Article

Examining the Role of Physical Activity on Word Learning in School-Aged Children

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Purpose Previous studies show that there is increased brain activity after exercise, leading to improved word recall in adults. The aim of this study was to examine whether different types of exercise (i.e., aerobic vs. anaerobic) may also lead to improved performance during vocabulary learning in children. Method A total of 48 participants (24 in Experiment 1 and 24 in Experiment 2) between the ages of 6 and 12 years completed a word learning task. Training of words took place in a resting and in an exercise condition using a within-subject design. In the resting measure, children were taught names of novel objects and then colored for 3 min before being tested on their ability to recognize the words. In the exercise condition, the same steps were followed, but instead of coloring, children engaged in 3 min of either aerobic exercise (i.e., swimming in Experiment 1) or anaerobic exercise (i.e., a CrossFit-like workout in Experiment 2). Results In Experiment 1, accuracy of word recognition was significantly higher for words that were trained in the aerobic exercise compared to the resting condition. In Experiment 2, there was no significant difference in performance between the anaerobic exercise and resting conditions. Conclusions These findings suggest that previously identified benefits of exercise on language abilities in adults also extend to school-aged children. However, not all types of physical activity lead to this boost in performance, as only aerobic (but not anaerobic) exercise improved children's ability to acquire new word–object relations. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.14462187

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... En la iniciación y formación deportiva las manifestaciones de velocidad toman gran importancia dentro de la ponderación de las cargas, ya que esta tiene un vínculo estrecho con el desarrollo de los centros nerviosos motores. Se sabe que dicho proceso es más activo durante la transición de la edad infantil a la adolescencia, donde el desarrollo de los gestos técnicos cíclicos se aprende con mayor rapidez (Zhelyazkov, 2001;Martin, et al, 2004). ...
... Dentro de los procesos del entrenamiento de la natación, el control de las variables aceleración y velocidad, son de gran importancia, puesto que esta disciplina deportiva tiene como objetivo cubrir una distancia de prueba en el menor tiempo posible (Morales & Calvo, 2012), por lo tanto, en lo que respecta a las pruebas de velocidad que se proponen en este estudio se designan como velocidad de aceleración y velocidad de locomoción o desplazamiento (Martin, et al, 2004;Forteza & Ramirez, 2007). Al igual que en otras disciplinas cíclicas, el contar con un parámetro que permita el control de esta variable y que al mismo tiempo este ajustado a las características específicas del desarrollo motor de los infantes, hace de los test y pruebas herramientas oportunas para el seguimiento y evolución de los deportistas (Alacid et al, 2010). ...
... A partir de lo anterior, la resistencia o potencia aeróbica en un niño o niña, no solo es relevante en el caso del deporte y en específico de la natación, por su incidencia positiva en aprendizaje de la técnica o en la disminución del tiempo de aparición de la fatiga, sino también, que es un factor importante en desarrollar mejores condiciones de salud cardiovascular y de disfrute de las diferentes actividades y formas jugadas que se pueden desarrollar en el agua, lo que a su vez se convierte en un gran medio para el desarrollo de valores de orden deportivo, personal y social (Hernández, et al, 2015;Sánchez, et al, 2020;Pruitt & Morini, 2021), por lo tanto, un positivo control y diseño de la carga de entrenamiento favorece la mejora de la capacidad de la resistencia en los niños (Carazo & Moncada, 2015), al igual que una mejora de la técnica de nado. De esta manera el entrenamiento de la capacidad aeróbica debe introducirse de manera controlada en la formación del nadador, ya que es fundamental en sus primeras etapas de entrenamiento (Fernandes, et al, 2010); de acuerdo a lo anterior, para el caso de los procesos de medición y valoración de las capacidades físicas de velocidad y resistencia en niños y niñas en el medio acuático se hace indispensable la construcción de pruebas que den cuenta de ello, y no solo para atender a la lógica interna de la disciplina deportiva, sino también a los requerimientos y necesidades de la población en edad escolar, fue por esto que este estudio se propuso el siguiente objetivo: Diseñar y validar una batería para la valoración de la potencia aeróbica y la velocidad en natación en niños de 9 y 10 años. ...
Article
Full-text available
Retos, número 44, 2022 (2º trimestre)-1.001-Diseño y validación de tres pruebas de potencia aeróbica y velocidad en niños nadadores Design and validation of three tests of aerobic power and speed in swimming children Resumen. El presente artículo tuvo como finalidad el diseño y validación de tres test de campo que permiten valorar la potencia aeróbica y la velocidad en niños nadadores de 9 y 10 años, se realizó un muestreo probabilístico, aleatorio estratificado, con una muestra final de 77 deportistas. Para el proceso validación se tomaron como Gold Standar los test de: potencia aeróbica de 1000 metros y Test de velocidad de 50 y 20 metros (Jauregui y Ordoñez, 1993), frente a los test propuestos: 300 metros en estilo libre con vuelta abierta, salida desde clavado piso, y velocidad 25 metros libre con salida clavado y 10 metros lanzados. Para establecer la Confiabilidad intra, se realizó el procedimiento test re test (TRT). Resultados: Se aplicó la prueba de Shapiro-Wilk para la determinación de normalidad, en las correlaciones (ICC) inter instrumentos en las pruebas de velocidad los valores fueron aceptables (0,569) y muy buenos (0,904), en la prueba de potencia aeróbica fueron buenos (0,725-0,818); en las comparaciones intra instrumentos (ICC) en la velocidad los valores fluctuaron entre aceptables (0,618) y muy buenos (0,982), en la potencia aeróbica fue en general bueno (0,725-0,818). Finalmente, se propone una escala percentilar que permite valoras las capacidades abordadas. Palabras clave: validación, capacidades físicas, potencia aeróbica, velocidad, natación. Abstract: The purpose of this article was to design and validate three field tests, of aerobic power and speed in 9 and 10-year-old swimmers, a probabilistic, stratified random sampling was performed with a final sample of 77 athletes. For the validation process, the tests of: aerobic power of 1000 meters and speed test of 50 and 20 meters (Jauregui and Ordoñez, 1993) were taken as Gold Standard, compared to the proposed tests: 300 meters in freestyle with open lap, exit from nailed floor, and Speed 25 meters free with nailed exit and 10 meters thrown, To establish intra-reliability, the test re test (TRT) procedure was performed. Results: The Shapiro-Wilk test was applied for the determination of normality, in the inter-instrument correlations (ICC) in the speed tests the values were acceptable (0.569) and very good (0.904), in the aerobic power test they were good (0.725-0.818); in intra-instrument comparisons (ICC) in speed the values fluctuated between acceptable (0.618) and very good (0.982), in aerobic power it was generally good (0.725-0.818). Finally, a percentile scale is proposed that allows you to assess the capabilities addressed. Introducción La planificación del entrenamiento con niños y ni-ñas implica organizar las secciones de trabajo teniendo en cuenta el tipo de intervención a realizar, los objeti-vos de la misma y el desarrollo de sus capacidades y habilidades, además de otros componentes como los psicológicos y cognoscitivos, a partir de lo cual será posible afianzar las competencias construidas e iniciar el proceso de construcción de otras más complejas de acuerdo con las características evolutivas de los infan-tes y con las exigencias de la práctica, teniendo presen-te un principio de moderación y adecuación de las ta-Fecha recepción: 21-02-21. Fecha de aceptación: 01-02-22 Enoc Valentín González Palacio enoc.gonzalez@udea.edu.co reas. La búsqueda constante para alcanzar logros signifi-cativos (González et al, 2005), ya sean deportivos o formativos, hace que el entrenamiento deportivo sea pensado y repensado desde cada una de las variantes posibles de mejora o de desarrollo, por lo tanto, algu-nas disciplinas deportivas como es el caso de la natación carreras deben iniciar con sus procesos de entrenamiento desde edades tempranas. Debido a este tipo de consi-deraciones es necesario identificar con detalle cuales son los mejores mecanismos que permitan controlar las cargas de entrenamiento, en especial en edades in-fantiles y aminorar el riesgo de provocar lesiones deri-vadas de inadecuados procesos de planificación (Fröhner, 2003; Ferreira, et al, 2021). Los técnicos y entrenado-res de este deporte se han encontrado a lo largo del tiempo con varias dificultades respecto al uso de herra
... This work focuses on examining cognitive benefits that relate to learning in the language domain, with the primary aim of understanding the role that physical activity plays on the acquisition of words during early childhood. Recent work from our laboratory has indicated that engaging in certain forms or physical activity immediately after training (in a word-learning task) can boost vocabulary learning in school-age children (Pruitt & Morini, 2021). Here, we aim to extend this work to preschoolers. ...
... For years, it has been well known that habitual exercise has various health benefits, and these benefits have extended to individuals from different age groups, genders, races, and physical abilities (Dugmore et al., 1999;Saxena et al., 2005;Warburton et al., 2006). Additionally, there is substantial evidence suggesting that physical activity can lead to positive changes in skills across various cognitive domains, including executive functioning skills, memory, free recall, language learning, and attention (Davis et al., 2011;Miles & Hardman, 1998;Pesce et al., 2009;Pruitt & Morini, 2021;Schmidt-Kassow et al., 2013;Stroth et al., 2009;Tomporowski, 2003;Tomporowski et al., 2008;van Praag et al., 2005). ...
