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Meta-analysis of the relationship between problem gambling, excessive gaming and loot box spending
Abstract
Loot boxes are purchasable randomized rewards contained in some video games. Concerns have been raised that these share psychological and structural features with traditional forms of gambling, and that they may exacerbate excessive video gameplay. Here, we quantitatively summarize two specific research areas regarding loot box spending using meta-analyses. We examined the relationships between loot box spending and (1) problem gambling (15 studies), and (2) excessive gaming (7 studies). We found significant small-to-moderate positive correlations between loot box spending and gambling symptomology, r = 0.26 (r = 0.37 using Trim and Fill), and excessive gaming, r = 0.25. Our results suggest a small, but replicable and potentially clinically relevant, relationship between gambling symptomology and loot box spending that is at least as large as the relationship between excessive gaming symptoms and loot box spending. Further research should examine the potential for statistical interactions between these constructs.
... These studies either recorded spending on loot boxes, or scores on self-report measures such as the Risky Loot Box Index (RLI), a 5 item scale assessing risky and 'compulsive' use of loot boxes [5,6,11]. For example, in a meta-analysis, the association between loot box spending and problem gambling was robust, with a small-to-moderate effect size (r = 0.260) [12]. Other studies have observed moderate associations between RLI scores and problem gambling severity [6,13]. ...
... The gambling participants at baseline spent 16 times more on loot boxes over the previous 12 months compared to non-gambling participants. These descriptive effects corroborate the wider literature around loot box engagement being more prominent among those who gamble [8,12,34]. The longitudinal analyses focused on the participants who reported no current gambling at the baseline survey. ...
... In that survey, people at higher risk of problem gambling were also more likely to be male and younger, which are also known demographic predictors of engagement with gambling-like features of video games [43]. Further, a recent report on adolescent health in BC observed that 20% of the [11][12][13][14][15][16] year old sample had purchased a loot box in the past 12-months [44]. Given these regional considerations, healthcare providers should be attentive to the risks associated with gambling-like activities in video games. ...
Background
Loot boxes are randomized reward mechanics in modern video games that share features with conventional gambling products. Research studies have begun to test longitudinal patterns (“migration”) from engagement with loot boxes to gambling behavior. This study investigated such effects at a 6-month follow-up in an online sample of young adults that play video games (aged 19—25) from British Columbia, Canada.
Methods
Participants were stratified into two subgroups at their baseline assessment: 83 reported they did not currently gamble and 43 reported they currently gamble, after cleaning. At baseline, participants provided responses to the Risky Loot Box Index (RLI) and estimates of their past year spending on both randomized (i.e., loot boxes) and non-randomized (“direct purchase”) microtransactions. Microtransaction spending and RLI scores at baseline were tested as predictors of self-identified gambling initiation and spend at follow-up. We tested a set of frequentist regressions and a corresponding set of Bayesian regressions.
Results
At baseline, participants who reported gambling showed higher levels of engagement with both randomized and non-randomized microtransactions. Among non-gambling participants at baseline, loot box spending and RLI predicted gambling initiation at the follow-up, in a Bayesian logistic regression with informed priors. Loot box spending and RLI at baseline predicted gambling expenditure at follow-up, in both the frequentist and Bayesian linear regressions. Spending on direct purchase microtransactions did not predict gambling initiation in either set of models when controlling for loot box spending, underscoring the role of randomized rewards.
Conclusions
These data provide further prospective evidence for gambling ‘migration’ in a sample recruited in Western Canada, indicating that young adults who spend money on loot boxes are at elevated risk for real-money gambling.
... Trotz dieser robusten Evidenz lässt sich aufgrund des Querschnittsdesigns der Datenerhebung keine Kausalität ableiten. Jedoch sind Effekte in beide Richtungen besorgniserregend (Garea et al., 2021). ...
... Wir schliessen uns der Forderung der wissenschaftlichen Gemeinschaft (Garea et al., 2021;Gibson, et al., 2022;Montiel, et al., 2022) ...
... et al., 2022). Diese Werte (> .2) werden als klinisch und praktisch relevant eingestuft(Garea et al., 2021). Nur wenige Studien befassen sich mit der Prävalenz von LB-Käufen bei Jugendlichen. ...
Zusammenfassung: Zielsetzung: In den letzten Jahren haben Mikrotransaktionen, insbesondere Lootboxen (LB), in Videospielen an Bedeutung gewonnen. Übersichtsarbeiten mit überwiegend erwachsenen Teilnehmenden zeigen einen Zusammenhang zwischen LB-Nutzung und problematischer Videospiel- bzw. Glücksspielnutzung. Ziel unserer Arbeit war, diesen Zusammenhang im Kanton Zürich bei einer Stichprobe von Jugendlichen im Alter von durchschnittlich knapp 14 Jahren zu untersuchen (Min. = 12, Max. = 17, M = 13.7, SD = 1.0). Methodik: Die vorliegende Querschnittsstudie ist eine Sekundärdatenanalyse von 1005 befragten Schülerinnen und Schülern der Sekundarstufe. Die Datenerhebung erfolgte an fünf Schulen zwischen Februar 2022 und Oktober 2023. Mittels statistischer Regressionsanalysen (linear bzw. binär-logistisch) wurden Zusammenhänge untersucht zwischen dem Risky-Lootbox-Index (RLBI) und einer problematischen Videospielnutzung, erfasst anhand der „Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents“, sowie zwischen RLBI und Online-Glücksspielteilnahme. Zudem wurden Prävalenzdaten ermittelt. Ergebnisse: In der Subgruppe der 638 mindestens wöchentlich videospielenden Teilnehmenden lag die LB-Nutzungsprävalenz bei rund 30 %. Rund 9 % zeigten eine problematische Videospielnutzung und 8.5 % haben schon an Online-Glücksspielaktivitäten teilgenommen. Der Zusammenhang zwischen Lootbox-Nutzung und problematischer Videospielnutzung ist recht stark (standardisierter β-Koeffizient = .31). Derjenige zwischen der Lootbox-Nutzung und einer allfälligen Online-Glücksspielteilnahme ist ebenfalls signifikant, aber nur sehr schwach (OR = 1.07; 95 % KI [1.01–1.14]). Der Einfluss eines sozialen Gradienten ist bereits in der 7. bis 9. Klasse erkennbar, was bei Präventionsmaßnahmen berücksichtigt werden sollte. Schlussfolgerungen: Die Nutzung von Lootboxen ist bei Jugendlichen stark verbreitet und mit einem erhöhten Risiko für eine Videospiel-Nutzungsstörung assoziiert. Trotz des Verbots von Online-Glücksspielen für Jugendliche ist der Zugang nachweislich möglich, was auf Lücken im Jugendschutz hinweist. Eine Regulierung von LB könnte aus Public-Health-Sicht zur Prävention psychischer Belastungen bei Jugendlichen beitragen.
... The present study examined the associations between LB buying, gambling, online gaming, and some mental health symptoms, as well as the moderating effects of depression, anxiety, stress, and impulsivity in the relationship between the LB buying, problem gambling, and problem gaming. Firstly, a positive association was found between loot box (LB) buying and gambling disorder (GD), supporting H 1 , and concurring with previous research (e.g., Etchells et al., 2022;Garea et al., 2021). Secondly, a positive association was found between LB buying and internet gaming disorder (IGD), supporting H 2 , also concurring with previous research (Etchells et al., 2022). ...
... Therefore, the results showed that there are not only similarities between some elements of LB buying and gambling, but that LB buying engagement was correlated with both problematic gambling behaviour and internet gaming among adult gamers. As for the strength of the relationship between LB buying and IGD, in the present study it is comparable to the strength of the positive relationship shown between LB buying and GD, as previous research has suggested (Garea et al., 2021). Thirdly, the study found an association between GD and other comorbid disorders (supporting H 3 ). ...
... Therefore, to examine whether problematic loot box buying can be akin to other behavioural addiction and to examine a more complete picture, the present study examined a wide spectrum of underlying mental health constructs (i.e., depression, stress, anxiety, and impulsivity) that have previously examined and related to behavioural addictions such as gambling and gaming. Both these addictive behaviours, in addition to presenting similarities at the neurobiological level (e.g, Fauth-Bühler & Mann, 2017) are positively associated with loot box buying (Etchells et al., 2022;Garea et al., 2021). Interestingly, the strength of the positive association between gambling and loot box buying is comparable to the positive relationship between internet gaming and loot box buying (Garea et al., 2021), a finding replicated in the present study. ...
... Irrespective of the age of the person who purchases a loot box, there is concern that they might experience harm. Research has found that loot box spending and engagement is linked to problematic gambling (Brooks & Clark, 2019;Kristiansen & Severin, 2019;Li et al., 2019;, problematic video gaming (Garea et al., 2021;, and other traits (e.g., impulsivity) and socio-economic demographic features that are associated with engaging in more traditional addictive behaviors, such as substance misuse . This chapter therefore also comprehensively reviews the quantitative and qualitative literature on loot boxes from psychology and other fields to establish what is known and what more still needs to be learned. ...
... Gambling, social casino games, and loot boxes all share the characteristic of variable reward schedules, where behavioural reinforcement (i.e., actually winning money, points, or a desired virtual item) occurs unpredictably (Garea, Drummond, Sauer, Hall, & Williams, 2021;Macey & Hamari, 2022). ...
... These variables have typically centered upon loot box and gambling spending, and gambling symptoms assessed by self-report measures, such as the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI; Ferris & Wynne, 2001 Zendle & Cairns, 2019) and adolescent samples (Hing et al., 2022;Ide et al., 2021;Kristiansen & Severin, 2020;. Meta-analyses by Garea et al. (2021) and reported average effect sizes of r = .26 and r = .27 ...
Loot boxes and other similar products inside video games can be purchased by players with real-world money to obtain random rewards. These mechanics have been deemed as gambling-like because players are betting money on unknown outcomes. Concerns have been raised about players spending too much money and the normalization of gambling-like behaviors amongst children, who generally cannot legally access more traditional forms of gambling due to age restrictions on participation. Despite these products being relatively novel, many studies have already been conducted considering whether they might be similarly ‘addictive.’ Importantly, monetary spending on loot boxes is linked to problem gambling, suggesting that gambling consumers could also be at risk of loot box-related harms, or that loot box users could be particularly vulnerable to gambling harms. More research is required to better understand this association. Notwithstanding, some countries have already sought to proactively address potential harms through regulation. Multiple potential approaches, ranging from completely restricting access to merely requiring the disclosure of information related to the product, are available. The regulations’ implementation should be regularly assessed to allow for countries to decide whether the rules should be changed based on scientific evidence and whether they should follow another country’s example.
