used for multiple purposes, including: (1) making the determination of intellectual disability,
developmental disabilities, learning disability, and behavioral and emotional disorders; (2) identifying
functional limitations of people with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, and Alzheimer disease; (3) establishing an individual’s eligibility for services and supports
under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), social security administration benefits,
Adaptive Behavior 14
and intensity of need for other types of supports and services; (4) identifying and measuring
intervention goals and progress in adaptive behavior and functional limitations interventions, and (5)
being used as an outcome measure in program evaluations and interventions. It has robust norms
drawn from the general population and it can be used to assess adaptive behavior across the
lifespan, including the ages of 0 to 89 years.
The ABAS-3 consists of five distinct survey forms:
o Parent or Primary Caregiver Form (0 – 5 years old): appropriate for the assessment of
adaptive behavior in infants and preschoolers in the home. The respondent providing
adaptive behavior information on this form is the child’s parent or other primary caregiver.
o Teacher or Daycare Provider Form (2 – 5 years old): used for the assessment of adaptive
behavior in toddlers and preschool-aged children in daycare, preschool, and other similar
setting. The respondent for the Teacher or Daycare Provider Form is typically the child’s
daycare or preschool teacher or teacher’s aide, or some other childcare or preschool
personnel.
o Parent Form (5 – 21 years old): appropriate for the assessment of adaptive behavior in
children and adults and observed having been observed at home and other community
settings. The respondent completing the Parent Form is generally the child’s parent or other
caregiver who lives with the child or adult.
o Teacher Form (5 – 21 years old): used to assess adaptive behavior in children or adults in
the context of the classroom and school (Kindergarten to 12th grade). The respondent for
this form is generally the student’s teacher, teacher’s aide, and other school personnel.
o Adult Form (16 – 89 years old): appropriate for the assessment of adaptive behavior in
adolescents and adults in the context of their home and across community settings. The
Adaptive Behavior 15
respondent on the Adult Form is most often a parent/caregiver or other family member but
can also be completed, when the respondent has sufficient knowledge of the person’s
adaptive behavior, a spouse/significant other, co-worker, work supervisor, friend, or other
knowledgeable person who has good familiarity with the individual’s everyday functioning.
The ABAS-3 Adult Form is the only adaptive behavior form that has been developed and
normed for self-report by the individual him or herself. Self-reported adaptive behavior
information is most valuable for the identification and prioritization of teaching and training
goals targeting adaptive skills.
Although the ABAS-3 User’s Manual (Harrison & Oakland, 2015) indicated that the
administration time is approximately 15-20 minutes, a more realistic time of administration is
probably closer to 30 – 40 minutes to complete the adult form. The ABAS-3 continues to be the
only standardized adaptive behavior scale that provides a self-report administration and norms for
self-reported adaptive behavior using the Adult Form.
The ABAS yields standard scores (Mean = 100; standard deviation = 15) presenting an
overall assessment of adaptive behavior (i.e., General Adaptive Composite[GAC}) and the three
adaptive behavior domains: Conceptual, Social, and Practical skills. The ABAS-3 forms also provide
more discrete standard scores (mean = 10 and standard deviation = 3) across the following 10
subscales: (1) communication, (2) functional academics, (3) self-direction, (4) leisure, (5) social, (6)
community use, (7) home/school living, (8) health & safety, (9) self-care, and (10) work (completed
only when assessed person has a part-time or full-time job). These subscale scores are probably the
most informative sources of measurement when looking to assess adaptive behavior/functional
limitations for the purpose of intervention planning and evaluation.
Adaptive Behavior 16
The ABAS-3 has been in use for more than two decades and has good psychometric
properties (Henington, 2017; Wu, 2017). Harrison and Oakland (2015) reported internal consistency
for the ABAS-3 GAC Cronbach alphas ranging from .96 – .99 and from .85 – .99 for Conceptual,
Social, and Practical domains. Harrison and Oakland also reported very good score stability for the
ABAS-3 average GAC correlation coefficient of r = .86, average correlation coefficients of r = .76
for the domain standard scores, and an average r = .70 across the ten adaptive skill areas.