... Many questions remain regarding the role that physical activity can play within the language domain and, specifically, whether exercise can lead to improvements in vocabulary learning during childhood. To our knowledge, there are only two studies that have explored this topic (Pruitt & Morini 2021;Toumpaniari et al., 2015). Pruitt and Morini (2021) examined the role of exercise on word learning in children ages 6-12 years old, and they compared whether engaging in aerobic versus anaerobic exercise would lead to different outcomes. ...
Article
Purpose: There is evidence suggesting that aerobic exercise immediately after vocabulary training can improve word recall in school-age children. This work examined whether the previously identified word-learning benefits associated with exercise can be extended to preschoolers. Additionally, we evaluated whether the effects of physical activity on vocabulary learning may be influenced by existing language skills that the child possesses. Method: Children ages 3-6 years completed the study (N = 42). Data were collected via a virtual testing session in which participants completed a word-learning task that included two experimental conditions (exercise and resting). In the resting measure, children were taught names of novel objects and then sat down and colored for 3 min before being tested on their ability to identify the trained words. The exercise condition was identical, except that participants engaged in 3 min of guided aerobic exercise before testing. Additionally, at the end of the visit, participants completed the Quick Interactive Language Screener (QUILS), which measured general language skills. Results: Accuracy of word recognition was significantly higher after the exercise condition compared to the resting condition. Furthermore, this pattern of results was not related to children's existing language skills, as measured by the QUILS. Conclusions: This study is one of the first to closely examine the relation between physical activity and word-learning abilities in children as young as 3-6 years of age. Results align with previous findings stating that aerobic exercise can boost vocabulary learning and suggest that this is the case regardless of existing language skills.
... En la iniciación y formación deportiva las manifestaciones de velocidad toman gran importancia dentro de la ponderación de las cargas, ya que esta tiene un vínculo estrecho con el desarrollo de los centros nerviosos motores. Se sabe que dicho proceso es más activo durante la transición de la edad infantil a la adolescencia, donde el desarrollo de los gestos técnicos cíclicos se aprende con mayor rapidez (Zhelyazkov, 2001;Martin, et al, 2004). ...
... Dentro de los procesos del entrenamiento de la natación, el control de las variables aceleración y velocidad, son de gran importancia, puesto que esta disciplina deportiva tiene como objetivo cubrir una distancia de prueba en el menor tiempo posible (Morales & Calvo, 2012), por lo tanto, en lo que respecta a las pruebas de velocidad que se proponen en este estudio se designan como velocidad de aceleración y velocidad de locomoción o desplazamiento (Martin, et al, 2004;Forteza & Ramirez, 2007). Al igual que en otras disciplinas cíclicas, el contar con un parámetro que permita el control de esta variable y que al mismo tiempo este ajustado a las características específicas del desarrollo motor de los infantes, hace de los test y pruebas herramientas oportunas para el seguimiento y evolución de los deportistas (Alacid et al, 2010). ...
... A partir de lo anterior, la resistencia o potencia aeróbica en un niño o niña, no solo es relevante en el caso del deporte y en específico de la natación, por su incidencia positiva en aprendizaje de la técnica o en la disminución del tiempo de aparición de la fatiga, sino también, que es un factor importante en desarrollar mejores condiciones de salud cardiovascular y de disfrute de las diferentes actividades y formas jugadas que se pueden desarrollar en el agua, lo que a su vez se convierte en un gran medio para el desarrollo de valores de orden deportivo, personal y social (Hernández, et al, 2015;Sánchez, et al, 2020;Pruitt & Morini, 2021), por lo tanto, un positivo control y diseño de la carga de entrenamiento favorece la mejora de la capacidad de la resistencia en los niños (Carazo & Moncada, 2015), al igual que una mejora de la técnica de nado. De esta manera el entrenamiento de la capacidad aeróbica debe introducirse de manera controlada en la formación del nadador, ya que es fundamental en sus primeras etapas de entrenamiento (Fernandes, et al, 2010); de acuerdo a lo anterior, para el caso de los procesos de medición y valoración de las capacidades físicas de velocidad y resistencia en niños y niñas en el medio acuático se hace indispensable la construcción de pruebas que den cuenta de ello, y no solo para atender a la lógica interna de la disciplina deportiva, sino también a los requerimientos y necesidades de la población en edad escolar, fue por esto que este estudio se propuso el siguiente objetivo: Diseñar y validar una batería para la valoración de la potencia aeróbica y la velocidad en natación en niños de 9 y 10 años. ...
Article
Full-text available
El presente artículo tuvo como finalidad el diseño y validación de tres test de campo que permiten valorar la potencia aeróbica y la velocidad en niños nadadores de 9 y 10 años, se realizó un muestreo probabilístico, aleatorio estratificado, con una muestra final de 77 deportistas. Para el proceso validación se tomaron como Gold Standar los test de: potencia aeróbica de 1000 metros y Test de velocidad de 50 y 20 metros (Jauregui y Ordoñez, 1993), frente a los test propuestos: 300 metros en estilo libre con vuelta abierta, salida desde clavado piso, y Velocidad 25 metros libre con salida clavado y 10 metros lanzados; para establecer la Confiabilidad intra, se realizó el procedimiento test re test (TRT). Resultados: Se aplicó la prueba de Shapiro – Wilk para la determinación de normalidad, en las correlaciones (ICC) inter instrumentos en las pruebas de velocidad los valores fueron aceptables (0,569) y muy buenos (0,904), en la prueba de potencia aeróbica fueron buenos (0,725 – 0,818); en las comparaciones intra instrumentos (ICC) en la velocidad los valores fluctuaron entre aceptables (0,618) y muy buenos (0,982), en la potencia aeróbica fue en general bueno (0,725 – 0,818). Finalmente se propone una escala percentilar que permite valoras las capacidades abordadas. Abstract: The purpose of this article was to design and validate three field tests, of aerobic power and speed in 9 and 10-year-old swimmers, a probabilistic, stratified random sampling was performed with a final sample of 77 athletes. For the validation process, the tests of: aerobic power of 1000 meters and speed test of 50 and 20 meters (Jauregui and Ordoñez, 1993) were taken as Gold Standard, compared to the proposed tests: 300 meters in freestyle with open lap, exit from nailed floor, and Speed 25 meters free with nailed exit and 10 meters thrown; To establish intra-reliability, the test re test (TRT) procedure was performed. Results: The Shapiro - Wilk test was applied for the determination of normality, in the inter-instrument correlations (ICC) in the speed tests the values were acceptable (0.569) and very good (0.904), in the aerobic power test they were good (0.725 - 0.818); in intra-instrument comparisons (ICC) in speed the values fluctuated between acceptable (0.618) and very good (0.982), in aerobic power it was generally good (0.725 - 0.818). Finally, a percentile scale is proposed that allows you to assess the capabilities addressed.
... Cette revue a mis en évidence les aspects du DGE influencés par la pratique d'AP, tout en identifiant les modalités d'intervention pertinentes pour cette population. Plus précisément, notre analyse s'est penchée sur les bénéfices de l'AP chez ces enfants, en examinant deux modalités : la pratique ponctuelle (une seule séance) et prolongée (plusieurs séances) d'AP.En nous basant sur les conséquences du TDAH sur le DGE(Faraone et al., 2015;Hoogman et al., 2019;Kaiser et al., 2015;Maoz et al., 2019;Ouellet, 2010;Ros et Graziano, 2018;Verret et al., 2016) et sur les avantages bien établis de l'AP chez les enfants (OMS,Abdessemed et al., 2021;Cohen et al., 2015;Dapp et al., 2021;Pruitt et Morini, 2021;, nous anticipions des bénéfices sur tous les domaines du DGE, à savoir le développement cognitif, physique/moteur, social, affectif et langagier. Les résultats de cette revue systématique ont confirmé nos hypothèses. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
Cette thèse aborde deux enjeux susceptibles d’entraver le développement global des enfants d’âge scolaire : le manque d’activité physique et la présence d’un trouble déficitaire de l’attention avec ou sans hyperactivité (TDAH). Ces problématiques sont majeures en raison de leur forte prévalence et de leur influence négative sur la trajectoire du développement cognitif, physique et moteur, affectif, social et langagier des enfants, augmentant ainsi leur risque de présenter des vulnérabilités dans un ou plusieurs de ces domaines. Face à ces défis, l’intégration de l’activité physique en milieu scolaire, et plus spécifiquement l’apprentissage physiquement actif en classe, est une approche prometteuse. Cependant, peu d’études ont documenté les effets de cette approche sur le développement global de l’enfant. De plus, il existe peu de ressources pour les enseignantes et les enseignants leur permettant d’intégrer facilement cette approche en classe, notamment dans les milieux francophones. Cette thèse vise donc à concevoir un outil d’apprentissage physiquement actif adapté au contexte scolaire, en collaboration avec des enseignantes et enseignants, et à évaluer son efficacité sur le développement global des enfants avec ou sans TDAH. Le premier article de la thèse est une revue systématique de la littérature qui récence les bénéfices de l’activité physique sur le développement global des enfants ayant un TDAH. Il démontre une influence positive sur les cinq domaines du développement global de l’enfant, avec un effet marqué sur le développement des fonctions cognitives et de la motricité, en plus d’atténuer les symptômes d’inattention et d’hyperactivité. Le deuxième article décrit et analyse le processus de cocréation de l’outil d’apprentissage physiquement actif et de sa mise en place dans quatre classes de 4e année (N = 7 enseignants et 82 élèves). Les résultats soulignent le potentiel de l’outil d’apprentissage physiquement actif et l’importance des enseignantes et des enseignants dans le processus de co-construction. Le troisième article se concentre sur l’évaluation de l’efficacité de l’outil d’apprentissage physiquement actif, en analysant l’influence du niveau d’activité physique et d’un diagnostic de TDAH sur l’efficacité de l’outil. En somme, la thèse met en lumière l’importance de l’activité physique pour le développement global des enfants, en particulier ceux atteints de TDAH, et propose une solution concrète pour intégrer l’activité physique dans le milieu scolaire à travers l’apprentissage physiquement actif.