... Conceptualising paid loot boxes as a form of gambling that is potentially harmful is supported by repeated findings of a positive correlation between players' selfreported problem gambling severity and loot box expenditure (Brooks and Clark, 2019;Garea et al., 2021;González-Cabrera et al., 2022;Li et al., 2019;Spicer et al., 2022;von Meduna et al., 2020;Wardle and Zendle, 2021;Xiao, Fraser, et al., 2024;Cairns, 2018, 2019): 'On average, individuals with problem gambling issues spent approximately $13 USD per month more on loot boxes than those with no such symptoms' (Drummond, Sauer, Ferguson, et al., 2020: 1). ...
... Logically, given the structural similarities between card packs and loot boxes (specifically, both take advantage of the variable ratio schedule of reinforcement, as does traditional gambling), if loot boxes are positively correlated with problem gambling, then so too should card packs. The link between loot box purchasing and problem gambling is well-established (Garea et al., 2021;Spicer et al., 2022). ...
... However, importantly, the participants of Zendle et al. (2021) were not asked about their video game loot box purchasing and spending behaviours, and so whether that original correlation concerning loot boxes would have replicated in that particular sample of physical card game players, who might be idiosyncratic, could not be known. (Garea et al., 2021;Spicer et al., 2022), it would be surprising if the positive correlation cannot be replicated between virtual booster pack-like loot boxes and problem gambling. Such a finding (if made) would suggest virtual booster packs might be a type of loot boxes that need to be differentiated from other loot boxes on psychological grounds due to some aesthetic or design features (e.g., cards that provide gameplay advantages were drawn from a pack, as compared to character costumes that give any competitive advnatages being obtained from a box) or their player demographics (e.g., players who buy booster packs naturally prefer cardbased strategy games and may be less impulsive than players of other genres of video games when making purchasing decisions) (Ballou et al., 2020: 14). ...
Card packs are physical products providing random content. Companies rely on them to monetise physical trading or collectible card games. Loot boxes are equivalent digital products inside video games that can similarly be bought to obtain randomised rewards. Both products are psychologically similar to gambling because the player can ‘win’ by obtaining rare and valuable rewards or alternatively ‘lose’ by obtaining non-valuable rewards. Loot box spending has been repeatedly and reliably linked to problem gambling. However, only one previous study considered the link between card pack spending and problem gambling and failed to find a positive correlation. Substantially improving on that study’s methodology, we recruited card game players living in English-speaking Western countries (N = 1,961) to reassess the links between card pack and loot box spending on one hand and problem gambling and mental health outcomes on the other. Spending money on physical card packs (r = 0.15), loot boxes (r = 0.31), and virtual card packs (a specific type of loot boxes found in a specific genre of card-based video games; r = 0.19) were all linked to problem gambling. The relationship between card packing spending and problem gambling was weaker than that between loot box spending and problem gambling. Spending money on all these gambling-like products were not linked to negative mental health outcomes. Curiously, spending money on one sub-category of loot boxes was less strongly correlated with problem gambling, indicating certain loot boxes might be more harmful than others. The current legal definitions of ‘gambling’ in many countries should be modernised using scientific evidence: presently, the law regulates products that are less strongly correlated with problem gambling and therefore arguably less potentially harmful (e.g., card packs), but fails to regulate arguably more harmful products that are more strongly correlated with problem gambling (e.g., loot boxes).
... Nonetheless, there is clear evidence suggesting that autistic gamers may be at higher risk of problematic engagement with video games, although as we explain below, the relationship between autistic experiences and traits and gambling is less clear. The justification to investigate microtransaction expenditure amongst autistic gamers is further strengthened when considering evidence that demonstrates a consistent association between problematic gaming and microtransaction expenditure in general populations 10,[12][13][14] . With autism linked to excessive gameplay, and microtransaction expenditure associated with excessive gameplay, there is reason to expect that gamers on the autism spectrum may be likely to spend more on microtransactions than allistic (non-autistic) individuals. ...
... While the autism-gambling relationship requires further exploration, the possible link between autistic characteristics/experiences and gambling provides some justification for examining how in-game spending-particularly on gambling-like microtransactions-is experienced by gamers on the autism spectrum. This justification is further strengthened when considering the consistent positive associations between problematic gambling and loot box expenditure [10][11][12][13][14] . With autism/autistic characteristics demonstrating some links to gambling, and gambling positively associated with loot box expenditure, autistic characteristics/experiences may also be associated with expenditure on loot boxes and non-randomised microtransactions. ...
... We based our design on past work assessing the relationship between loot boxes and problematic gaming and problematic gambling symptomatology 10,14,46,[49][50][51][52] . This is a cross-sectional between-subjects correlational design. ...
Microtransactions provide optional, virtual, video game goods that, for an additional cost to the player, provide additional game content and alter the gameplay experience. Loot boxes—a specific form of microtransaction—offer randomised rewards in exchange for payment, and are argued to be structurally and psychologically similar to gambling. Nascent research suggests that a link exists between autism and both problematic gaming and problematic gambling. Here, we investigated the relationships between autistic characteristics and experiences, and excessive video gaming and microtransaction expenditure. A sample of 1178 adults from Australia, Aotearoa, and The United States were recruited from Prolific Academic, and completed a survey measuring in-game expenditure, autistic characteristics and experiences, problematic gaming, problematic gambling, and risky loot box use. Analyses showed positive associations between autistic characteristics and experiences with problematic gaming and problem gambling symptomatology. However, results also showed a small, negative association between autistic characteristics and experiences and spending on loot boxes when problem gambling symptoms, problematic gaming, and risky loot box use were statistically controlled for. These results suggest that autistic gamers may be vulnerable to problematic gaming and gambling, but that this effect does not extend to the purchasing of microtransactions.
... They are available in the majority of games across different formats, including console games, PC games and mobile games, and are often available to children [1,3]. Evidence from systematic reviews and meta-analyses has established robust associations between loot box engagement, and measures of both problem gambling and problem video gaming [4][5][6][7][8]. Similarly, associations have also been investigated between loot box engagement and a range of psychological variables, including impulsivity (where results are equivocal [9][10][11][12][13]), gambling cognitions (evidence is limited [14]), and psychological distress and wellbeing (results again equivocal [15][16][17]). ...
... The results of the single predictor regressions are consistent with our previous pre-registered hypotheses [19], using simple bivariate correlations and numerous previous studies [4][5][6][7][8]. These show robust, moderately sized associations between problem gambling score and loot box engagement (measured by either spend or RLI). ...
... Open Sci. 11: 231046 spend on loot boxes (where correlations with spend are the most commonly reported measurement of loot box engagement in the literature [4][5][6][7][8]). ...
In a pre-registered survey linked to this paper (Exploring the relationships between psychological variables and loot box engagement, part 1: pre-registered hypotheses), we confirmed bivariate associations between engagement with loot boxes (purchasable randomized rewards in video games) and measures of problem gambling, problem video gaming, impulsivity, gambling cognitions, experiences of game-related ‘flow’, psychological distress and reduced wellbeing. However, these variables have complex relationships, so to gain further insights, we analysed the dataset (1495 gamers who purchase loot boxes and 1223 purchasers of non-randomized content) in a series of Bayesian mixed-effects multiple regressions with a zero-inflation component. The results challenge some well-established results in the literature, including associations between loot box engagement and problematic gambling measures, instead suggesting that this relationship might be underpinned by shared variance with problem video gaming and gambling-related cognitions. An entirely novel discovery revealed a complex interaction between experiences of flow and loot box engagement. Distress and wellbeing are both (somewhat contradictorily) predictive of participants engaging with loot boxes, but neither correlate with increasing loot box risky engagement/spend (among those who engage). Our findings unravel some of the nuances underpinning loot box engagement, yet remain consistent with narratives that policy action on loot boxes will have benefits for harm minimization.
... Al respecto, 16 estudios revisados corroboraron esta relación . De igual manera, dos metaanálisis de 13 y 15 estudios (Garea et al., 2021), respectivamente, encontraron una correlación positiva débil a moderada, pero clínicamente relevante, entre el hecho de gastar dinero en las loot boxes y la ludopatía. Por otro lado, Hing et al. (2022) establecen que, hasta la fecha, todos los estudios han sido transversales y no han podido identificar las causas directas entre la compra de loot boxes y la apuesta problemática. ...
... Por otro lado, Hing et al. (2022) establecen que, hasta la fecha, todos los estudios han sido transversales y no han podido identificar las causas directas entre la compra de loot boxes y la apuesta problemática. Sin embargo, estos estudios sugieren que las loot boxes están incrementando los síntomas asociados a apuestas problemáticas, o están atrayendo a quienes son más vulnerables Garea et al., 2021;Zendle & Cairns, 2018. ...
Loot boxes are a popular microtransaction system in video games that incorporate elements of randomness and gambling-like features. Their appeal lies in uncertain rewards, raising concerns about their psychological and social impact, particularly on youth. Research shows correlations between spending on loot boxes and gambling addiction, alongside negative emotional, social, and educational consequences. These transactions pose not only immediate risks but may also serve as precursors to gambling problems in adulthood. Regulatory measures, transparency in reward probabilities, and self-regulatory industry practices are crucial to safeguarding vulnerable populations from potential harm.
... For example, in a meta-analysis, the association between loot box spending and problem gambling was robust, with a small-to-moderate effect size (r = .260; (Garea et al., 2021). Other studies have observed moderate associations between RLI scores and problem gambling severity (Brooks & Clark, 2019;Garea et al., 2023). ...
... The gamblers at baseline spent 16 times more on loot boxes over the previous 12-months compared to non-gamblers. These descriptive effects corroborate the wider literature around loot box engagement being more prominent among those who gamble (Garea et al., 2021;Wardle & Zendle, 2021). ...
Background: Loot boxes are randomized reward mechanics in modern video games that share features with conventional gambling products. Research studies have begun to test longitudinal patterns (‘migration’) from engagement with loot boxes to gambling behavior. This study investigated such effects at a 6-month follow-up in an online sample of young adult video gamers (aged 19 - 25) from British Columbia, Canada. Methods: Participants were stratified into two subgroups at their baseline assessment: 83 non-gamblers and 43 gamblers, after cleaning. As baseline, participants provided responses to the Risky Loot Box Index (RLI), and estimates of their past year spending on both randomized (i.e. loot boxes) and non-randomized (‘direct purchase’) microtransactions. Microtransaction spending and RLI scores at baseline were tested as predictors of self-identified gambling initiation and spend at follow-up. We employed two different types of analyses: a set of frequentist regressions and a corresponding set of Bayesian regressions.Results: At baseline, the gamblers showed higher levels of engagement with both randomized and non-randomized microtransactions. Among non-gamblers at baseline, loot box spending and RLI predicted gambling initiation at the follow-up in a Bayesian logistic regression with informed priors. Loot box spending and RLI at baseline predicted gambling expenditure at follow-up in both the frequentist and Bayesian linear regressions. Spending on direct purchase microtransactions did not predict gambling initiation in either set of models when controlling for loot box spending, underscoring the role of randomized rewards. Conclusions: These data provide further prospective evidence for gambling ‘migration’ in a sample recruited in Western Canada. Young adults who spend money on loot boxes are at elevated risk for real-money gambling, and regulatory responses may be directed towards this group.