Adaptive Behavior Diagnostic Scale
The Adaptive Behavior Diagnostic Scale (ABDS; Pearson, Patton, & Mruzek, 2016) is one
of the newer standardized adaptive behavior scales. Although an entirely new adaptive behavior
scale, the ABDS was developed by Pro-Ed and is a replacement for the Adaptive Behavior Scale:
School Edition (Lambert, Nihira, & Leland, 1993) and Adaptive Behavior Scale: Residential and
Community (Nihira, Lambert, & Leland, 1993).
The ABDS is an interview-based scale that assesses adaptive behavior with robust general
population norms for individuals from 2 to 21 years. This instrument was specifically developed
using the conceptual model of adaptive behavior domains including: Conceptual, Social, and
Practical skills. The ABDS consists of a total of 150 items, with 50 discrete adaptive skill items
across each of the three domains. Administration of this instruments is approximately 15-20
minutes. The results of the ABDS yields standard scores (mean = 100 and standard deviation = 15)
for each of the three domains: Conceptual, Social, and Practical as well as an overall Adaptive
Behavior Index.
Pearson et al. (2016) reported excellent psychometric properties, including internal
consistency coefficients for all domain and overall index standard scores above .90. Pearson et al.
reported sensitivity coefficient of .85 (accuracy of ABDS to correctly identify people with intellectual
Adaptive Behavior 17
disability) and specificity coefficient of 0.99 (accuracy of ABDS to correctly identify people who do
not have intellectual disability).
Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale
The Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale (DABS; Tassé et al., 2017) is the newest of the
comprehensive adaptive behavior scales available. Like the ABDS, the DABS was developed and
refined to accurately measure adaptive behavior according the conceptual model adopted by
AAIDD (Schalock et al., 2010) and the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The
DABS construction used item response theory (IRT) to select and include the most precise and
relevant items/skills that inform about a person’s adaptive behavior across the ages of 4 to 21 years
(Tassé et al., 2016; 2017). The DABS’s item pool includes items that are often missing from more
traditional adaptive behavior scales, items measuring concepts of higher order social skills such as
gullibility, vulnerability, and social naiveté.
The DABS consists of the fewest number of total items among all the comprehensive
standardized adaptive behavior scales described in this chapter. It consists of a total of 75 items
across all three adaptive behavior domains: Conceptual, Social, and Practical skills (25 items per
domain). The DABS is administered via a semi-structured interview between a professional (i.e.,
DABS interviewer) and a respondent (e.g., parent, grandparent, caregiver, teacher, etc.). The time
needed to administer the DABS is generally estimated to be approximately 20 minutes. Because the
DABS using IRT to score the responses and yield individualized standard error or measurement, the
scoring of the DABS can only be done via online computerized scoring (see
https://aaidd.org/dabs). This scoring provides standard scores (mean = 100 and standard deviation
= 15) for each of the three domains (Conceptual, Social, and Practical) as well as Overall or
Composite Adaptive Behavior score.
Adaptive Behavior 18
The DABS was standardized on a large national sample of the general US population
between the ages of 4 and 21 years (Tassé et al., 2017). The authors of the DABS (Balboni et al.,
2014; Tassé et al., 2017; Tassé, Schalock, Balboni, Spreat, & Navas, 2016) have published several
studies reporting strong psychometric properties, including robust validity and reliability. Tassé,
Schalock, et al. (2016) reported good to excellent concurrent validity between the DABS and the
Vineland-II ranging from r = .70 to .84. They also reported strong DABS test score stability, as
measured using test-retest reliability coefficients, ranging from r = .78 to .95 and good interrater
concordance as measured by intraclass correlation coefficients that ranged from .61 to .87. Balboni
et al. (2014) reported on the DABS sensitivity and specificity. The DABS sensitivity (correctly
identifying someone who has intellectual disability) ranged from 81% to 98% and specificity
(correctly identifying someone who does not have intellectual disability) ranged from 89% to 91%,
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale, 3
rd Edition
The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale, 3rd Edition (Vineland-3; Sparrow, Cicchetti, &
Saulnier, 2016) is the oldest and probably best known comprehensive standardized adaptive
behavior scale. The Vineland-3 has its roots in the Vineland Social Maturity Scale (VSMS; Doll,
1936) and has gone through several revisions since its first edition. The Vineland-3 measures
adaptive behavior in individuals from 0 through 90 years old and consists of three forms: (1)
Interview Form (0 through age 90), (2) Parent/Caregiver Form (0 through age 90), and (3) Teacher
Form (3 to 21 years old). All three forms have two versions, depending on the purpose of the
evaluation, including the Domain-level Form and a longer version called the Comprehensive Form.