... It is well-documented that language learning can be a source of anxiety for English language students, and consequently, the anxiety related to a mixture of working through language barriers, learning English and acquiring swimming and water safety skills, may have been cause for concern (Ay et al., 2018;Fakhruddin et al., 2022). However, findings from Pruitt and Morini (2021) reported positive links between swimming and vocabulary attainment for primary school-aged children, and when applied to the context of this study, may have been beneficial in teaching English alongside swimming skills. Furthermore, Jorgensen (2013) found that participants aged ≥5 who partook in swimming lessons achieved cognitive developmental milestones earlier than their non-swimmer counterparts. ...
Article
Full-text available
In Victoria, Australia, culturally and linguistically diverse communities are more than twice as likely to drown than their Australian-born counterparts. One explanation is the lack of feasible, community-led approaches to water safety and swimming education. A community engagement framework was used to develop and implement a 5-day pool program to teach swimming and water safety to newly arrived migrant children attending an English language school in Victoria. Socio-cultural needs of the predominantly Afghan cohort were incorporated through in-language consultation with parents who requested males and females be educated separately. Participants were assessed against Victorian aquatic competency benchmark standards at pre- and post-program, however, there was no expectation to achieve these competencies within the 5 days due to a lack of prior aquatic exposure. Independent and paired samples t-tests determined changes in skills, including by sex and number of lessons attended. Forty-one participants completed all assessments. Excluding lifesaving skills, there was a significant increase in total competency attainment overall from pre- to post-program (p < 0.001), and for each competency (p’s ≤ 0.002)—predominantly knowledge and rescue skills. Improvements were mostly recorded among males, demonstrating that females may require more specialized support to achieve similar outcomes. Improvements in rescue skills and knowledge indicate the program’s effectiveness in increasing newly arrived migrant children’s awareness of, and exposure to, foundations of safe aquatic behaviours. Future programs tailored to newly arrived migrant communities should consider implementing water familiarization activities as a stepping stone to engagement with structured swimming and water safety education.
... In 2021, Giovanna Morini, who holds a PhD in Hearing & Speech Sciences, worked with a team of researchers at the University of Delaware to see if exercise would enhance word recall in children like it did adults. The trials concluded that those who did predetermined aerobic exercises were found to have better word recognition than those who did anaerobic activity and those who did not do any exercise (Pruitt et al., 2021). This establishes the fact that aerobic exercise does not only improve recognition of phrases/facts in children, but accomplishes it better than other types of activities. ...
Article
Full-text available
The benefits of aerobic exercise in enhancing memory are well known. However, dance in particular has the possibility of new or even stronger memory benefits due to its combination of physical and mental stimulation. The current data available on dance only assesses middle aged or elder populations, as science is continually looking for ways to combat diseases such as dementia. However, there are many potential benefits to memory enhancement beginning at a young age as well. Therefore, dancers ages 9-17 were used in this study to determine the effect dance has on auditory and sensory memory in dancers. A quantitative experiment using a test called the N-back was run prior to and following an hour long dance class. My hypothesis was that both auditory and visual memory would be enhanced by dance. Ultimately, this was proven partially correct and partially incorrect. While both auditory and sensory memory ended up being enhanced by dance, auditory memory was enhanced more than visual memory. A statistical analysis on both tests determined that the enhancement from the visual group was too small and likely due to chance, while the enhancement observed in the auditory group was large enough to conclude that in the presence of minimal confounding variables, the dance class must have generated this enhancement. This data adds to the current body of knowledge present on exercise’s effect on memory. Most importantly, it can be incorporated into educational settings as a way to help students maximize their learning potential.
... For example, based on recommendations from the American Academy of Pediatrics, school districts across the country have delayed start times to better match students' circadian rhythms, with initial success in boosting academic achievement (Dunster et al., 2018). Early work has also identified the benefits of exercise for learning words in school-aged children and could be extended to explore how exercise supports long-term word retention (Pruitt & Morini, 2021). Thus, understanding word learning after pediatric TBI and the potential interactions between lifestyle and behavioral interventions may underlie future therapies that improve learning and academic success for children whose development is disrupted by brain injury. ...
Article
Purpose The purpose of this viewpoint is to advocate for increased study of word learning abilities and word learning interventions in traumatic brain injury (TBI). Method We describe the word learning process and the unique opportunities afforded by studying each component and stage. Building on discussions at the 2022 International Cognitive-Communication Disorders Conference, we describe how word learning may underlie a variety of functional outcomes after TBI, making it a promising target for rehabilitation. Finally, we discuss principles that may guide study in this critical area to advance outcomes after TBI for children and adults. Results Word learning is a dynamic and iterative process taking place over time and in multiple stages. Thus, studying word learning affords the opportunity to parse the relative contributions of multiple memory systems to different phases and components of the process. However, single–timepoint designs are insufficient to capture the full word learning process, which occurs over time and across contexts. Word learning also presents an opportunity to assess the contributions of behavioral and lifestyle factors (e.g., sleep and exercise) to different memory phases. Understanding these interactions could drive clinical interventions aimed at improving memory through manipulable external behaviors. Conclusions Word learning is key to success in functional spheres across the life span. The importance of words to daily life remains after TBI, even as the memory systems that support word learning are disrupted. The empirical study of word learning and rehabilitation of word learning deficits in TBI presents a promising new direction in understanding the breadth of neurogenic cognitive-communication disorders and an opportunity to explore a potential driver of functional outcome and impactful rehabilitation target.
... Further work is therefore needed to broaden our understanding of why sea-based outdoor activities such as swimming may bring cerebrovascular and cognitive benefits, particularly to children (Pruitt and Morini 2021) and elderly people (Vasegowda 2019). ...
Article
Non-motorized water sports requiring physical efforts such as swimming, scuba diving, kayaking, sailing and surfing are becoming increasingly popular in Mediterranean marine protected areas (MPAs). This research investigates the relationship between these types of water sports and practitioners’ psychological and mental health. It takes the MPAs of Cap de Creus and Gulf of Roses (north-western Mediterranean) as a case study and is underpinned by a literature review and in-depth interviews with specialized water sports instructors. Results provide evidence that doing non-motorized water sports in the sea has positive outcomes for practitioners’ physical and mental health. When done in well-preserved areas, these sports may be a viable tool for both wellness and health recovery, and could be introduced in the community as a preventative and rehabilitation health strategy. This should be accompanied by strategies to address the ecological impacts these sports may have on MPAs.
Chapter
The monograph presents a part of the research work within the project "Active and Inclusive Teaching of Literacy and Communication Skills for Enhanced Employment and Sustainable Economic Growth (In-Comm Guide)," and underscores the significance of communication skills for both business success and personal development. These skills are deemed essential not only in academic achievements but also in the professional realm, with employers actively seeking them in prospective candidates. The monograph emerges as a product of the Erasmus+ initiative – the project was supported by the European Union and overseen by the Slovenian national agency CMEPIUS. Encompassing a consortium of institutions including the University of Maribor, University of Applied Sciences Zwickau, University of Pula, and University of Udine, the project aimed to develop communication skills curricula. This focus sought to bolster students' readiness for the job market while emphasizing non-verbal communication, sign languages, and linguistic proficiency, particularly in English. Within the monograph, the emphasis on innovative teaching methodologies, intercultural communication, and students' well-being converge. Moreover, attention is directed toward individuals with hearing impairments and the significance of non-verbal communication.
Article
Purpose: The purpose of this review was to evaluate the effects of physical activity on children's free recall, cued recall, and recognition episodic memory and to explore potential moderating factors. Methods: The following databases were searched: PubMed, ERIC, APA Psych Info, CINHAL, SPORTDiscus, and Google Scholar. Studies were included if: (1) participants were aged 4-18 years, (2) participants were typically developed, (3) participants were randomized to groups, (4) interventions employed gross movements, (5) sedentary group was used for control, (6) memory tests were quantitative, and (7) employed acute or chronic intervention. Results: 14 studies met inclusion criteria resulting in the analysis of data from 7 free recall, 7 cued recall, and 8 recognition memory tests. Physical activity was found to have a positive influence on tests free (g = 0.56), cued recall (g = 0.67), and no influence on tests of recognition (g = 0.06). While some moderator analyses were significant, the authors do not consider these results to be meaningful in application. Conclusions: The effects of acute and chronic physical activity enhance specific aspects of long-term episodic memory. These findings suggest physical activity interventions developed for children may be expected to benefit some, but not all, types of memory processing.
Article
Full-text available
The learning of new information is an important task in everyday life, especially at a young age. Acute physical exercise can facilitate cognitive processes in multiple ways, and previous studies have shown that memory can profit from physical exercise before and during the encoding of vocabulary. The current study investigates the interplay of movement and vocabulary learning and also addresses lifespan differences in these effects. Participants were recruited in a recreational basketball club. Children (n = 24, Mage = 12.3 years; 13 girls), young adults (n = 30, Mage = 21.5 years; 17 women), and older adults (n = 24, Mage = 59.3 years; 9 women) learned 20 new pseudo-words, which corresponded to a German word. In a between-subjects design, encoding took place either while standing, while running, or while running and dribbling a basketball. Recall was assessed three times throughout the learning session and on the following day. In children, more words could be remembered in the running condition compared to the standing condition. There were no differences between conditions for the young and older adults. Age-dependent reasons for this pattern of results are discussed and embedded into the literature of physical exercise. Our result suggests that implementing learning activities into children’s physical education or exercise activities could be beneficial.