... Supporting evidence for this link has been found by authors in cross-sectional studies [6,14,15], but there is hardly any longitudinal evidence [16]. On the other hand, there is more evidence of a direct relationship between the purchase of LBs and problem gambling [5,10,11,15,[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]. However, only a few studies have related the purchase of LBs to clinical problems of online gambling (following the DSM-5 [25] and International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision [ICD-11] criteria) [26], and almost all these have been cross-sectional studies. ...
... Overall, we still need to answer the possible hypotheses raised by Spicer et al [29] about LBs and gambling: either (1) users who gamble in other environments buy more LBs; (2) buyers of LBs are more likely to start gambling, through the "gateway effect"; or (3) there is a complex and dynamic relationship between both behaviors, where gambling is known to interact with other risky behaviors. In line with the latter suggestion, LBs have been related to gaming and gambling problems in minors and mostly adults [19,27,29,30]. Nevertheless, the possible mediating role of LBs between both clinical problems has been much less addressed. ...
Background
The video game industry has introduced a new form of monetization through microtransactions. A controversial example has been the so-called “loot boxes” (LBs) as virtual objects, which are randomized and bought with legal money. In recent years, LBs have come to connect 2 distinct problem behaviors, namely internet gaming disorder (IGD) and online gambling disorder (OGD). Many association studies have been conducted on the 3 constructs, but few have delved into the relationship of problematic use of LBs (PU-LB) with IGD and OGD.
Objective
This study aims to explore the mediating role of the PU-LB between IGD and OGD.
Methods
This cross-sectional and analytical study used incidental sampling in 24 Spanish schools. The final sample consisted of 542 participants (male: n=523, 96.5%; age: range 11‐30 y) who played video games, bought LBs, and had gambled online in the last 12 months. Participants then completed the Spanish versions of the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale–Short Form, Online Gambling Disorder Questionnaire, and PU-LB scale.
Results
IGD scores were found to be significantly associated with both PU-LB ( r =0.473, P <.001) and OGD ( r =0.209, P <.001). Moreover, PU-LB was significantly associated with OGD ( r =0.351, P <.001). The structural equation model results indicated that IGD had no significant direct effect on OGD ( P =.903). However, the indirect effect of IGD on OGD through PU-LB was significant ( P <.001). Therefore, PU-LB fully mediated the relationship between IGD and OGD. Furthermore, these results were found in the subsamples of both minors (<18 y) and young adults (≥18 y).
Conclusions
It is suggested that there is a mediation effect of problematic LB use between internet gambling and online gambling problems in both minors and young adults. This has potential practical implications by providing more evidence on how LBs have become a hinge feature between 2 clinically relevant and independent issues. In this regard, adequate industry self-regulation is needed, and effective legislation for the protection of minors is necessary.
... With structural and psychological similarities to gambling [5], systematic review evidence of loot boxes has established robust associations with both problem gambling and problem video gaming [6][7][8][9][10]. While the motivations for purchasing are complex [11], it is known that high spenders on loot boxes (i.e. more than $100 per month, or local equivalent) are disproportionately represented by problem gamblers, but not higher earners [12]. ...
... With psychological instruments (i.e. for gambling; gaming; loot box motivations; gambling cognitions; impulsivity; flow), the results generally supported hypothesized associations (6/7 supported; 1/7, for impulsivity, supported only against our primary outcome, the RLI; table 2). Such results confirm previously well-established associations with both problem gambling and problem video gaming [6,10]. Furthermore, these two variables appear to independently contribute to loot box expenditure (see H2.6). ...
Loot boxes are purchasable randomized rewards in video games that share structural and psychological similarities with gambling. Systematic review evidence has established reproducible associations between loot box purchasing and both problem gambling and problem video gaming, perhaps driven by a range of overlapping psychological processes (e.g. impulsivity, gambling-related cognitions, etc.) It has also been argued that loot box engagement may have negative influences on player financial and psychological wellbeing. We conducted a pre-registered survey of 1495 loot box purchasing gamers (LB cohort) and 1223 gamers who purchase other, non-randomized game content (nLB cohort). Our survey confirms 15 of our 23 pre-registered hypotheses against our primary outcome (risky loot box engagement), establishing associations with problem gambling, problem gaming, impulsivity, gambling cognitions, experiences of game-related ‘flow’ and specific ‘distraction and compulsion’ motivations for purchase. Results with hypotheses concerning potential harms established that risky loot box engagement was negatively correlated with wellbeing and positively correlated with distress. Overall, results indicate that any risks from loot boxes are liable to disproportionately affect various ‘at risk’ cohorts (e.g. those experiencing problem gambling or video gaming), thereby reiterating calls for policy action on loot boxes.
... While many manufacturers of video games claim that loot boxes are harmless items with no real value 16,17 , studies demonstrate links between loot-box purchasing behaviour and gaming addiction, with meta-analyses reporting correlations in the small to medium range 7,18 . Further, time and money spent on loot boxes are correlated with problematic gambling behaviour and maladaptive gambling-related beliefs 19 . ...
Video games frequently contain loot boxes, i.e. virtual in-game items sharing structural similarities with gambling. On YouTube©, there are multi-million subscriber channels prominently featuring loot box-related content. A gamblification of digital games may increase player engagement, and we tested if user engagement on YouTube is linked to loot box content. We extracted aggregate user engagement measures from more than 22 thousand YouTube gaming videos with and without focused display of loot boxes. Principal component analysis was used to reduce dimensionality and derive components reflecting overall and sustained, and relative user engagement, respectively. Confirming our pre-registered hypothesis (see https://osf.io/nh7zr), a significant effect of loot box content on the first principal component was found, reflecting higher overall and sustained user engagement for videos featuring loot box content. This increased engagement may be linked to the gambling-like properties of the reward structure conveyed by loot boxes. Publicly available user data may serve as an early indicator of potential changes in problematic internet use and gambling-related behaviour.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-01482-5.
... Several cross-sectional studies have now examined associations of loot box purchasing with gambling and problem gambling (Gibson et al., 2022;Kim et al., 2023;Montiel et al., 2022;Spicer et al., 2022). Although these studies have varied in their operationalizations of loot box purchasing (e.g., any versus no loot box purchasing, total expenditure on loot box purchasing), gambling (e.g., any versus no gambling, gambling frequency, gambling expenditure), and problem gambling (e.g., categorical problem gambling status, continuous problem gambling severity level), nearly all have established that purchasing loot boxes is associated with a greater likelihood of or more severe gambling and problem gambling (Gibson et al., 2022;Kim et al., 2023;Montiel et al., 2022;Spicer et al., 2022), with moderate meta-analytic effect sizes (Garea et al., 2021;Spicer et al., 2022). ...
Loot boxes are virtual items containing bonus content for video games. Their digital content is random and unknown to the player, which is why they are often compared to gambling. Over the past several decades, loot boxes have become increasingly common in modern video games and contribute to significant profits for the gaming industry. Unfortunately, research has illuminated the numerous harms associated with loot boxes, including, for example, financial loss and psychological distress. Moreover, there is evidence to suggest that loot boxes may act as a “gateway” to gambling. However, research is limited on whether or not there is a causal link between loot boxes and problem gambling, and additional research is needed to clarify the nature of the relationship. This chapter will provide an overview of the history of loot boxes and current popularity before discussing the shared characteristics with gambling. The link between loot boxes and problem gambling will be explored in-depth, including underlying mechanisms associated with negative consequences. Recent studies on loot boxes, including those that explore potential harms and risk factors associated with harm, will be examined. Finally, suggestions are made for future research, such as including objective data and diversifying samples. Clinical and policy implications will also be discussed.
... In addition to the randomness of the outcome, LBs seem to share other features with gambling mechanisms, particularly slot machines, such as intermittent reinforcement, near-misses, and audiovisual feedback (Derevensky & Griffiths, 2019). This has motivated interest in exploring whether there is a relationship between LBs and gambling, finding a positive association between LB consumption and problematic gambling (Garea et al., 2021;. Current research has focused on exploring the directionality of this relationship, that is, determining whether LBs are a precursor or gateway to gambling (gateway effects), or whether gambling influences LB consumption (reverse gateway effects). ...
Loot boxes (LBs) have become an essential dynamic in video games. However, their similarities with gambling have motivated video games, such as Brawl Stars (BS), to eliminate them, producing conflicting opinions. This study explored the perception of BS players using Google Play Store reviews and ratings to examine the impact of LBs removal on game experience. For this, 9,697 Google Play comments were reviewed, of which 662 were included. Thematic analysis revealed three themes: supporting LBs (92.1%), against LBs (5.1%), and mixed perspectives (2.8%). The main subthemes supporting LBs were opening experience (44.4%), game progression more expensive and time-consuming (44.1%), and status/esteem (0.3%). Players stated that eliminating LBs made the game lose its essence (27.9%), making it less accessible (8.4%) and difficult to understand (0.9%), reducing players' interest in the game (30.9%), and leading 21.7% to uninstall it. Our findings suggest that gambling-like dynamics have an impact on gaming experience.
... Aunque este ámbito de estudio es notablemente joven, existen investigaciones que han podido establecer similitudes entre el juego y las loot boxes (Drummond & Sauer, 2018;Von Meduna et al., 2020;Xiao, 2020) y hay evidencias empíricas que relacionan la sintomatología de juego patológico con la compra de loot boxes (Garea et al., 2021;González-Cabrera et al., 2022;Zendle & Cairns, 2018). Así, se ha encontrado una relación positiva entre la frecuencia y el dinero invertido en loot boxes con el trastorno de juego patológico (Drummond et al., 2020;Macey & Hamari, 2019). ...