The Comprehensive Form is used for the purpose of providing more detailed skill information
needed for intervention planning and evaluation. It yields standard scores (mean = 100 and
standard deviation = 15) for: (a) Composite Score and (b) three domain scores (Daily Living Skills,
Communication, Socialization). It also provides standard scores on a scale of mean = 10 and
Adaptive Behavior 19
standard deviation =3 for nine subdomain scores: personal, domestic, community, receptive
communication, expressive communication, written communication, interpersonal relationships,
play and leisure time, and coping skills. The Domain-level Form is shorter and provides standard
scores (mean = 100 and standard deviation = 15) across the three VABS-3 domains: Daily Living
Skills, Communication, and Socialization (as well as the optional domain of Motor Skills) and is
most useful for the purpose of making diagnostic determinations.
The Vineland-3 can be administered via a semi-structured interview using the Interview
Form or be given directly to the parent or caregiver who complete the instrument directly on their
own (i.e., Parent/Caregiver Form). These different forms consist of approximately comparable
number of items but have slightly different item stem wordings. The Comprehensive Form consists
of 502 items and Domain-Level Form consists of 195 items on the interview form and 180 items on
the parent/caregiver form. The Teacher Form is not usually used in isolation, but is instead often
used in conjunction with the Interview Form or the Parent/Caregiver Form. The Teacher Form:
Comprehensive Form consists of 333 items and Teacher Form: Domain-level Form consists of 149
items. Below is a brief description of the different Vineland-3 forms:
o Interview Form (0 to 90 years old): The Interview Form is administered via a semi-
structured interview between a professional and the respondent (parent or caregiver). The
Vineland-3 uses an interview procedure that encourages the interviewer to engage in a
conversation with the respondent about the assessed person’s adaptive behavior and
encourages the interviewer to avoid directly eliciting ratings from the respondent on the
individual item stems but rather instructs the interviewer complete the item ratings at the
end of the interview with the respondent. The Interview Form has two versions:
Comprehensive Form (502 items) or Domain-level Form (195 items). According to the
Vineland-3 User’s Manual, the time of administration is 25 minutes for the Domain-level
Adaptive Behavior 20
Form (195 items) and 40 minutes for the Comprehensive Form (502 items).
o Parent/Caregiver Form (0 to 90 years old): This form is completed directly by the parent or
caregiver much like a rating scale. The respondent rates the assessed person’s performance
on each of the adaptive skill items. The Parent/Caregiver Form has two versions:
Comprehensive Form (502 items; identical items that are included on the Interview Form) or
Domain-level Form (180 items). The Vineland-3 User’s Manual list the time of
administration for the Domain-level Form at 15 minutes and the Comprehensive Form at 40
minutes.
o Teacher Form (3 to 21 years old): Similar to the Parent/Caregiver Form, the Teacher Form
is completed directly by the teacher, teacher’s aide, or a daycare staff member who assesses
the student’s observed performance on each of the adaptive skill items. The Teacher Form
also consists of two forms: (1) Comprehensive Form (333 items) and (2) Domain-level Form
(149 items). The Vineland-3 User’s Manual reports the administration time for the Teacher
Form: Domain-Level version (149 items) at approximately is 10 minutes and the Teacher
Form: Comprehensive version (333 items) necessitating approximately 25 minutes to
complete.
The Vineland-3 domains are slightly different from the other comprehensive standardized
scales (e.g., ABAS-3, ABDS, and DABS) and not consistent with the recommended domains in the
AAIDD (Schalock et al., 2010) and DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
The Vineland-3 provides its items and standard scores (mean = 100 and standard deviation
= 15) aggregated across the following four domains: Daily Living Skills, Communication,
Socialization, and Motor Skills (optional domain for children under 6 years old). These Vineland-3
domain names are the same domain names used in original Vineland scale and the authors have
Adaptive Behavior 21
chosen to maintain these domain names despite their lack of alignment with the current tripartite
model of adaptive behavior (conceptual, social, and practical) used by the existing diagnostic systems
(e.g., AAIDD, DSM-5).