Article
Full-text available
Background: Accumulating research demonstrates that the timing of exercise plays an important role in influencing episodic memory. However, we have a limited understanding as to the factors that moderate this temporal effect. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to evaluate the effects of study characteristics (e.g., exercise modality, intensity and duration of acute exercise) and participant attributes (e.g., age, sex) across each of the temporal periods of acute exercise on episodic memory (i.e., acute exercise occurring before memory encoding, and during memory encoding, early consolidation, and late consolidation). Methods: The following databases were used for our computerized searches: Embase/PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Sports Discus and PsychInfo. Studies were included if they: (1) Employed an experimental design with a comparison to a control group/visit, (2) included human participants, (3) evaluated exercise as the independent variable, (4), employed an acute bout of exercise (defined as a single bout of exercise), (5) evaluated episodic memory as the outcome variable (defined as the retrospective recall of information either in a spatial or temporal manner), and (6) provided sufficient data (e.g., mean, SD, and sample size) for a pooled effect size estimate. Results: In total, 25 articles met our inclusionary criteria and were meta-analyzed. Acute exercise occurring before memory encoding (d = 0.11, 95% CI: −0.01, 0.23, p = 0.08), during early memory consolidation (d = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.28, 0.67; p < 0.001) and during late memory consolidation (d = 1.05, 95% CI: 0.32, 1.78; p = 0.005) enhanced episodic memory function. Conversely, acute exercise occurring during memory encoding had a negative effect on episodic memory (d = −0.12, 95% CI: −0.22, −0.02; p = 0.02). Various study designs and participant characteristics moderated the temporal effects of acute exercise on episodic memory function. For example, vigorous-intensity acute exercise, and acute exercise among young adults, had greater effects when the acute bout of exercise occurred before memory encoding or during the early memory consolidation period. Conclusions: The timing of acute exercise plays an important role in the exercise-memory interaction. Various exercise- and participant-related characteristics moderate this temporal relationship.
Article
Full-text available
Background: Recent research has revealed a beneficial impact of chronic resistance exercise (RE) on brain function. However, it is unclear as to whether RE is also effective in an acute setting. Objective: To investigate the immediate effects of a single RE session on cognitive performance in healthy adults. Methods: A multilevel meta-analysis with random effects meta-regession model was used to pool the standardized mean differences (SMD) between RE and no-exercise (NEX) as well as between RE and aerobic exercise (AE). In addition to global cognitive function, effects on reported sub-domains (inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, attention) were examined. Results: Twelve trials with fair methodological quality (PEDro scale) were identified. Compared to NEX, RE had a positive effect on global cognition (SMD: 0.56, 95% CI: 0.22 to 0.90, p=0.004), but was not superior to AE (SMD: -0.10, 95% CI: 0.01 to -0.20, p=0.06). Regarding cognitive subdomains, RE, compared to NEX, improved inhibitory control (SMD: 0.73, 95% CI: 0.21 to 1.26, p=0.01) and cognitive flexibility (SMD: 0.36, 95% CI: 0.17 to 0.55, p=0.004). In contrast, working memory (SMD: 0.35, 95% CI: -0.05 to 0.75, p=0.07) and attention (SMD: 0.79, 95% CI: -0.42 to 2.00, p=0.16) remained unaffected. No significant differences in sub-domains were found between RE and AE (p>0.05). Conclusion: RE appears to be an appropriate method to immediately enhance cognitive function in healthy adults. Further studies clearly elucidating the impact of effect modifiers such as age, training intensity or training duration are warranted.
Article
Full-text available
Engaging in regular physical activity can have substantial cognitive and academic benefits for children, and is generally promoted for its beneficial effects on children’s physical and mental health. Although embodied cognition research has convincingly shown the integral relationship of the human body and mind, in schools physical activity and cognitive activity are typically treated as unrelated processes. Consequently, most physical activities used are neither sufficiently relevant for nor fully integrated into the learning tasks. In reviewing the literature regarding the integration of physical activity into education to promote cognition and learning, two main lines of research emerged: exercise and cognition research vs. embodied cognition research. In this narrative review, we describe these two separately evolved schools of thought, highlighting their differences and commonalities. In categorising the existing studies on a 2 × 2 matrix, concerning the two main categories of relevance for and integration into the learning task, it becomes clear where the different foci lie, and how both lines of research could profit from learning from each other. Finally, a new instructional model that integrates task-relevant physical activities into the cognitive/learning task is proposed to inform both further research and educational practice.
Article
Full-text available
Objective To summarise the current evidence on the effects of physical activity (PA) interventions on cognitive and academic performance in children, and formulate research priorities and recommendations. Design Systematic review (following PRISMA guidelines) with a methodological quality assessment and an international expert panel. We based the evaluation of the consistency of the scientific evidence on the findings reported in studies rated as of high methodological quality. Data sources PubMed, PsycINFO, Cochrane Central, Web of Science, ERIC, and SPORTDiscus. Eligibility criteria for selecting studies PA-intervention studies in children with at least one cognitive or academic performance assessment. Results Eleven (19%) of 58 included intervention studies received a high-quality rating for methodological quality: four assessed effects of PA interventions on cognitive performance, six assessed effects on academic performance, and one on both. All high-quality studies contrasted the effects of additional/adapted PA activities with regular curriculum activities. For cognitive performance 10 of 21 (48%) constructs analysed showed statistically significant beneficial intervention effects of PA, while for academic performance, 15 of 25 (60%) analyses found a significant beneficial effect of PA. Across all five studies assessing PA effects on mathematics, beneficial effects were reported in six out of seven (86%) outcomes. Experts put forward 46 research questions. The most pressing research priority cluster concerned the causality of the relationship between PA and cognitive/academic performance. The remaining clusters pertained to PA characteristics, moderators and mechanisms governing the ‘PA–performance’ relationship and miscellaneous topics. Conclusion There is currently inconclusive evidence for the beneficial effects of PA interventions on cognitive and overall academic performance in children. We conclude that there is strong evidence for beneficial effects of PA on maths performance. The expert panel confirmed that more ‘high-quality’ research is warranted. By prioritising the most important research questions and formulating recommendations we aim to guide researchers in generating high-quality evidence. Our recommendations focus on adequate control groups and sample size, the use of valid and reliable measurement instruments for physical activity and cognitive performance, measurement of compliance and data analysis. PROSPERO registration number CRD42017082505.
Article
Full-text available
Recent studies have shown that concurrent physical activity enhances learning a completely unfamiliar L2 vocabulary as compared to learning it in a static condition. In this paper we report a study whose aim is twofold: to test for possible positive effects of physical activity when L2 learning has already reached some level of proficiency, and to test whether the assumed better performance when engaged in physical activity is limited to the linguistic level probed at training (i.e. L2 vocabulary tested by means of a Word-Picture Verification task), or whether it extends also to the sentence level (which was tested by means of a Sentence Semantic Judgment Task). The results show that Chinese speakers with basic knowledge of English benefited from physical activity while learning a set of new words. Furthermore, their better performance emerged also at the sentential level, as shown by their performance in a Semantic Judgment task. Finally, an interesting temporal asymmetry between the lexical and the sentential level emerges, with the difference between the experimental and control group emerging from the 1st testing session at the lexical level but after several weeks at the sentential level.
Article
Full-text available
Physical exercise is one of the most effective methods to help prevent cardiovascular (CV) disease and to promote CV health. Aerobic and anaerobic exercises are two types of exercise that differ based on the intensity, interval and types of muscle fibers incorporated. In this article, we aim to further elaborate on these two categories of physical exercise and to help decipher which provides the most effective means of promoting CV health.
Article
Full-text available
In animals, physical activity has been shown to induce functional and structural changes especially in the hippocampus and to improve memory, probably by upregulating the release of neurotrophic factors. In humans, results on the effect of acute exercise on memory are inconsistent so far. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to assess the effects of a single bout of physical exercise on memory consolidation and the underlying neuroendocrinological mechanisms in young adults. Participants encoded a list of German-Polish vocabulary before exercising for 30 minutes with either high intensity or low intensity or before a relaxing phase. Retention of the vocabulary was assessed 20 minutes after the intervention as well as 24 hours later. Serum BDNF and salivary cortisol were measured at baseline, after learning, and after the intervention. The high-intensity exercise group showed an increase in BDNF and cortisol after exercising compared to baseline. Exercise after learning did not enhance the absolute number of recalled words. Participants of the high-intensity exercise group, however, forgot less vocabulary than the relaxing group 24 hours after learning. There was no robust relationship between memory scores and the increase in BDNF and cortisol, respectively, suggesting that further parameters have to be taken into account to explain the effects of exercise on memory in humans.
Article
Full-text available
The timing of exercise in relation to the information to be remembered is critical to maximize the effects of acute cardiovascular exercise on memory.