La introducción de las dinámicas de los juegos de azar en nuevos ámbitos como los videojuegos ha sido motivo de alarma debido a que puede llevar a los sujetos a exponerse a un amplio abanico de daños que se derivan de esta actividad. El diseño de los videojuegos está por ello cada vez más cuestionado por la opinión pública en base a determinadas prácticas comerciales, como es el caso de los micropagos. Dado el impacto de estas técnicas, especialmente en colectivos vulnerables como los menores, se ha llevado a cabo la presente investigación. Se ha realizado un estudio de los 50 juegos móviles más descargados de la Play Store en España con el objetivo de observar sus formas de monetización, identificando su prevalencia y forma de implementación. Con ello se ha podido observar que, de los 50 juegos analizados, el 86% (n = 42) presentaban la opción de realizar algún tipo de microtransacción y el 33% (n = 16) presentaban opciones de compras de loot boxes. El estudio subraya la necesidad de una regulación más estricta que contemple estas prácticas, así como de evaluaciones de impacto infantil por parte de los proveedores de videojuegos dirigidos a menores, conforme al Reglamento de Servicios Digitales (2022) y la Resolución del Parlamento Europeo (2023).
... Loot boxes are recognised to share psychological and structural similarities with traditional gambling (13,14) and similar risk factors as other addictive products, e.g., drugs and alcohol (15). Research has consistently found a link between monetary spending on loot boxes and harmful gambling symptomology (16)(17)(18)(19). Previous research has shown that longitudinally, young people who purchased loot boxes were more likely to participate in and spend more money on traditional gambling six months later (20,21). ...
Loot boxes and social casino mechanics are gambling-like products inside video games providing random results in exchange for real-world money. These products may cause harm to consumers, e.g., children and adults experiencing gambling harms. Most countries do not regulate these mechanics as gambling because the random rewards do not possess real-world monetary value as defined by law. Conversely, Belgium uniquely regulates both as unlicensed and therefore illegal forms of gambling; offering these products is a criminal offence. However, this ‘ban’ has not been enforced due to the regulator lacking resources, so these products remain widely available. We investigated whether, beyond failing to remove these products through inaction, companies are also paying to advertise them on social media to specifically attract Belgian users, which is an additional crime. We gained data access through the EU Digital Services Act requiring large online platforms (e.g., Facebook) to provide repositories for all advertising shown and associated audience demographic data. Concerningly, 172 popular games with illegal loot boxes and social casino games were widely and illegally advertised. We studied 1,574 advertisements, which were viewed over 4.5 million times by Belgian users, including 1.26 million times by under-21s. Many other ads we did not study were also widely circulated. The regulator should hold social media platforms and app stores accountable for conducting effective content moderation and ensuring illegal games and ads are not available to local users. More data access opportunities should be mandated by law in the EU and beyond to aid research and enforcement.
... Tang et al. (1) reported that so-called 'problem gambling,' as they defined it, is associated with monetary spending on video game mechanics that involve randomisation (e.g., gacha mechanics (2,3) and loot boxes (4)) amongst young Hong Kong players of games containing such mechanics. At face value, that assertion is not surprising as a consistent line of research has previously established that relationship in Western countries (5)(6)(7), which has been relied upon in policymaking (8,9). Research conducted subsequent to Tang 'problematic participation in gacha mechanics' and proved various relationships existed between that construct and other variables, which arguably is less meaningful (11,12). ...
Tang et al. (1) reported that so-called ‘problem gambling,’ as they defined it, is associated with monetary spending on video game mechanics that involve randomisation (e.g., gacha mechanics (2,3) and loot boxes (4)) amongst young Hong Kong players of games containing such mechanics. At face value, that assertion is not surprising as a consistent line of research has previously established that relationship in Western countries (5–7), which has been relied upon in policymaking (8,9). Research conducted subsequent to Tang et al. in Mainland China has also replicated the relationship (10).However, unfortunately, Tang et al. suffered from a fundamental flaw. That study did not, in fact, measure ‘problem gambling’ as traditionally defined because Tang et al. significantly modified the measurement scale. Instead, Tang et al. measured only ‘problematic participation in gacha mechanics’ and proved various relationships existed between that construct and other variables, which arguably is less meaningful (11,12). The development of that new scale lacked transparency and evidence of reliability and validity. It is unclear whether that new measure is related to ‘problem gambling’ and, if so, to what extent. In any case, it is not, and cannot be used as, a direct replacement without further validationTang et al. could not in fact have been able to report on any issues concerning ‘problem gambling’ because by definition, they did not measure ‘problem gambling.’ They should not have claimed to have been able to test or comment on any psychological relationships concerning ‘problem gambling.’ The current framing of that paper and its conclusions are misleading to readers whose attention are not specifically drawn to this highly significant measurement modification. This comment intends to correct that misimpression. Simply put, Tang et al. did not prove what its title suggested. That paper must be treated with due caution and considered for exclusion from meta-analyses.
... Criticism stems from the view that loot boxes can be 'predatory' monetisation techniques that psychologically manipulate players into overspending money on a game Delfabbro, 2018, 2019). Extending this view further is the assertion that 'loot boxes in video games have blurred the lines between gaming and gambling' (Brady and Prentice, 2021: 419; see also Zendle and Cairns, 2018;Garea et al., 2021;Larche et al., 2021;Xiao and Henderson, 2021;Spicer et al., 2022) and are therefore morally and ethically problematic. The subtext is that game companies profit by manipulating their players into spending, creating a sense of distinction between the company and the player as a passive victim of predatory capitalism. ...
This article explores the experiential value of gambling within free-to-play (f2p) gamespaces. In doing so, it offers a more balanced understanding of the gambling/gaming interplay. Whilst existing understandings tend to focus on the assumedly predatory monetisation techniques that players are subjected to by game developers, I instead argue that a logic of gambling is integral to the f2p experience economy of Asian players. Drawing on an analysis of in-depth interviews with Singapore-based game players/developers, I show how the virtual items and worlds that players engage with through f2p gamespaces are imbued with experiential value, whilst developers leverage the volumes of data generated by players to maximise this value in ways that might eventually lead to their monetisation. Embracing these complementary facets of f2p gamespaces can help expand normative understandings of gambling in/and gaming.
... The results suggest that both groups experience increased arousal from LB opening and from spinning a simulated slot machine, which is consistent with the literature suggesting that one of the main motivations shared by both gamblers and LB users is the fun and excitement they elicit (Puiras, Oliver, Cummings, Sheinin, & Mazmanian, 2023). This motivation, among other factors, may explain the ongoing relationship between gambling and LB opening (Garea, Drummond, Sauer, Hall, & Williams, 2021;Spicer et al., 2021). ...
Loot boxes (LBs) are microtransactions within video games that offer players the opportunity to acquire virtual items randomly. LBs shared structural and psychological features with gambling, especially slot machines. However, one potential shared feature that has been scarcely explored in LBs, is the level of arousal experienced by players. This study explores changes in electrodermal activity (EDA), heart rate (HR) and respiratory rate (RR) during the opening of LBs in FIFA and during simulated slot machine spin in gamblers (n = 14, M = 19.93 years), LB users (n = 13, M = 19.62 years) and a control group (n = 13, M = 21.92 years). Additionally, the study aimed to compare psychophysiological activation levels produced by both dynamics in each group. Results indicated that both gamblers and LB users showed increased EDA during LB opening and slot machine spins, while HR or RR did not exhibit significant changes. The control group showed increased EDA during the slot machine spin, with no changes during LB opening or in other psychophysiological measures. The comparison between LB opening and slot machine spin revealed similar levels of psychophysiological activation for gamblers and LB users. These findings suggest a potential link between gambling and LBs, which could inform the development of policies for safer gaming environments.
... They are structurally and psychologically similar to gambling (Drummond & Sauer, 2018). A consistent line of research beginning from Zendle and Cairns (2018), including a secondary analysis (Close et al., 2021) and two meta analyses (Garea et al., 2021;Spicer et al., 2022), has found that loot box engagement is positively correlated with problem gambling and also with problem video gaming (e.g., Brooks & Clark, 2019;Drummond et al., 2020;Etchells et al., 2022;Kristiansen & Severin, 2019;Li et al., 2019;Xiao, Fraser, et al., 2024). Internationally, these products are widely available to young children, and parents and players are concerned about potential harms, e.g., overspending of money (Xiao et al., 2023;Xiao, Henderson, et al., 2024). ...
Loot boxes are products inside video games that consumers can buy to obtain random rewards. They are prevalently implemented in contemporary video games, including in those deemed suitable for young children. Stakeholders (parents and policymakers) are concerned about their gambling-like nature and potential harms. An established line of research has found positive correlations between loot box spending and problem gambling and problem videogaming that justify stricter regulation. Chew and Neo (2024) also sought to explore these relationships and presented findings that were contrary to the prior literature. In principle, challenging our current knowledge using novel methods can improve the overall reliability of science and should always be encouraged. However, those methods must be sound. Unfortunately, Chew and Neo (2024) was fundamentally flawed due to a major error in its survey materials: in relation to the most important variable, they incorrectly instructed participants that the highly popular video game League of Legends did not contain loot boxes, which was factually incorrect, as the game did sell loot boxes. This significantly affected the accuracy of the data and the subsequent results and interpretation. Besides this fundamental error, the study also suffers from several other critical shortcomings that call its validity into question, including measuring and relying upon an unreliable variable; potentially unjustified exclusion of participants; and the misuse of statistics. More proactive engagement with open science practices would have alleviated our concerns or even prevented these issues from arising in the first place. Chew and Neo (2024) should be interpreted extremely cautiously.
... Similar to gambling, the contents of the loot boxes are randomized and players will not know their value until they have paid for and opened it (Griffiths, 2018). Since loot boxes provide rewards on a chance basis and can be purchased using real money, it has been questioned whether these items share psychological and structural features with traditional gambling (Garea et al., 2021;Spicer et al., 2022). ...
Most epidemiological surveys focus on adult gambling behaviors related to traditional gambling forms, while studies on novel forms often focus on loot boxes and cryptocurrency trading individually. This study examines the co-ocurrence of emergent gambling and gambling-like practices, analyzing the demographic and psychological characteristics of involved gamblers. A cross-sectional study surveyed 1429 Spanish individuals aged 18–65, using a web-based questionnaire. The survey assessed participation in 19 gambling (e.g., lotteries, sports betting) and gambling-like activities (e.g., trading of cryptocurrencies and other assets, buying loot-boxes), along with sociodemographic and substance use. Problem gambling (PGSI), Impulsivity (UPPS-P), and cognitive distortions (Labrador’s cognitive distortions scale) were also assessed. Participants who gambled over the past year (n = 921) were classified into four groups: traditional gambling (TG) only (64.5%, n = 594), TG with trading activities (27.5%, n = 253), TG with gambling withing video games or streaming platforms (2.5%, n = 23), and TG with both trading and video gambling (5.5%, n = 51). Most gamblers engaged exclusively in traditional formats, but 35.5% also participated in novel gambling forms. Those involved in both trading and video gambling were generally younger, male, with higher levels of impulsivity and gambling-related cognitive distortions compared to TG-only gamblers (p < 0.001). This group also exhibited higher rates of problem gambling and substance use (p < 0.001). This study emphasize the importance of including emerging gambling activities, which are particularly prevalent among high-risk gamblers, in epidemiological surveys. Identifying new gambling patterns and associated risk factors could help optimize public policies and develop more effective regulatory and prevention strategies.