The Vineland-3 has robust and representative norms of the general population. It has good
to excellent psychometric properties, including internal consistency, score stability as measured by
test-retest reliability, and inter-respondent concordance (Pepperdine & McCrimmon, 2017). Sparrow
et al. (2016) reported excellent internal consistency coefficients across all domains, with Cronbach
alphas ranging from .90 to .98. The test-retest reliability of the Vineland-3 scores ranged from r =
.80 to .92 for the adaptive behavior composite standard score. Inter-respondent concordance was
reported at r = .79 for the adaptive behavior composite and ranging from .70 to .81 for the different
domains.
Other Means and Measures
An important source of information about a person’s skills and functional abilities can be
obtained from direct observations of the person or via semi-structured clinical interviews with
people who have lived with, worked with, or had the opportunity to observe the person on a regular
basis and seen how they function at home, school, work, and/or play. These semi-structured
interviews do not need to be based on a standardized measure and can consist of tailored questions
that focus on the skill areas of interest or at the center of an intervention (e.g., self-care, cooking,
home living skills, money concepts, work skills, social skills, etc.).
There exists also a number of school, medical, or other personal records that might provide
valuable information, either as a primary source or as a supplemental or use to corroborate adaptive
behavior or functional skills information obtained through other means. These records include:
social and family history, medical records, school performance, IEPs, educational, psychological, or
neuropsychological evaluations, work records, social security administration evaluations, etc.
Adaptive Behavior 22
There are a number of other comprehensive standardized measures that are more focused
on specific adaptive skills or functional skills that can provide useful information about a person’s
skill levels. These can also serve well to inform on specific skill or domain areas. Below are a couple
of good examples of such instruments.
Social Skills Improvement System – Rating Scales
The Social Skills Improvement System - Rating Scales (SSIS; Gresham & Elliott, 2008) is a revision
of the popular Social Skills Rating System (SSRS; Gresham & Elliott, 1990). The SSIS is a suite of
rating scales that are used to measure the social skills as well as problem behaviors of children and
adolescents between the ages of 3 and 18 years old. The SSIS is particularly focused on social skills
and problem behavior that the authors have identified as especially relevant for school success (Doll
& Jones, 2010).
The SSIS can be completed directly by student on a self-report form or completed by a
third-party respondent (e.g., parent form or teacher form). Students, parents and teachers provide
an individual rating of the frequency and perceived importance of each social skill item. The student
self-report form consists of 46 items, whereas, the parent/teacher forms consist of 46 social skill
items and an additional 33 items identifying problem behaviors for the parent to rate or 30
additional items identifying problem behaviors for the teacher to rate. The administration time of
the SSIS ranges from 10 to 25 minutes.
The SSIS can be scored by hand or using a computerized scoring system. The scoring of the
SSIS yields standard scores (mean = 100, standard deviation = 15) and a criterion-based evaluation
(well-above average, above average, average, below average, well below average) across: social skills,
problem behaviors, and academic competence (teacher ratings only). Perhaps the most practical
Adaptive Behavior 23
information comes in the form of a series of suggested actions and interventions objectives derived
from the results from the SSIS ratings.
In terms of psychometric properties for the SSIS, they are good (Crosby, 2011). The social
skills assessment across all three forms provides practical and psychometrically sound information
(Doll & Jones, 2010) and a useful screening tool to aide teachers in planning interventions targeting
social skills (e.g., the accompanying intervention guide; Crosby, 2011; Lee-Farmer & Meikamp,
2010).
Texas Functional Living Scale
The Texas Functional Living Scale (TFLS; Cullum, Weiner, & Saine, 2009) is a brief
performance-based individually administered screening measure that assesses independent living
skills in the areas of: time, money concepts and calculations, communication, and memory. The
focus of the TFLS items is on the abilities that might be most impacted by age-related cognitive
decline. Although initially developed to assess functional living skills in older adults with dementia,
the FTLS was normed on a larger sample of the general population aged from 16 to 90 years old in
the hopes of expanding its utility to include individuals across the lifespan with other disabilities
(e.g., intellectual disability, traumatic brain injury, and schizophrenia; Lindsay-Glenn, 2010).