Article
Full-text available
Although poststroke aerobic exercise (AE) increases markers of neuroplasticity and protects perilesional tissue, the degree to which it enhances complex motor or cognitive outcomes is unknown. Previous research suggests that timing and dosage of exercise may be important. We synthesized data from clinical and animal studies in order to determine optimal AE training parameters and recovery outcomes for future research. Using predefined criteria, we included clinical trials of stroke of any type or duration and animal studies employing any established models of stroke. Of the 5,259 titles returned, 52 articles met our criteria, measuring the effects of AE on balance, lower extremity coordination, upper limb motor skills, learning, processing speed, memory, and executive function. We found that early-initiated low-to-moderate intensity AE improved locomotor coordination in rodents. In clinical trials, AE improved balance and lower limb coordination irrespective of intervention modality or parameter. In contrast, fine upper limb recovery was relatively resistant to AE. In terms of cognitive outcomes, poststroke AE in animals improved memory and learning, except when training was too intense. However, in clinical trials, combined training protocols more consistently improved cognition. We noted a paucity of studies examining the benefits of AE on recovery beyond cessation of the intervention.
Article
Full-text available
Children from low-socioeconomic status (SES) families often fall behind their middle-class peers in early language development. But interventions designed to support their language skills are often costly and labor-intensive. This study implements an inexpensive and subtle language intervention aimed at sparking parent–child interaction in a place that families naturally visit: the supermarket. We placed signs encouraging adult–child dialogue in supermarkets serving low- and mid-SES neighborhoods. Using an unobtrusive observational methodology, we tested how these signs affected adult–child interactions. When signs were present in supermarkets serving low-SES neighborhoods, both the amount and the quality of talk between adults and children increased significantly, compared to when the signs were not present; signs had little effect in middle-SES supermarkets. This study demonstrates that implementing simple, cost-effective interventions in everyday environments may bolster children's language development and school readiness skills.
Article
Full-text available
With age advancement, cognitive function is impaired and the risk of dementia is increased under the influence of normal or pathological cortical and subcortical neuronal alterations. Significant researches has been undertaken to analyze the preventive effects of exercise against the decline of cognitive function and the risk of dementia (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease), particularly during the past 10 years. The aim of this short review is to report the scientific knowledge, relating to these effects, that has been obtained during the past 10 years. Acute physical exercise raises the cardiac output in response to increased needs for oxygen and energetic substrates compared to the state of rest, which increases the cerebral blood flow. The increased cerebral blood flow triggers various neurobiological mechanisms in the brain tissue. Repeated and regular physiological modifications related to exercise facilitate the synthesis of cerebral tissue. Regular physical exercise (rPE) may thus increase angiogenesis, neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and the synthesis of neurotransmitters in different cerebral structures involved in cognition due to an increase in the liberation of neurotrophic factors and the production of enzymatic antioxidants. There is an inversely proportional relationship between the amount of physical activity undertaken and the risk of cognitive decline and/or the development of neurodegenerative disease. The synthesis of cerebral tissue under the influence of aerobic rPE may increase the volume of the gray and white matters of the prefrontal and temporal cortical areas as well as the volume of the hippocampus. Moreover, coordination exercise stimulates cognitive function, thereby inducing positive adaptations of cerebral function when regularly practiced. The possible effects of other types of exercise that weakly stimulate the cardiovascular system or cognitive function, such as stretching and strength training, are also beneficial but their mechanistic explanations require further exploration.
Article
Full-text available
Background: Strong associations between infant vocabulary and school-age language and literacy skills would have important practical and theoretical implications: Preschool assessment of vocabulary skills could be used to identify children at risk of reading and language difficulties, and vocabulary could be viewed as a cognitive foundation for reading. However, evidence to date suggests predictive ability from infant vocabulary to later language and literacy is low. This study provides an investigation into, and interpretation of, the magnitude of such infant to school-age relationships. Methods: Three hundred British infants whose vocabularies were assessed by parent report in the 2nd year of life (between 16 and 24 months) were followed up on average 5 years later (ages ranged from 4 to 9 years), when their vocabulary, phonological and reading skills were measured. Results: Structural equation modelling of age-regressed scores was used to assess the strength of longitudinal relationships. Infant vocabulary (a latent factor of receptive and expressive vocabulary) was a statistically significant predictor of later vocabulary, phonological awareness, reading accuracy and reading comprehension (accounting for between 4% and 18% of variance). Family risk for language or literacy difficulties explained additional variance in reading (approximately 10%) but not language outcomes. Conclusions: Significant longitudinal relationships between preliteracy vocabulary knowledge and subsequent reading support the theory that vocabulary is a cognitive foundation of both reading accuracy and reading comprehension. Importantly however, the stability of vocabulary skills from infancy to later childhood is too low to be sufficiently predictive of language outcomes at an individual level - a finding that fits well with the observation that the majority of 'late talkers' resolve their early language difficulties. For reading outcomes, prediction of future difficulties is likely to be improved when considering family history of language/literacy difficulties alongside infant vocabulary levels.
Article
Full-text available
Research supports the positive effects of exercise on cognitive performance by children. However, a limited number of studies have explored the effects specifically on memory. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of an acute bout of exercise on learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory in a sample of children. Children were randomly assigned to an exercise condition or to a no-treatment control condition and then performed repeated trials on an auditory verbal learning task. In the exercise condition, participants performed the PACER task, an aerobic fitness assessment, in their physical education class prior to performing the memory task. In the control condition, participants performed the memory task at the beginning of their physical education class. Results showed that participants in the exercise condition demonstrated significantly better learning of the word lists and significantly better recall of the words after a brief delay. There were not significant differences in recognition of the words after an approximately 24-hour delay. These results provide evidence in a school setting that an acute bout of exercise provides benefits for verbal learning and long-term memory. Future research should be designed to identify the extent to which these findings translate to academic measures.
Article
Full-text available
Moderate physical activity improves various cognitive functions, particularly when it is applied simultaneously to the cognitive task. In two psychoneuroendocrinological within-subject experiments, we investigated whether very low-intensity motor activity, i.e. walking, during foreign-language vocabulary encoding improves subsequent recall compared to encoding during physical rest. Furthermore, we examined the kinetics of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in serum and salivary cortisol. Previous research has associated both substances with memory performance. In both experiments, subjects performed better when they were motorically active during encoding compared to being sedentary. BDNF in serum was unrelated to memory performance. In contrast we found a positive correlation between salivary cortisol concentration and the number of correctly recalled items. In summary, even very light physical activity during encoding is beneficial for subsequent recall.
Article
Full-text available
Studies supporting the notion that physical activity and exercise can help alleviate the negative impact of age on the body and the mind abound. This literature review provides an overview of important findings in this fast growing research domain. Results from cross-sectional, longitudinal, and intervention studies with healthy older adults, frail patients, and persons suffering from mild cognitive impairment and dementia are reviewed and discussed. Together these finding suggest that physical exercise is a promising nonpharmaceutical intervention to prevent age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases.
Article
Full-text available
The associations between vocabulary growth and reading development were examined longitudinally for a representative sample of Dutch children throughout the elementary school period. Data on basic and advanced vocabulary, word decoding, and reading comprehension were collected across the different grades. The results showed significant progress on all of the measures over time. The stability of the vocabulary measures was high, which shows a great deal of continuity in both the basic and advanced vocabularies of the children. Beginning vocabulary was found to predict early word decoding and reading comprehension as was predicted from the lexical restructuring hypothesis. From second grade on, word decoding predicted later vocabulary development. Moreover, a reciprocal relationship between the children's advanced vocabulary and reading comprehension was detected. The data provide support for the lexical quality hypothesis as knowledge of word forms and word meanings predicts the development of reading comprehension.
Article
Full-text available
Teaching vocabulary to primary grade children is essential. Previous studies of teaching vocabulary (word meanings) using story books in the primary grades reported gains of 20%–25% of word meanings taught. The present studies concern possible influences on word meaning acquisition during instruction (Study 1) and increasing the percentage and number of word meanings acquired (Study 2). Both studies were conducted in a working-class school with approximately 50% English-language learners. The regular classroom teachers worked with their whole classes in these studies. In Study 1, average gains of 12% of word meanings were obtained using repeated reading. Adding word explanations added a 10% gain for a total gain of 22%. Pretesting had no effect on gains. In Study 2, results showed learning of 41% of word meanings taught. At this rate of learning word meanings taught, it would be possible for children to learn 400 word meanings a year if 1,000 word meanings were taught. The feasibility of teaching vocabulary to primary grade children is discussed.
Article
Full-text available
The presumption that physical activity, i.e. exercise, as an independent and separated factor influences different aspects of cognitive mechanisms is substantially supported by the literature. The investigations of the influence of physical activity on cognitive functioning have offered several mechanisms which could explain this relationship. Physiological mechanisms including increased cerebral blood flow, changes in neurotransmitter release, structural changes in central nervous system and altered arousal levels are based on physical changes that occur in the body as a consequence of the physical activity. There is evidence that physical training selectively increases angiogenesis, synaptogenesis and neurogenesis. The role of central (BDNF) and peripheral (estrogens, corticosteroids, growth hormone, IGF-1) factors in mediation of the effects of physical exercise on brain functions, has been promoted. Also, there is convergent data on molecular and cellular level, as well as on behavioral and systemic level which support the presumption that physical activity is beneficial to cognition. These data emphasizes the importance of promotion of physical activity during the life span for the prevention of contemporary (obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular) diseases and cognitive decline in humans.