... Loot boxes are conceptually and psychologically similar to gambling because they involve the player investing money on random and unknown outcomes [17]: most of the time, the player will in fact lose money by failing to obtain a rare, random reward that they desired [55]. Loot box spending has been consistently linked to problem gambling in multiple regions of the world [10,23,50,68,74] and amongst both adults and adolescent samples [25,77], which suggests that a potentially vulnerable group of consumers (those experiencing gambling harms) may experience harm from loot boxes through overspending. However, any links between loot box spending and worse mental health outcomes are less clear [19, 68, cf. ...
Loot boxes are gambling-like products inside video games that players can purchase with real-world money to obtain random rewards. Stakeholders (e.g., players, parents, and policymakers) are concerned about their potential harms, e.g., overspending and normalizing gambling. Recognizing that previous industry self-regulation has failed to solve the problem, South Korea started requiring companies to disclose the probabilities of getting different loot box rewards by law from March 2024 onwards. Content analysis found that 90 of the 100 highest-grossing iPhone games contained paid loot boxes, but only 84.4% of them disclosed probabilities, meaning that compliance was still not perfect. Further, the accessibility and visual prominence of most disclosures could be improved. A South Korean regulator is actively monitoring games for compliance, including processing player complaints, and taking enforcement actions against non-compliant companies. Other countries still solely relying on industry self-regulation should consider adopting actively enforced legal regulation instead to improve consumer protection.
... Loot box purchasing is associated with problem gambling (Garea et al., 2021), though the causal relationship remains unclear (Greer et al., 2022). That is, we don't know whether young people who purchase loot boxes are more likely to develop any type of gambling problems as a result of such purchases. ...
... Poker, loot box purchasing, and skin gambling were also found to have a high inherent risk of gambling harm, but are used by only a small proportion of Australian adults. Previous research has noted the elevated rates of gambling problems amongst people who use novel gambling forms (Garea, Drummond, Sauer, Hall, & Williams, 2021;Greer, Rockloff, Hing, Browne, & King, 2023;Hing et al., 2023;Spicer et al., 2021;Wardle, Petrovskaya, & Zendle, 2020;Yokumitsu et al., 2021). Considering their low current uptake, banning these products would cause minimal inconvenience while also protecting current and future users. ...
Aims. Understanding how gambling harm is distributed is essential to inform effective harm reduction measures. This first national Australian study of gambling harm-to-self examined the extent, distribution, risk factors, and health related quality of life impacts of this harm.Methods. A Random Digit Dialling sample of 15,000 Australian adults was weighted to key variables. Key measures included the Gambling Harms Scale-10 (GHS-10), PGSI, SF-6D, gambling behaviours, and demographics. Analyses included ordinal logistic regression. Results. Amongst gamblers, 14.7% reported harm on the GHS-10, including 1.9% reporting high-level harm. While high-level harm occurred mainly in the problem gambling group (77.3%), other PGSI groups accounted for most of the more prevalent low (98.5%) and moderate (87.2%) harms reported. Proximal predictors of greater harm were use of online gambling and more frequent gambling on electronic gaming machines (EGMs), race betting sports betting, poker, skin gambling, scratchies, and loot box purchasing. Distal predictors were being younger, male, single, Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, and speaking a non-English language at home. At the population level, the greatest aggregate HRQoL impacts were amongst lower-risk gamblers, confirming the results of other studies regarding the ‘prevention paradox’. Conclusions. The distribution of harm across gambler risk groups indicates the need for preventive measures, not just interventions for problem gambling. Reducing harm requires modifying product features that amplify their risk, especially for EGMs, race betting and sports betting that are both inherently risky and widely used. Gambling harm exacerbates health disparities for disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, requiring targeted resources and support.
... Loot boxes are mechanics inside video games that players engage with to obtain random rewards [1]. Particular concerns have been raised about loot boxes that players buy with realworld money, including overspending and experiencing gambling-related harms [2], [3], [4], [5], [6]. In addition, there are other in-game purchasing mechanics that contain randomised elements causing similar concerns: for example, socalled character summoning 'gacha' mechanics in East Asian games (such as Genshin Impact (miHoYo, 2020)) [7], [8] and social or simulated casino games that allow players to spend real-world money to participate in traditional gambling activities without the opportunity to convert any potential winnings back into cash (such as Zynga Poker (Zynga, 2007)) [9], [10]. ...
Loot boxes in video games that provide random rewards in exchange for real-world money have been identified as gambling-like and potentially harmful. Many stakeholders are concerned. One regulatory approach is to label games with loot boxes with a presence warning. This has been adopted by the age rating organizations of Germany (the USK), North America (the ESRB), and Europe (PEGI). Previous research, by cross-checking the historical age rating decisions made by the ESRB and PEGI between April 2020 and September 2022, has identified mistakes where one or both organizations failed to label certain games with loot boxes as containing them. The USK only started identifying loot box presence from 2023 and so could not previously be studied. All age rating decisions concerning games with loot boxes made in 2023 by the USK, the ESRB, and PEGI were compared. This process identified how the USK has seemingly (i) failed to label two games as containing loot boxes and (ii) adopted an unspoken policy of giving games with loot boxes a USK 12 rating (i.e., ‘approved for children aged 12 and above’) at a minimum. Confirmation of the above has been sought from the USK, and an official reply has been promised and is expected imminently. In addition, the ESRB and PEGI have correctly labelled all games with loot boxes that they assessed in 2023 as containing them, thus giving the public more confidence in the reliability of their age rating information and demonstrating an improvement from their performance in previous years.
... Taking into account previous research (Brooks & Clark, 2019;Garea et al., 2021;Raneri et al., 2022;Spicer et al., 2022), criterion- Additionally, differences in the prevalence of risky loot box use by gender, age, and other sociodemographic information (residence, education, marital status, and occupational situation) were calculated using the χ 2 test. The effect size was estimated using φ or Cramér's V. ...
Loot boxes are random virtual items in video games that gamers can purchase using real or virtual in-game money. Brooks and Clark (2019) developed a five-item measure of risky behaviors surrounding the use of loot boxes called the Risky Loot Box Index (RLI). So far, it is one of the few validated instruments to evaluate difficulties in controlling the use of these specific microtransactions in video games. The current study aimed to provide data on the Polish version of the RLI. A sample of 1358 gamers (59.1% females) who opened loot boxes in the past 12 months completed an online survey conducted via an internet panel containing the RLI along with the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale–Short-Form, the Problem Gambling Severity Index, and questions about loot box use and sociodemographics. As a result, the original RLI’s one-factor structure was successfully confirmed in the Polish version. The scale also displayed satisfactory internal consistency. Furthermore, convergent validity indices were similar to those reported for the original version, and scale scores reached full invariance across gender and age. Finally, the study examined the item functioning of RLI according to item response theory. The Polish version of the RLI is well aligned with the original English version. Therefore, it offers a valuable measure to Polish researchers and clinicians interested in measuring the problematic aspects of loot box use.
... Poker, loot box purchasing, and skin gambling were also found to have a high inherent risk of gambling harm, but are used by only a small proportion of Australian adults. Previous research has noted the elevated rates of gambling problems amongst people who use novel gambling forms (Garea, Drummond, Sauer, Hall, & Williams, 2021;Greer, Rockloff, Hing, Browne, & King, 2023;Hing et al., 2023;Spicer et al., 2021;Wardle, Petrovskaya, & Zendle, 2020;Yokumitsu et al., 2021). Considering their low current uptake, banning these products would cause minimal inconvenience while also protecting current and future users. ...
Aims
Understanding how gambling harm is distributed is essential to inform effective harm reduction measures. This first national Australian study of gambling harm-to-self examined the extent, distribution, risk factors, and health related quality of life (HRQoL) impacts of this harm.
Methods
A Random Digit Dialling sample of 15,000 Australian adults was weighted to key population variables. Key measures included the Gambling Harms Scale-10 (GHS-10), PGSI, SF-6D, gambling behaviours, and demographics. Analyses included ordinal logistic regression.
Results
Amongst gamblers, 14.7% reported harm on the GHS-10, including 1.9% reporting high-level harm. While high-level harm occurred mainly in the problem gambling group (77.3%), other PGSI groups accounted for most of the more prevalent low (98.5%) and moderate (87.2%) harms reported. Proximal predictors of greater harm were use of online gambling and more frequent gambling on electronic gaming machines (EGMs), race betting sports betting, poker, skin gambling, scratchies, and loot box purchasing. Distal predictors were being younger, male, single, Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, and speaking a non-English language at home. At the population level, the greatest aggregate HRQoL impacts were amongst lower-risk gamblers, confirming the results of other studies regarding the ‘prevention paradox’.
Conclusions
The distribution of harm across gambler risk groups indicates the need for preventive measures, not just interventions for problem gambling. Reducing harm requires modifying product features that amplify their risk, especially for EGMs, race betting and sports betting that are both inherently risky and widely used. Gambling harm exacerbates health disparities for disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, requiring targeted resources and support.
... Loot boxes are mechanics inside video games that players engage with to obtain random rewards [1]. Particular concerns have been raised about loot boxes that players buy with realworld money, including overspending and experiencing gambling-related harms [2], [3], [4], [5], [6]. In addition, there are other in-game purchasing mechanics that contain randomised elements causing similar concerns: for example, socalled character summoning 'gacha' mechanics in East Asian games (such as Genshin Impact (miHoYo, 2020)) [7], [8] and social or simulated casino games that allow players to spend real-world money to participate in traditional gambling activities without the opportunity to convert any potential winnings back into cash (such as Zynga Poker (Zynga, 2007)) [9], [10]. ...