The TFLS consists of 24 items that are administered directly to the assessed person and
requires either a verbal or written response. The total administration time requires less than 15
minutes. The TFLS yields t-scores (mean = 50, standard deviation = 10) which are typically more
complicated for most practitioners to use and understand than the more traditional normative scores
with a mean = 100 and a standard deviation = 15. The TFLS has shown some utility in identifying
intervention goals as well as measuring treatment outcomes and effectiveness in the defined
independent living skill areas that it assesses.
Adaptive Behavior 24
The psychometric properties of the TFLS are adequate for a screening instrument (Strang,
2010; Lindsay-Glenn, 2010). The internal consistency reliability ranges from .65 to .81 and
reportedly good test score stability. Its validity evidence was measured using a comparison between
the TFLS and the ABAS, 2nd Edition. These correlation coefficients assessing its concurrent validity
were in the range of .41 to .80. Overall, the range of skills assessed is limited but the TFLS has
shown to be a useful screening tool that can inform on performance across the limited number of
functional skills its measures: time, money and calculations, communication and memory (Lindsay-
Glenn, 2010).
Teaching Adaptive Behavior
A person’s level of adaptive behavior is an indicator of how well an individual typically
functions in everyday life, which is also highly predictive of positive life outcomes and has important
implications for intervention (Farley et al., 2009; Kanne, Gerber, Quirmbach, Sparrow, Cicchetti, &
Saulnier, 2011). Teaching and promoting the acquisition of adaptive behavior should be an essential
goal of any intervention. Gresham and colleagues have described the importance of social skills as
academic enablers and problem behaviors as academic disablers (Gresham, 2015; Gresham &
Elliott, 2008). The outcome of increasing a person’s adaptive behavior will often lead to greater
independence, personal autonomy, likelihood of being in an inclusive setting, self-direction, overall
quality of life as well as a reduced perception among laypeople that the person has a disability. The
DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) embraced using the person’s level of adaptive
functioning as the determinant of severity of intellectual disability, because adaptive behavior is a
better indicator of the person’s overall functioning and intensity of needed supports. With the
proper level of instruction and supports, people with intellectual disability can learn new adaptive
Adaptive Behavior 25
skills throughout their life and as a result, their overall functioning will generally improve (Schalock
et al., 2010).
Henry Leland, a pioneer in the field of intellectual disability, once said that it was a person’s
adaptive behavior deficits that made others in their community take notice of them and identify
them as a person with a disability. Once exited from school, one’s intellectual functioning plays a
lesser role than their adaptive functioning in predicting successful life outcomes. A good illustration
of this is what was once called the “6-hour retarded student.” These were students who, when in
school, were identified as having an intellectual disability and received special education services but
when out of school, they were seen by others in their neighborhood as a regular kid largely because
of their adaptive behavior (President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, 1970).
A fundamental assumption is that with proper instruction and supports, people with
intellectual disability can and will learn new adaptive skills throughout their lifetime and their
functioning will improve (Schalock et al., 2010).
Summary and Conclusions
Adaptive behavior is a separate and independent construct of intellectual functioning and
equally essential in making the determination of intellectual disability. Adaptive behavior is a
complex construct that includes skills in domains such as conceptual, social, and practice skills. It is
an important aspect of human functioning that deficits in adaptive behavior are a core feature of
number of conditions. There are a number of robust and reliable assessment instruments available
to assist clinicians in determining intervention goals geared at increasing adaptive skills. The
presence of adaptive behavior has been shown to be associated with fewer challenging behaviors,
enhanced opportunities across settings and throughout the lifespan as well as being related to
improved overall quality of life. With person-centered interventions and supports, a person will
Adaptive Behavior 26
learn and improve their adaptive skills and ability to meet the expectations and demands. Teaching
and promoting the acquisition of adaptive behavior should be an essential goal of any intervention.
It is important to remember that anyone can learn new adaptive behaviors and functional living
skills, no matter their ability/disability level and these new skills, if selected appropriately, can
contribute to improved functioning, enhanced independence and overall quality of life.
Adaptive Behavior 27
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