Article
Full-text available
Acute physical activity has been repeatedly shown to improve various cognitive functions. However, there have been no investigations comparing the effects of exercise during verbal encoding versus exercise prior to encoding on long-term memory performance. In this current psychoneuroendocrinological study we aim to test whether light to moderate ergometric bicycling during vocabulary encoding enhances subsequent recall compared to encoding during physical rest and encoding after being physically active. Furthermore, we examined the kinetics of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in serum which has been previously shown to correlate with learning performance. We also controlled for the BDNF val66met polymorphism. We found better vocabulary test performance for subjects that were physically active during the encoding phase compared to sedentary subjects. Post-hoc tests revealed that this effect was particularly present in initially low performers. BDNF in serum and BDNF genotype failed to account for the current result. Our data indicates that light to moderate simultaneous physical activity during encoding, but not prior to encoding, is beneficial for subsequent recall of new items.
Article
Full-text available
Purpose: The goal of this meta-analysis was to aggregate available empirical studies on the effects of physical exercise on executive functions in preadolescent children (6-12 years of age), adolescents (13-17 years of age) and young adults (18-35 years of age). Method: The electronic databases PubMed, EMBASE and SPORTDiscus were searched for relevant studies reporting on the effects of physical exercise on executive functions. Nineteen studies were selected. Results: There was a significant overall effect of acute physical exercise on executive functions (d=0.52, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.76, p<0.001). There were no significant differences between the three age groups (Q (2)=0.13, p=0.94). Furthermore, no significant overall effect of chronic physical exercise (d=0.14, 95%CI -0.04 to 0.32, p=0.19) on executive functions (Q (1)=5.08, p<0.05) was found. Meta-analytic effect sizes were calculated for the effects of acute physical exercise on the domain's inhibition/interference control (d=0.46, 95% CI 0.33 to 0.60, p<0.001) and working memory (d=0.05, 95% CI -0.51 to 0.61, p=0.86) as well as for the effects of chronic physical exercise on planning (d=0.16, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.89, p=0.18). Conclusions: Results suggest that acute physical exercise enhances executive functioning. The number of studies on chronic physical exercise is limited and it should be investigated whether chronic physical exercise shows effects on executive functions comparable to acute physical exercise. This is highly relevant in preadolescent children and adolescents, given the importance of well-developed executive functions for daily life functioning and the current increase in sedentary behaviour in these age groups.
Article
Full-text available
Classic approaches to word learning emphasize referential ambiguity: In naming situations, a novel word could refer to many possible objects, properties, actions, and so forth. To solve this, researchers have posited constraints, and inference strategies, but assume that determining the referent of a novel word is isomorphic to learning. We present an alternative in which referent selection is an online process and independent of long-term learning. We illustrate this theoretical approach with a dynamic associative model in which referent selection emerges from real-time competition between referents and learning is associative (Hebbian). This model accounts for a range of findings including the differences in expressive and receptive vocabulary, cross-situational learning under high degrees of ambiguity, accelerating (vocabulary explosion) and decelerating (power law) learning, fast mapping by mutual exclusivity (and differences in bilinguals), improvements in familiar word recognition with development, and correlations between speed of processing and learning. Together it suggests that (a) association learning buttressed by dynamic competition can account for much of the literature; (b) familiar word recognition is subserved by the same processes that identify the referents of novel words (fast mapping); (c) online competition may allow the children to leverage information available in the task to augment performance despite slow learning; (d) in complex systems, associative learning is highly multifaceted; and (e) learning and referent selection, though logically distinct, can be subtly related. It suggests more sophisticated ways of describing the interaction between situation- and developmental-time processes and points to the need for considering such interactions as a primary determinant of development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Article
Full-text available
The immediate and short-term after effects of a bout of aerobic exercise on young adults’ information processing were investigated. Seventeen participants performed an auditory two-choice reaction time (RT) task before, during, and after 40 min of ergometer cycling. In a separate session, the same sequence of testing was completed while seated on an ergometer without pedalling. Results indicate that exercise (1) improves the speed of reactions by energizing motor outputs; (2) interacts with the arousing effect of a loud auditory signal suggesting a direct link between arousal and activation; (3) gradually reduces RT and peaks between 15 and 20 min; (4) effects on RT disappear very quickly after exercise cessation; and (5) effects on motor processes cannot be explained by increases in body temperature caused by exercise. Taken together, these results support a selective influence of acute aerobic exercise on motor adjustment stage.
Article
Oral language abilities enable children to learn to read, and they predict future academic achievement and life outcomes. However, children with language impairment frequently go unidentified because schools do not systematically measure oral language development. Given that identification paves the way for treatment, schools should increase attention to oral language development, particularly within response to intervention (RTI) frameworks, which aim to prevent learning disabilities by identifying and intervening at early stages. Formal schooling should address language comprehension (in addition to word reading) to ensure an adequate foundation for future reading comprehension. In support, we overview the developmental relations between oral language abilities and reading skills, review current school-based assessment frameworks, and discuss how these frameworks can include language assessments. Measuring language skills early and often benefits not only those who have language impairment but also all children, as it documents language variability to inform differentiated instruction.
Article
Purpose The aim of this study was to determine whether parents of children with developmental language disorder (DLD) were aware of their children's language difficulties and whether a brief, classroom-based language screen can reliably identify children at risk for DLD, including those with both good and poor word reading skills. Method First- and second-grade students ( N = 97) completed a language screen and assessments of nonverbal intelligence, word reading, and language designed for linguistically diverse students. Their parents completed a questionnaire. Results Few parents of children with DLD reported that their child had ever received speech, language, reading, or other educational services. Parents of children with DLD with average word reading skills reported receiving services approximately half as often as children with DLD with poor word reading. Parents of children with DLD also reported few concerns about their children's speech, language, and academic development. The brief whole-classroom screen showed acceptable classification accuracy for identifying children with DLD overall, although sensitivity was lower for children with DLD with average word reading skills. Conclusion Based on reports of prior services and concerns, many parents of children with DLD appear to be unaware of their children's difficulty with oral language. Whole-classroom screens for language show potential for efficient identification of children who may benefit from comprehensive assessments for DLD without relying on their parents or teachers to raise concerns.
Article
Sperry, Sperry, and Miller (2018) aim to debunk what is called the 30‐million‐word gap by claiming that children from lower income households hear more speech than Hart and Risley (1995) reported. We address why the 30‐million‐word gap should not be abandoned, and the importance of retaining focus on the vital ingredient to language learning—quality speech directed to children rather than overheard speech, the focus of Sperry et al.'s argument. Three issues are addressed: Whether there is a language gap; the characteristics of speech that promote language development; and the importance of language in school achievement. There are serious risks to claims that low‐income children, on average, hear sufficient, high‐quality language relative to peers from higher income homes.
Article
Objective: Research demonstrates that acute exercise may enhance retention of multi-trial episodic memories. Previous work has examined the effects of exercise on the mean level of memory recall. However, no study has examined whether exercise can influence the acquisition of new items, which was the purpose of this experiment. Methods: Using a randomized controlled trial design, participants (young adults; Mage=22yrs) completed either a high-intensity bout of treadmill exercise for 15-min (n=22) or sat (n=22) prior to completing a multi-trial episodic memory task. This task involved recalling 15 words for six successive trials, as well as after a 20-min delay (Trial 7). The performance on the multiple trials was categorized into gains (items not recalled on Trial n that were recalled on Trial n+1) and losses (items recalled on Trial n that were not recalled on Trial n+1). Results: The exercise group recalled more words on Trial 6 (11.4 vs. 9.7; P=0.009) and after the 20-min delay (10.9 vs. 9.4; P=0.01). The exercise group (vs. control) had a smaller proportion of losses from Trial 3-4 (10.4% vs. 20.3%; P=0.04) and had a greater proportion of gains from Trial 5-6 (38.5% vs. 14.8%; P=0.01). Conclusions: The exercise-induced multi-trial memory effect may be influenced by greater item gains.
Article
Objective: Emerging research demonstrates that aerobic-based physical activity is favourably associated with episodic memory function. Despite resistance exercises being associated with a multitude of health outcomes, independent of aerobic physical activity, less research has examined the effects of resistance exercise on episodic memory function. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review to examine the extent to which resistance exercise may be associated with episodic memory function. Methods: Computerized searches were performed in PubMed, PsychInfo and Sports Discuss. Studies were included if they employed an experimental, cross-sectional or prospective study design, and included acute or chronic resistance exercise as the independent variable, with episodic memory function as the outcome variable. Results: Eight experimental (one acute and seven chronic training studies) studies met the study inclusionary criteria. Seven of these studies were published in the last 5 years, highlighting the infancy of this line of research. Only three of the eight evaluated studies provided evidence of a positive effect of resistance exercise on memory function; within each of these three studies, there was also some indication of null (or unfavourable) effects. Conclusion: The findings of this systematic review do not provide compelling evidence for a beneficial effect of acute or chronic resistance exercise on episodic memory function. Additional research in this under-investigated field is warranted.
Article
Purpose: Potential biases in service provision for preschool children with specific language impairment (SLI) were explored. Method: In Study 1, children with SLI receiving treatment (SLI-T) and those with SLI not receiving treatment (SLI-NT) were compared on demographic characteristics and developmental abilities. Study 2 recruited children with articulation disorders receiving treatment (ARTIC-T) to determine if knowing service provision status influenced the results of Study 1. Results: In Study 1, the SLI-T group was rated by teachers as having poorer executive functioning than children in the SLIT-NT group, and the SLI-T group also came from families whose mothers had more education. These 2 variables alone predicted SLI-T and SLI-NT group membership with 84% accuracy. In Study 2, the ARTIC-T group were perceived as having comparable executive functioning to the SLI-NT group and better than the SLI-T group, indicating that teachers' knowledge of service provision did not influence their ratings of children's executive functioning. Discussion: Preschool children with SLI, whose mothers have higher education levels and whose teachers perceive them as having poorer executive functioning, are more likely to receive intervention. Recognizing service delivery biases is critical for improving early provision of intervention for this population.