Loot boxes in video games that provide random rewards in exchange for real-world money have been identified as gambling-like and potentially harmful. Many stakeholders are concerned. One regulatory approach is to label games with loot boxes with a presence warning. This has been adopted by the age rating organizations of Germany (the USK), North America (the ESRB), and Europe (PEGI). Previous research, by cross-checking the historical age rating decisions made by the ESRB and PEGI between April 2020 and September 2022, has identified mistakes where one or both organizations failed to label certain games with loot boxes as containing them. The USK only started identifying loot box presence from 2023 and so could not previously be studied. All age rating decisions concerning games with loot boxes made in 2023 by the USK, the ESRB, and PEGI were compared. This process identified how the USK has seemingly (i) failed to label two games as containing loot boxes and (ii) adopted an unspoken policy of giving games with loot boxes a USK 12 rating (i.e., ‘approved for children aged 12 and above’) at a minimum. Confirmation of the above has been sought from the USK, and an official reply has been promised and is expected imminently. In addition, the ESRB and PEGI have correctly labelled all games with loot boxes that they assessed in 2023 as containing them, thus giving the public more confidence in the reliability of their age rating information and demonstrating an improvement from their performance in previous years.
... Concerns have been raised about the potential harms of loot boxes, given their gambling-like nature. A positive correlation between loot box spending and problem gambling has been consistently replicated (Zendle and Cairns 2018;Spicer et al. 2022;Garea et al. 2021), and recent longitudinal studies have suggested that young people who purchased loot boxes were more likely to engage in traditional gambling and spend more money on it six months later (Brooks and Clark 2022;González-Cabrera et al. 2023). ...
As to conclusions, the present study found that the vast majority of video game ads on social media platforms failed to disclose that the game being advertised offered in-game purchases and loot boxes in particular. Companies need to better understand their legal obligations when advertising video games offering loot boxes. Players and parents need additional protection. As this remains a work-in-progress, during the presentation at DiGRA, further reflections on the results will be shared, including how the adverts also broke other advertising rules, such as failing to accurately depict gameplay or by objectifying women.
... While evidence of a causal link between loot box involvement and gambling problems is mixed, empirical research has found an association between loot box use and problem gambling. [19][20][21] Participation in these emerging forms of gambling remains low at a population level, but rising particularly among young males. 12 The current study explores trends in the gambling product categories that are causing harms using longitudinal helpline data (N ¼ 46 646) from three Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland and Sweden). ...
Background
Gambling products differ in terms of their harm potential. Products are also constantly developing and changing. However, little research has addressed changes and trends in the types of gambling that are associated with harms. The current study explores trends in the gambling product categories identified as harmful in longitudinal helpline data from three Nordic countries.
Methods
We use data collected by national helplines in Denmark (StopSpillet), Finland (Peluuri) and Sweden (Stödlinjen) in their daily operations (N = 46 646). The data consist of information collected on gamblers and concerned significant others who have contacted these helplines between January 2019 and December 2022. We analyse which gambling products are mentioned as harmful by clients. The analysis uses linear regression with the interaction term (country) times time regressed over the outcome variable (proportion per month).
Results
The results show that an increased share of contacts concern online gambling. Online casino products have become the most harmful category across contexts. The share of reported harms from online betting and new emerging online forms is also increasing. The share of land-based products as a reported source of harms has decreased across 2019–22.
Conclusions
The results suggest that online gamlbing environments, and particularly online casino products, are associated with increasing harms to help-seekers. The harmfulness of different gambling products may not be stable, but change over time. Further harm prevention efforts are needed to address the online gambling field, including emerging formats.
... This encompasses Embedded-Embedded and Embedded-Isolated loot boxes under Nielsen and Grabarczyk's categorisation (2019). Further, loot box purchasing has been found to be positively correlated with problem gambling severity in more than a dozen empirical studies in Western countries [17], e.g., the US [18], Australasia [19], Denmark [20] and Germany [21]. Players with higher problem gambling severity tend to spend more money purchasing loot boxes [22]. ...
Nowadays, many of the top-selling video games include options to purchase loot boxes as paid virtual items. As research progressed, loot boxes have been found to have similar characteristics to gambling, and there has been an ongoing debate as to whether loot boxes can be defined as gambling. In order to better study loot boxes, psychometrically meaningful scales are necessary. The Risky Loot Box Index (RLI) was developed by Brooks and Clark, which is the most commonly used tool to assess the use of loot boxes. This study aimed to translate the original RLI into Chinese and evaluate its psychometric properties. Two samples were recruited through online gaming forums ( n = 143) and offline internet cafes ( n = 236). An exploratory factor analysis of the online sample yielded a one-dimensional nine-item model, with the factor focused on risky behaviors associated with loot boxes. The confirmatory factor analysis carried out on the offline sample corroborated the results obtained from the exploratory factor analysis, and the Chinese version of the RLI displays satisfactory psychometric properties. Furthermore, the Problem Gambling Severity Index (r = 0.57, P < 0.001) and the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (r = 0.67, P < 0.001) were found to be significantly associated with the RLI. We also found that players with high RLI scores may have higher levels of anxiety and depression, and they were more willing to spend money on loot boxes, with some spending nearly all their earnings. Interestingly, no significant correlations between age, gender, education, or income level, and the RLI were found.
Background
The gaming and gambling overlap has intensified with new evidence emerging. However, the relationship between gaming and gambling in the digital space is still inconclusive, especially in resource-limited Asian countries.
Objective
This study aims to review available evidence on the possible interaction and focuses specifically on the gateway interaction between gambling and gaming. Additionally, this review delves into the state of evidence from the Southeast Asian region, providing an in-depth analysis of this underexplored area.
Methods
We performed a scoping review by sifting through the publications in five databases. We focused on the gateway interaction and provided a possible pathway model, while two other convergence relationships were provided for comparison.
Results
The scoping review identified a total of 289 publications, with the majority being empirical (n=181), although only 12 studies used longitudinal designs. A significant proportion of the publications (n=152) concentrated on the correlation or comorbidity between gaming and gambling. Most of the evidence has originated from Global North countries, with very limited research emerging from Southeast Asia (n=8). The most commonly studied gambling-like element in video games was loot boxes (n=105). Other elements investigated included esports betting, skin betting, token wagering, gambling advertisements, and gambling-like features. Several longitudinal studies have highlighted the risk of the gateway effect associated with gamblification involvement. However, emerging evidence suggests more nuanced underlying mechanisms that drive the transition from gaming to gambling.
Conclusions
Overall, there is early evidence of linkage between gambling and gaming, through shared structural and biopsychosocial characteristics. This association possibly extends beyond disparate comorbidity, as such engagement in one activity might influence the risk of partaking in the other behavior. The field requires further longitudinal data to determine the directionality and significant precipitating factors of the gateway effect, particularly evidence from Asia.
Le développement d’Internet et des technologies numériques a conduit à l’expansion du jeu en ligne et de son modèle dominant : les jeux gratuits ( free-to-play , F2P). Une large majorité de personnes jouent à ces jeux de manière récréative, mais la pratique de ces jeux peut avoir des effets néfastes pour certains individus vulnérables ou leurs proches.
Cette étude fait l’hypothèse que la population des joueurs free-to-play n’est pas un groupe homogène et vise à identifier, à travers une analyse de classes latentes, des sous-groupes de joueurs en fonction de leurs habitudes de jeu et à comparer le risque de problèmes générés par le jeu dans les différents sous-groupes.
Un échantillon de 5 062 personnes, représentatif des internautes français âgés de 18 à 65 ans, a été recruté. Les participants ont répondu à une enquête en ligne autoadministrée, comportant une série de questions sur leurs caractéristiques sociodémographiques, leurs habitudes de jeu et les problèmes liés à ces pratiques (IGDS9-SF).
L’analyse suggère l’existence de quatre classes de joueurs de jeux F2P : des joueurs avec une pratique peu intensive (classe I, 44,5 % de l’échantillon) ; des joueurs qui jouent peu intensivement, mais avec une plus grande probabilité de pratiquer des jeux d’argent (classe II, 6,5 %) ; des joueurs avec des pratiques de jeu plus intensives (classe III, 33,8 %) et des joueurs intensifs également plus enclins à dépenser de l’argent au cours du jeu et à pratiquer des jeux d’argent (classe IV, 15,2 %).
Les résultats indiquent que ces classes ont des profils sociodémographiques différents et que la prévalence de problèmes liés au jeu est plus élevée pour les classes II et III par rapport à la classe I, et pour la classe IV par rapport à toutes les autres classes. La dépense d’argent au cours du jeu associée à une pratique concomitante de jeux d’argent serait un marqueur fort d’une pratique problématique de jeu free-to-play .
This chapter explores the convergence of various digital technologies and their potential impacts on problematic online behaviors. Incorporation of gaming elements into many online activities (e.g., gambling, on-demand video streaming, social media, and pornography) has created concerns about problematic use, particularly among youth). We review the current state of knowledge, which suggests that problematic engagement in different activities represents distinct conditions. Nonetheless, despite their apparent distinctiveness, online addictive activities have shared risk factors, including personality factors, comorbid psychopathological symptoms, cognitive processes, and neurobiology. A common approach to prevention is therefore sensible, even if treatment of problematic cases should follow individualized approaches. Approaches actively involving parents are encouraged. We call for expanded research on the impact of specific design features of online activities on problematic behavior and risk, particularly relating to gamified activities. Longitudinal research is needed to better understand the use and impacts of online activities across developmental stages. Given the limited understanding of long-term impacts and the dynamic nature of related technologies, greater evidence is needed to inform policy and regulation relating to exposure of children and adolescents to content and activities that might in some cases promote problematic behaviors.
Loot boxes are a popular microtransaction system in video games that
incorporate elements of randomness and gambling-like features. Their appeal lies in
uncertain rewards, raising concerns about their psychological and social impact,
particularly on youth. Research shows correlations between spending on loot boxes
and gambling addiction, alongside negative emotional, social, and educational
consequences. These transactions pose not only immediate risks but may also serve as precursors to gambling problems in adulthood. Regulatory measures, transparency in reward probabilities, and self-regulatory industry practices are crucial to safeguarding vulnerable populations from potential harm.
Keywords: Loot boxes; Young People; Gambling Addiction; Micro transaction.