Article
Context: The effect of physical activity (PA) on different areas of academic achievement and classroom behaviors and how different characteristics of PA interventions could modify the effect remain unclear. Objective: The objective was twofold: (1) to assess the effect of PA interventions on academic achievement and classroom behaviors in childhood and (2) to determine the characteristics of individuals and PA programs that enhance academic performance. Data sources: We identified studies from the database inception to October 16, 2016. Study selection: We selected intervention studies aimed at examining the effect of exercise on academic achievement and classroom behaviors at developmental age. Data extraction: Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled effect size for all primary outcomes (language- and mathematics-related skills, reading, composite score, and time in on-task behavior). Positive values represent a direct relationship between PA programs and academic achievement scores or on-task behaviors. Results: A total of 26 studies (10 205 children, aged from 4 to 13) were included. Pooled effect size (95% confidence interval) estimates were as follows: (1) 0.16 (-0.06 to 0.37) for language-related skills; (2) 0.21 (0.09 to 0.33) for mathematics-related skills; (3) 0.13 (0.02 to 0.24) for reading; (4) 0.26 (0.07 to 0.45) for composite scores; and (5) 0.77 (0.22 to 1.32) for time in on-task behaviors. Limitations: Limitations included the variety of tools used to measure academic achievement and the limited number of studies that reported the effect of after-school PA interventions. Conclusions: PA, especially physical education, improves classroom behaviors and benefits several aspects of academic achievement, especially mathematics-related skills, reading, and composite scores in youth.
Article
The relationship between children's slow vocabulary growth and the family's low socioeconomic status (SES) has been well documented. However, previous studies have often focused on infants or preschoolers and primarily used static measures of vocabulary at multiple time points. To date, there is no research investigating whether SES predicts a child's word learning abilities in grade school and, if so, what mediates this relationship. In this study, 68 children aged 8-15 years performed a written word learning from context task that required using the surrounding text to identify the meaning of an unknown word. Results revealed that vocabulary knowledge significantly mediated the relationship between SES (as measured by maternal education) and word learning. This was true despite the fact that the words in the linguistic context surrounding the target word are typically acquired well before 8 years of age. When controlling for vocabulary, word learning from written context was not predicted by differences in reading comprehension, decoding, or working memory. These findings reveal that differences in vocabulary growth between grade school children from low and higher SES homes are likely related to differences in the process of word learning more than knowledge of surrounding words or reading skills. Specifically, children from lower SES homes are not as effective at using known vocabulary to build a robust semantic representation of incoming text to identify the meaning of an unknown word.
Article
To examine the temporal effects of high-intensity exercise on learning, short-term and long-term retrospective memory and prospective memory. Among a sample of 88 young adult participants, 22 were randomized into one of four different groups: exercise before learning, control group, exercise during learning and exercise after learning. The retrospective assessments (learning, short-term and long-term memory) were assessed using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test. Short-term memory included a 20-min delay assessment, with long-term memory including a 24-hour follow-up assessment. Prospective memory was assessed using a time-based procedure by having participants contact (via phone) the researchers at a follow-up time period. The exercise stimulus included a 15-min bout of progressive maximal exertion treadmill exercise. High-intensity exercise prior to memory encoding (vs. exercise during memory encoding or consolidation) was effective in enhancing long-term memory (for both 20-min and 24-hr follow-up assessments). We did not observe a differential temporal effect of high-intensity exercise on short-term memory (immediate post-memory encoding), learning or prospective memory. The timing of high-intensity exercise may play an important role in facilitating long-term memory.
Article
Vocabulary learning is deceptively hard, but toddlers often make it look easy. Prior theories proposed that children's rapid acquisition of words is based on language‐specific knowledge and constraints. In contrast, more recent work converges on the view that word learning proceeds via domain‐general processes that are tuned to richly structured—not impoverished—input. We argue that new theoretical insights, coupled with methodological tools, have pushed the field toward an appreciation of simple, content‐free processes working together as a system to support the acquisition of words. We illustrate this by considering three central phenomena of early language development: referential ambiguity, fast‐mapping, and the vocabulary spurt. WIREs Cogn Sci 2017, 8:e1421. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1421 This article is categorized under: Linguistics > Language Acquisition Psychology > Development and Aging
Article
How do infants learn so rapidly and with little apparent effort? In 1996, Saffran, Aslin, and Newport reported that 8‐month‐old human infants could learn the underlying temporal structure of a stream of speech syllables after only 2 min of passive listening. This demonstration of what was called statistical learning, involving no instruction, reinforcement, or feedback, led to dozens of confirmations of this powerful mechanism of implicit learning in a variety of modalities, domains, and species. These findings reveal that infants are not nearly as dependent on explicit forms of instruction as we might have assumed from studies of learning in which children or adults are taught facts such as math or problem solving skills. Instead, at least in some domains, infants soak up the information around them by mere exposure. Learning and development in these domains thus appear to occur automatically and with little active involvement by an instructor (parent or teacher). The details of this statistical learning mechanism are discussed, including how exposure to specific types of information can, under some circumstances, generalize to never‐before‐observed information, thereby enabling transfer of learning. WIREs Cogn Sci 2017, 8:e1373. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1373 This article is categorized under: Psychology > Learning
Article
In this intervention study, we investigated the effects of physical activities that were integrated into a geography task on preschool children’s learning per- formance and enjoyment. Eight childcare centers with 87 four-to-five-year-old children were randomly assigned across an integrated physical activity condition, an uninte- grated physical activity condition, and a control condition without physical activity. Children learned the names and a typical animal from each of the six continents using a floor-mounted world map with soft toy animals. Both learning conditions with physical activities showed higher performance than the learning condition without physical activities on an immediate retention test, and on a delayed retention test administered five weeks later. In addition, children in the physical activity conditions (integrated and nonintegrated) enjoyed their learning method the most. Infusing task-relevant physical activities into the classroom and the learning task is discussed as a promising way to improve children’s learning, enjoyment, and health.
Article
Purpose: To test feasibility and impact of a 10-week after-school exercise program for children with ADHD and/or disruptive behavior disorders (DBD) living in an urban poor community. Methods: Children were randomized to exercise (n=19) or a comparable but sedentary attention control program (n=16). Cognitive and behavioral outcomes were collected pre-post. Intent-to-treat mixed models tested group x time and group x time x attendance interactions. Effect sizes were calculated within and between groups. Results: Feasibility was evidenced by 86% retention, 60% attendance, and average 75% maximum heart rate. Group x time results were null on the primary outcome, parent-reported executive function. Among secondary outcomes, between-group effect sizes favored exercise on hyperactive symptoms (d=0.47) and verbal working memory (d=0.26), and controls on visuospatial working memory (d=-0.21) and oppositional defiant symptoms (d=-0.37). In each group, within-group effect sizes were moderate-large on most outcomes (d=0.67 to 1.60). A group x time x attendance interaction emerged on visuospatial working memory (F[1,33]=7.42, p<.05), such that attendance to the control program was related to greater improvements (r=.72, p<.01) while attendance to the exercise program was not (r=.25, p=.34). Conclusions: While between-group findings on the primary outcome, parent-reported executive function, were null, between-group effect sizes on hyperactivity and visuospatial working memory may reflect adaptations to the specific challenges presented by distinct formats. Both groups demonstrated substantial within-group improvements on clinically relevant outcomes. Findings underscore the importance of programmatic features such as routines, engaging activities, behavior management strategies, and adult attention; and highlight the potential for after-school programs to benefit children with ADHD and DBD living in urban poverty where health needs are high and services resources few.
Article
Research has demonstrated that physical activity involving gross motor activities can lead to better cognitive functioning and higher academic achievement scores. In addition, research within the theoretical framework of embodied cognition has shown that embodying knowledge through the use of more subtle motor activities, such as task-relevant gestures, has a positive effect on learning. In this study, we investigated whether combining both physical activities and gestures could improve learning even more in a 4-week intervention program on foreign language vocabulary learning in preschool children. The main hypothesis that learning by embodying words through task-relevant enactment gestures and physical activities would be perceived as the preferred teaching method and lead to higher learning outcomes than learning by embodying words through task-relevant enactment gestures only, and learning without physical activities or gestures was confirmed by the results. The results of this study hold great promise for instructional methods combining physical activities and gestures as enhancers of children’s learning.