Background: Despite the availability of treatment options, the percentage of individuals with gambling problems seeking help remains low. To reach a broader population of those affected by disordered gambling, online or self-guided interventions have been developed, with personalized normative feedback (PNF) being one of the most widely used strategies in preventing gambling issues among young adults. However, most studies on the efficacy of PNF focus only on its impact on the intensity and severity of gambling behavior, without exploring its potential effect on increasing intention to change and help-seeking behaviors. Furthermore, no studies have assessed the efficacy of PNF in addressing emerging online gambling-like behaviors, such as betting within video games or excessive financial trading of high-risk assets (e.g., cryptocurrencies), which have been linked to pathological gambling. Method/Design: This project has two main objectives: (1) to quantify intention to change and the prevalence of help-seeking behaviors in young adults in Spain with disordered gambling or trading behaviors, and (2) to assess the efficacy of online personalized normative feedback (PNF) in increasing these behaviors. A randomized controlled trial with a Solomon three-group design will be conducted, including a sample of at least 472 men and women aged 18-30 years. The study will include three assessments: a pre-test, an immediate post-test, and a 12-week follow-up assessment. The intervention will consist of online PNF, delivered to participants in two intervention groups. The impact of PNF on gambling and trading behavior (including intensity, frequency, and severity) and the longitudinal trajectory of these behaviors will be also evaluated. Additionally, individual, interpersonal, and contextual factors will be assessed to identify the profile of individuals most likely to benefit from this intervention. Discussion: This study is innovative in evaluating the efficacy of online PNF in promoting behavior change and help-seeking in young adults with gambling and trading disorders. The findings will offer valuable insights into the psychological and social impacts of these behaviors, informing future prevention and treatment strategies. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT06681103; Date of Registration: November 7, 2024.
Cognitive biases are associated with the beginning and maintenance of addictive behaviours. While these biases have been studied in gambling, they have yet to be thoroughly investigated in the context of loot boxes (LBs), largely because of the relatively recent emergence of this phenomenon. This study compared cognitive biases in problematic gamblers, non-problematic gamblers, LB purchasers, and free-LB openers. For this aim, 279 participants (63.1% males) with a mean age of 23.65 years (SD = 8.66) completed a self-report. The results showed no differences between problematic gamblers, LB purchasers and LB openers on illusion of control and predictive control. In contrast to LB openers, problematic gamblers and LB purchasers obtained statistically similar scores on interpretative biases, gambling-related expectancies and the total score of the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS). Only problematic gamblers experienced a higher perceived inability to stop gambling. Moreover, problematic gamblers, LB purchasers and LB openers scored higher on all biases compared to non-problematic gamblers. Eighty-six participants simultaneously gambled and used LBs. When this overlap was controlled, problematic gamblers and loot boxers shared all cognitive biases but the perceived inability to stop gambling; and scored statistically higher than non-problematic gamblers in all cognitive biases except for the illusion of control. The study provides additional evidence of the relationship between gambling and LBs.
Although loot boxes are structurally and psychologically similar to gambling, they are available to minors and relatively free from government regulations. Amid calls for government regulations, researchers have examined the effects of loot boxes using either a gaming framework, a gambling framework, or both. The current study aimed to examine the ability of internet gaming disorder and problem gambling severity to predict money and time spent on games with loot boxes after controlling for demographic and other gaming-related variables (i.e., money and time spent on games without loot boxes). Participants were 171 (88.9% males) gamers and their ages ranged from 18 to 47 (M = 25.67, SD = 5.29). Participants completed instruments assessing internet gaming disorder and problem gambling severity. Subsequently, they provided demographic and gaming-related information. The results showed that internet gaming disorder and problem gambling severity do not predict money and time spent on games with loot boxes. Instead, the best predictor for each of those variables is money and time spent on games without loot boxes. Overall, the results suggested that it might be premature to introduce legislations to ban loot boxes and research should focus on the effects of microtransactions in general. Future research directions include using objective data for the amount of money and time spent and examining the effects of different types of loot boxes.
Problematic loot-box use has received increasing attention from researchers due to its prevalent and negative consequences, such as its close relationship with problem gaming and problem gambling, but few interventional studies have addressed this issue. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the effects of a self-control intervention on reducing problematic loot-box use, and further test the mediating role of problem gaming and impulse buying tendency. The intervention integrated various theoretically supported self-control strategies into a systematic course. A randomized controlled trial with 241 participants (Mage = 21.61, SD = 2.92, 172 males) was conducted using the Self-Control Scale, the Impulse Buying Tendency scale, the Internet Gaming Disorder scale, and the Risky Loot-box Index scale. The results showed that the intervention increased self-control significantly, as well as decreasing problem gaming, impulse buying tendency and problematic loot-box use significantly. Our work expands the research on problematic loot-box use by examining its relationship with self-control and provides a promising new intervention for practice.
Due to the growing increase of online video gamers and the possible psychosocial consequences of excessive gaming, it is important to validate reliable and culturally sensitive diagnostic tools. This study aims to assess the cross-cultural invariance of the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale (IGDS9-SF) which was adapted to measure IGD exclusively in League of Legends (LoL), across seven Latin American countries. In the sample of 12,972 LoL players, the factor structure, invariance, and validity of the Latin American version are examined. The results revealed a better fit and reliability and construct validity when item eight was excluded; this model showed factorial invariance by country, sex, server, and game modality. In conclusion, the study provides empirical evidence that determines the applicability of the eight-item version of the IGDS9-SF in various contexts, its usefulness in assessing the severity of Internet gaming disorder, and adverse health effects in Latin American LoL players.
Children and young people (CYP) are high consumers of loot boxes, raising concerns about the impact of a convergence of gaming and gambling-related harms and their potential negative developmental outcomes in adulthood. Especially, given evidence that practitioners and parents/carers are lacking awareness of the risks of converging gaming-gambling environments. Addressing these risks necessitates understanding the experiences of gaming and gambling-related harm within healthcare systems. This study aimed to gain insights from individuals with previous lived experience of gaming and/or gambling-related harm in the context of CYP and healthcare systems. A qualitative design was adopted using two semi-structured online focus groups, involving five participants with previous lived experience of gaming and/or gambling-related harm. Focus groups explored their experiences of healthcare services and barriers to support in the journey through harm and recovery. Thematic analysis of the data revealed five key themes: i) Escapism; ii) Identity; iii) Preventative Education; iv) Safer Environments; v) Health-based Narratives. Results suggested a convergence of gaming and gambling-related harm in terms of patterns of experiences of escapism and internalising harm with identity, highlighting the need for safer environments and preventative approaches to protect CYP against novel risks of harm through healthcare systems. The results suggest that preventative approaches need to understand the virtual worlds of CYP and the importance of digital resilience. Implications for practitioners, services, policy makers, and regulators seeking to protect CYP from the risks of gaming and gambling-related harm are discussed.
Loot boxes and gacha are gambling-like products inside video games that players buy with real-world money to obtain random rewards. Parents and policymakers are concerned about players, especially children, experiencing harm. Mainland China requires companies to disclose the probabilities of obtaining different rewards to promote consumer protection. Four years ago, research suggested that companies generally complied with the basic requirement to disclose; however, most companies failed to publish the disclosures prominently. The present study confirmed that loot boxes remained highly prevalent (97.0%) in mobile games and nearly all relevant games (96.9%) disclosed the probabilities for at least one loot box found within. However, upon closer inspection, 89.7% of relevant games contained other loot boxes whose probabilities have not been disclosed. The accessibility of disclosures has not improved. The prevalence and implementations of ID and age verification and other engagement and monetisation mechanics, such as daily login rewards, were also surveyed.
The results of companies' compliance with the aforementioned requirements will be assessed through fieldwork in five regions (China, South Korea, Taiwan, the UK, and the Netherlands) examining the 100 highest-grossing games in each of those regions. The highest-grossing games in each region will be analysed in detail to identify loot boxes and any compliance measures that have been implemented. We would be able to learn how prevalent loot boxes are across different regions, which helps our international understanding of the issue. Importantly, the results can inform the policymakers of those regions whether their rules are being effectively complied with and enforced. In addition, the lawmakers of other countries considering similar regulations could also benefit from these insights on implementation, compliance, and enforcement.
Loot boxes are digital containers of randomised rewards present in some video games which are often purchasable for real world money. Recently, concerns have been raised that loot boxes might approximate traditional gambling activities, and that people with gambling problems have been shown to spend more on loot boxes than peers without gambling problems. Some argue that the regulation of loot boxes as gambling-like mechanics is inappropriate because similar activities which also bear striking similarities to traditional forms of gambling, such as collectable card games, are not subject to such regulations. Players of collectible card games often buy sealed physical packs of cards, and these ‘booster packs’ share many formal similarities with loot boxes. However, not everything which appears similar to gambling requires regulation. Here, in a large sample of collectible card game players (n = 726), we show no statistically significant link between in real-world store spending on physical booster and problem gambling (p = 0.110, η² = 0.004), and a trivial in magnitude relationship between spending on booster packs in online stores and problem gambling (p = 0.035, η² = 0.008). Follow-up equivalence tests using the TOST procedure rejected the hypothesis that either of these effects was of practical importance (η² > 0.04). Thus, although collectable card game booster packs, like loot boxes, share structural similarities with gambling, it appears that they may not be linked to problem gambling in the same way as loot boxes. We discuss potential reasons for these differences. Decisions regarding regulation of activities which share structural features with traditional forms of gambling should be made on the basis of definitional criteria as well as whether people with gambling problems purchase such items at a higher rate than peers with no gambling problems. Our research suggests that there is currently little evidence to support the regulation of collectable card games.
A variety of practices have recently emerged which relate to both video games and gambling. These range from opening loot boxes, to esports betting, real-money video gaming, token wagering, and social casino spending. It is unknown either how harmful or how widespread many of these activities are. A sample of 1,081 adults from the UK aged 18+ was therefore recruited. This sample was purposively recruited via quota sampling to represent the UK population in terms of sex, age, and ethnicity. Engagement in all forms of gaming-related practices were significantly associated with both problem gambling and disordered gaming. A total of 18.5% of the sample had engaged in these activities at least once in the new year. These results suggest a convergent ecosystem of practices that relate to both video games and gambling. Engagement in each of these activities is linked to problem gambling. However, it remains unclear whether engagement in these activities causes problem gambling.
Loot boxes are digital containers of randomised rewards available in many video games. Due to similarities between some loot boxes and traditional forms of gambling, concerns regarding the relationship between spending on loot boxes in video games and symptoms of problematic gambling have been expressed by policy makers and the general public. We present the first investigation of these concerns in large cross-sectional cross-national samples from three countries (Aotearoa New Zealand, Australia, and the United States). A sample of 1,049 participants were recruited through Qualtrics’ Survey Targeting service from a broad cross-section of the population in Australia (n = 339), Aotearoa New Zealand (n = 323), and the United States (n = 387). Participants answered a survey assessing problem gambling, problem gaming symptomology, and how much they spent on loot boxes per month. On average, individuals with problem gambling issues spent approximately $13 USD per month more on loot boxes than those with no such symptoms. Loot box spending was also associated with both positive and negative moods, albeit with small effect sizes. Analyses showed both interactions and correlations between problematic gambling and problematic gaming symptoms, indicating both some commonality in the mechanisms underlying, and independent contributions made by, these proposed diagnostic criteria. These results provide context for dialogues regarding how best to reduce the impacts of loot box spending among those with problematic gambling symptoms.