Article
Background: Children with specific language impairment (SLI) often experience word-learning difficulties, which are suggested to originate in the early stage of word learning: fast mapping. Some previous research indicates significantly poorer fast mapping capabilities in children with SLI compared with typically developing (TD) counterparts, with a range of methodological factors impacting on the consistency of this finding. Research has explored key issues that might underlie fast mapping difficulties in children with SLI, with strong theoretical support but little empirical evidence for the role of phonological short-term memory (STM). Additionally, further research is required to explore the influence of receptive vocabulary on fast mapping capabilities. Understanding the factors associated with fast mapping difficulties that are experienced by children with SLI may lead to greater theoretically driven word-learning intervention. Aims: To investigate whether children with SLI demonstrate significant difficulties with fast mapping, and to explore the related factors. It was hypothesized that children with SLI would score significantly lower on a fast mapping production task compared with TD children, and that phonological STM and receptive vocabulary would significantly predict fast mapping production scores in both groups of children. Methods & procedures: Twenty-three children with SLI (mean = 64.39 months, SD = 4.10 months) and 26 TD children (mean = 65.92 months, SD = 2.98) were recruited from specialist language and mainstream schools. All participants took part in a unique, interactive fast-mapping task whereby nine novel objects with non-word labels were presented and production accuracy was assessed. A non-word repetition test and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Fourth Edition (PPVT-IV) were also administered as measures of phonological STM capacity and receptive vocabulary, respectively. Outcomes & results: Results of the fast-mapping task indicated that children with SLI had significantly poorer fast mapping production scores than TD children. Scores from the non-word repetition task were also significantly lower for the SLI group, revealing reduced phonological STM capacity. Phonological STM capacity and receptive vocabulary emerged as significant predictors of fast mapping performance when the group data were combined in a multiple regression analysis. Conclusions & implications: These results suggest that the word-learning difficulties experienced by children with SLI may originate at the fast mapping stage, and that phonological STM and receptive vocabulary significantly predict fast mapping ability. These findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of word-learning difficulties in children with SLI and may inform lexical learning intervention.
Article
Consistent evidence indicates that exercise improves cognition and mood, with preliminary evidence suggesting that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may mediate these effects. The aim of the current meta-analysis was to provide an estimate of the strength of the association between exercise and increased BDNF levels in humans across multiple exercise paradigms. We conducted a meta-analysis of 29 studies (N = 1111 participants) examining the effect of exercise on BDNF levels in three exercise paradigms: (1) a single session of exercise, (2) a session of exercise following a program of regular exercise, and (3) resting BDNF levels following a program of regular exercise. Moderators of this effect were also examined. Results demonstrated a moderate effect size for increases in BDNF following a single session of exercise (Hedges' g = 0.46, p < 0.001). Further, regular exercise intensified the effect of a session of exercise on BDNF levels (Hedges' g = 0.59, p = 0.02). Finally, results indicated a small effect of regular exercise on resting BDNF levels (Hedges' g = 0.27, p = 0.005). When analyzing results across paradigms, sex significantly moderated the effect of exercise on BDNF levels, such that studies with more women showed less BDNF change resulting from exercise. Effect size analysis supports the role of exercise as a strategy for enhancing BDNF activity in humans, but indicates that the magnitude of these effects may be lower in females relative to males.
Article
College students (N = 90) were randomly assigned to participate in vigorous, moderate or no physical exercise and vocabulary recall and comprehension learning activities under varying conditions to assess whether or not increased intensities of exercise, performed either before a vocabulary recall and comprehension learning activity (i.e., proactive effect) or after a vocabulary recall and comprehension learning activity (i.e., reactive effect), would improve vocabulary recall and comprehension. The results demonstrated that performing exercise at a vigorous intensity before or after rehearsing for a vocabulary comprehension test improved test results.
Article
It is generally agreed that regular physical exercise promotes physical and mental health, but what are the benefits in people with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)? This meta-analysis evaluates 16 behavioural studies reporting on a total of 133 children and adults with various variants of the syndrome who were offered structured physical activities either in an individual or a group context. The effects on social and motor deficiencies, two of the three primary symptom clusters of ASD, were normalized to afford a quantitative evaluation. Results pertaining to communication deficits were insufficient to permit classification. All activity programmes yielded significant progress on the measures assessed, but the individual programmes elicited significantly more improvement than the group interventions in the motor and, more surprisingly, also in the social domain. Although overall sample sizes were small, the combined results do permit the tentative conclusion that in terms of motor performance and social skills children and adults with ASD benefit most from individual exercise interventions. Further research of the impact of individual and group interventions on communication deficits in particular as well as studies gauging the extent to which exercise effects depend on ASD symptom severity are warranted.
Article
The purpose of this study was to summarize the effects of physical activity and exercise on peripheral brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in healthy humans. Experimental and observational studies were identified from PubMed, Web of Knowledge, Scopus, and SPORT Discus. A total of 32 articles met the inclusion criteria. Evidence from experimental studies suggested that peripheral BDNF concentrations were elevated by acute and chronic aerobic exercise. The majority of the studies suggested that strength training had no influence on peripheral BDNF. The results from most observational studies suggested an inverse relationship between the peripheral BDNF level and habitual physical activity or cardiorespiratory fitness. More research is needed to confirm the findings from the observational studies.
Article
This book shows that inequalities in children's cognitive abilities are substantial from the beginning, with disadvantaged children starting kindergarten with significantly lower cognitive skills than their more advantaged counterparts. These same disadvantaged children are then placed in low-resource schools, magnifying the initial inequality. These conclusions are based on analysis of the U.S. Department of Education's Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Cohort, a recent and comprehensive data collection effort that provides a nationally representative picture of kindergarten students. The book reports differences in young children's achievement scores in literacy and mathematics by race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES) as they enter kindergarten. It also explores differences by social background in a wide array of children's family and home conditions and activities. The analysis leads to several conclusions relevant to education policy: there are substantial differences by race and ethnicity in children's test scores as they begin kindergarten; race and ethnicity are associated with SES; family structure and educational expectations have important associations with SES, race/ethnicity, and test scores; SES strongly relates to cognitive skills; and low-SES children begin school in systematically lower-quality elementary schools than do their more advantaged counterparts. (Contains 31 bibliographic references.) (SM)
Article
What do novice word learners know about the sound of words? Word-learning tasks suggest that young infants (14 months old) confuse similar-sounding words, whereas mispronunciation detection tasks suggest that slightly older infants (18–24 months old) correctly distinguish similar words. Here we explore whether the difficulty at 14 months stems from infants' novice status as word learners or whether it is inherent in the task demands of learning new words. Results from 3 experiments support a developmental explanation. In Experiment 1, infants of 20 months learned to pair 2 phonetically similar words to 2 different objects under precisely the same conditions that infants of 14 months (Experiment 2) failed. In Experiment 3, infants of 17 months showed intermediate, but still successful, performance in the task. Vocabulary size predicted word-learning performance, but only in the younger, less experienced word learners. The implications of these results for theories of word learning and lexical representation are discussed.
Article
There is a substantial body of literature related to the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. The premise underlying this research is that physiological changes in response to exercise have implications for cognitive function. This literature has been reviewed both narratively and meta-analytically and, although the research findings are mixed, researchers have generally concluded that there is a small positive effect. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to provide an updated comprehensive analysis of the extant literature on acute exercise and cognitive performance and to explore the effects of moderators that have implications for mechanisms of the effects. Searches of electronic databases and examinations of reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 79 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Consistent with past findings, analyses indicated that the overall effect was positive and small (g=0.097 n=1034). Positive and small effects were also found in all three acute exercise paradigms: during exercise (g=0.101; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.041-0.160), immediately following exercise (g=0.108; 95% CI; 0.069-0.147), and after a delay (g=0.103; 95% CI; 0.035-0.170). Examination of potential moderators indicated that exercise duration, exercise intensity, type of cognitive performance assessed, and participant fitness were significant moderators. In conclusion, the effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance are generally small; however, larger effects are possible for particular cognitive outcomes and when specific exercise parameters are used.
Article
Studies involving physical exercise and individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) were reviewed. Systematic search procedures identified 18 studies meeting predetermined inclusion criteria. These studies were evaluated in terms of: (a) participant characteristics, (b) type of exercise, (c) procedures used to increase exercise, (d) outcomes, and (e) research methodology. Across the corpus of studies, exercise was implemented with 64 participants with ASD aged 3–41 years. A variety of exercise activities were employed (e.g., jogging, weight training, bike riding). Following the exercise interventions decreases in stereotypy, aggression, off-task behavior and elopement were reported. Fatigue was not likely the cause of decreases in maladaptive behavior because on-task behavior, academic responding, and appropriate motor behavior (e.g., playing catch) increased following physical exercise. Results suggest that programs for individuals with ASD may benefit from including components designed to incorporate regular and specific types of physical activity. Areas in need of further research are discussed.
Article
In this study, we tested the effect of acute exercise on long-term memory, specifically the timing of exercise relative to the memory challenge. We assessed memory via paragraph recall, in which participants listened to two paragraphs (exposure) and recounted them following a 35-min delay. Participants (n = 48) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: exercise prior to exposure, exercise after exposure, or no-exercise. Exercise consisted of 30 min on a cycle ergometer including 20 min at moderate intensity. Only the exercise prior group recalled significantly more than the control group (p < .05). Differences among the exercise groups failed to reach significance (p = .09). Results indicated that acute exercise positively influenced recall and that exercise timing relative to memory task may have an impact on this effect.
Article
Research examining the effect of incremental exercise on cognitive performance has claimed that increases in exercise intensity result in increases in arousal. An inverted-U effect of incremental exercise on cognitive Junction has been hypothesized. The majority of researchers have drawn upon unidimensional theories of arousal as the underlying rationale for the hypotheses. Since more recent papers, however, indicate that multidimensional, allocable resource theories are better able to explain the effect of incremental exercise on cognitive performance. This paper examines the extent to which empirical research supports these theoretical underpinnings. It is concluded that incremental exercise has generally shown no significant effect on accuracy of cognitive performance. Cognitive effort can allocate resources to task relevant information, even during maximal exercise. Increases in speed of cognition, from rest, are thought to occur when individuals reach their plasma adrenaline threshold. Results, comparing speed of cognition at rest with those during heavy exercise, suggest that speed of performance on complex tasks is facilitated by increases in allocable resources, while simple tasks are unaffected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)