Loot boxes are a purchasable video-game feature consisting of randomly determined, in-game virtual items. Due to their chance-based nature, there is much debate as to whether they constitute a form of gambling. We sought to address this issue by examining whether players treat virtual loot box rewards in a way that parallels established reward reactivity for monetary rewards in slots play. Across two sets of experiments, we show that loot boxes containing rarer items are more valuable, arousing, rewarding and urge-inducing to players, similar to the way slots gamblers treat rare large wins in slots play. Importantly, we show in Experiment 2 that the duration of Post Reinforcement Pauses, an index of reward reactivity, are longer for boxes with rarer items. Boxes containing rarer rewards also trigger larger Skin Conductance Responses and larger force responses—indices of positive arousal. Findings of Experiment 2 also revealed that there was an increase in anticipatory arousal prior to the reveal of loot box rewards. Collectively, our results elucidate the structural similarities between loot boxes and specific gambling games. The fact that players find rarer game items hedonically rewarding and motivating has implications for potential risky or excessive loot box use for some players.
Non-gambling specialist services, such as primary care, alcohol and other drug use, and mental health services, are well placed to enhance the identification of people with gambling problems and offer appropriate generalist first level interventions or referral. Given time and resource demands, many of these clinical services may only have the capacity to administer very short screening instruments. This systematic review was conducted to provide a resource for health service providers and researchers in identifying the most accurate brief (1-5 item) screening instruments to identify problem and at-risk gambling for their specific purposes and populations. A systematic search of peer-reviewed and grey literature from 1990 to 2019 identified 25 articles for inclusion. Meta-analysis revealed five of the 20 available instruments met criteria for satisfactory diagnostic accuracy in detecting both problem and at-risk gambling: Brief Problem Gambling Screen (BPGS-2), NODS-CLiP, Problem Gambling Severity Index-Short Form (PGSI-SF), NODS-PERC, and NODS-CLiP2. Of these, the NODS-CLiP and NODS-PERC have the largest volume of diagnostic data. The Lie/Bet Questionnaire and One-Item Screen are also promising shorter options. Because these conclusions are drawn from a relatively limited evidence base, future studies evaluating the diagnostic accuracy of existing brief instruments across settings, age groups, and timeframes are needed.
Loot boxes are items in video games that may be paid for with real-world money, but which contain randomised contents. There is a reliable correlation between loot box spending and problem gambling severity: the more money gamers spend on loot boxes, the more severe their problem gambling tends to be. However, it is unclear whether this link represents a case in which loot box spending causes problem gambling; a case in which the gambling-like nature of loot boxes cause problem gamblers to spend more money; or whether it simply represents a case in which there is a general dysregulation in in-game spending amongst problem gamblers, nonspecific to loot boxes. The multiplayer video game Heroes of the Storm recently removed loot boxes. In order to better understand links between loot boxes and problem gambling, we conducted an analysis of players of Heroes of the Storm ( n = 112) both before and after the removal of loot boxes. There were a complex pattern of results. In general, when loot boxes were removed from Heroes of the Storm , problem gamblers appeared to spend significantly less money in-game in contrast to other groups. These results suggest that the presence of loot boxes in a game may lead to problem gamblers spending more money in-game. It therefore seems possible that links between loot box spending and problem gambling are not due to a general dysregulation in in-game spending amongst problem gamblers, but rather are to do with specific features of loot boxes themselves.
Video games as a consumer product have changed significantly with the advent of in-game purchasing systems (e.g., microtransactions, ‘loot boxes’). This review examines consumer protections related to in-game purchasing by anticipating some of the potential design strategies that might contribute to higher risk consumer behavior. Attention was directed towards the analysis of patents for potential in-game purchasing systems, with 13 identified on Google Patents. The design features were analysed in relation to the consumer rights and guarantees described in the terms of use agreements of the patent assignees. The analysis revealed that some in-game purchasing systems could be characterized as unfair or exploitative. These systems describe tactics that capitalize on informational advantages (e.g., behavioral tracking) and data manipulation (e.g., price manipulation) to optimize offers to incentivize continuous spending, while offering limited or no guarantees or protections (e.g., refund entitlement), with the potential to exploit vulnerable players (e.g., adolescents, problematic gamers). These findings are critically discussed in relation to behavioral economics, addiction psychology, and the clinical conceptualization of gaming disorder. Appropriate policy and consumer protection measures, psychologically informed interventions, and ethical game design guidelines are needed in order to protect the interests and wellbeing of consumers.
Loot boxes are items in video games that can be paid for with real-world money but contain randomized contents. Many games that feature loot boxes are played by adolescents. Similarities between loot boxes and gambling have led to concern that they are linked to the development of problem gambling in adolescents. Previous research has shown links between loot boxes and problem gambling in adult populations. However, thus far, there is no empirical evidence of either the size or existence of a link between loot box spending and problem gambling in adolescents. A large-scale survey of 16- to 18-year-olds (n = 1155) found evidence for such a link (η2 = 0.120). The link between loot box spending and problem gambling among these older adolescents was of moderate to large magnitude. It was stronger than relationships previously observed in adults. Qualitative analysis of text data showed that gamers bought loot boxes for a variety of reasons. Several of these motivations were similar to common reasons for engaging in gambling. Overall, these results suggest that loot boxes either cause problem gambling among older adolescents, allow game companies to profit from adolescents with gambling problems for massive monetary rewards, or both of the above. Possible strategies for regulation and restriction are given.
Publication bias is a type of systematic error when synthesizing evidence that cannot represent the underlying truth. Clinical studies with favorable results are more likely published and thus exaggerate the synthesized evidence in meta-analyses. The trim-and-fill method is a popular tool to detect and adjust for publication bias. Simulation studies have been performed to assess this method, but they may not fully represent realistic settings about publication bias. Based on real-world meta-analyses, this article provides practical guidelines and recommendations for using the trim-and-fill method. We used a worked illustrative example to demonstrate the idea of the trim-and-fill method, and we reviewed three estimators (R0, L0, and Q0) for imputing missing studies. A resampling method was proposed to calculate P values for all 3 estimators. We also summarized available meta-analysis software programs for implementing the trim-and-fill method. Moreover, we applied the method to 29,932 meta-analyses from the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and empirically evaluated its overall performance. We carefully explored potential issues occurred in our analysis. The estimators L0 and Q0 detected at least one missing study in more meta-analyses than R0, while Q0 often imputed more missing studies than L0. After adding imputed missing studies, the significance of heterogeneity and overall effect sizes changed in many meta-analyses. All estimators generally converged fast. However, L0 and Q0 failed to converge in a few meta-analyses that contained studies with identical effect sizes. Also, P values produced by different estimators could yield different conclusions of publication bias significance. Outliers and the pre-specified direction of missing studies could have influential impact on the trim-and-fill results. Meta-analysts are recommended to perform the trim-and-fill method with great caution when using meta-analysis software programs. Some default settings (e.g., the choice of estimators and the direction of missing studies) in the programs may not be optimal for a certain meta-analysis; they should be determined on a case-by-case basis. Sensitivity analyses are encouraged to examine effects of different estimators and outlying studies. Also, the trim-and-fill estimator should be routinely reported in meta-analyses, because the results depend highly on it.
Loot boxes are items in video games that contain randomised contents and can be purchased with real-world money. Similarities between loot boxes and forms of gambling have led to questions about their legal status, and whether they should be regulated as gambling. Previous research has suggested a link between the amount that gamers spend on loot boxes and their problem gambling: The more individuals spent on loot boxes, the more severe their problem gambling. However, the generalisability of prior work may be limited by both the self-selected nature of the sample under test, and the fact that participants were aware of the study’s aims. A large-scale survey of gamers (n = 1,172) was undertaken to determine if this link remained when these limitations of previous work were taken into account. These gamers did not self-select into a loot box study and were not aware of the study’s aims. This study found similar evidence for a link (η² = 0.051) between the amount that gamers spent on loot boxes and the severity of their problem gambling. Previous research strongly suggested both the size and the direction of link between loot box use and problem gambling. This paper provides further support for this link. These results suggest either that loot boxes act as a gateway to problem gambling, or that individuals with gambling problems are drawn to spend more on loot boxes. In either case, we believe that these results suggest there is good reason to regulate loot boxes.
The widespread use of digital technologies by young people has spurred speculation that their regular use negatively impacts psychological well-being. Current empirical evidence supporting this idea is largely based on secondary analyses of large-scale social datasets. Though these datasets provide a valuable resource for highly powered investigations, their many variables and observations are often explored with an analytical flexibility that marks small effects as statistically significant, thereby leading to potential false positives and conflicting results. Here we address these methodological challenges by applying specification curve analysis (SCA) across three large-scale social datasets (total n = 355,358) to rigorously examine correlational evidence for the effects of digital technology on adolescents. The association we find between digital technology use and adolescent well-being is negative but small, explaining at most 0.4% of the variation in well-being. Taking the broader context of the data into account suggests that these effects are too small to warrant policy change.
Loot boxes are items in video games that can be paid for with real-world money and contain randomised contents. In recent years, loot boxes have become increasingly common. There is concern in the research community that similarities between loot boxes and gambling may lead to increases in problem gambling amongst gamers. A large-scale survey of gamers (n = 7,422) found evidence for a link (η² = 0.054) between the amount that gamers spent on loot boxes and the severity of their problem gambling. This link was stronger than a link between problem gambling and buying other in-game items with real-world money (η² = 0.004), suggesting that the gambling-like features of loot boxes are specifically responsible for the observed relationship between problem gambling and spending on loot boxes. It is unclear from this study whether buying loot boxes acts as a gateway to problem gambling, or whether spending large amounts of money on loot boxes appeals more to problem gamblers. However, in either case these results suggest that there may be good reason to regulate loot boxes in games.
Video games are becoming increasingly monetized with the addition of in-game purchasing options, which has prompted some comparisons of these products to electronic gaming machines. The expansion and sophistication of ‘microtransaction’ options in online games (e.g., ‘loot boxes’) has also led to concerns about vulnerable users (e.g., adolescents) overspending on these schemes. Currently, there are limited regulatory and/or consumer protection frameworks for video game monetization schemes. This conceptual paper explores some potential social responsibility measures for monetized gaming products to stimulate further discussion and developments in this area. Loot boxes are a focus of this discussion given the current debate on their legality, i.e., similarity to electronic gambling machines. Drawing on social responsibility principles and research in the field of gambling studies, we outline some potential measures in the areas of: (1) game design and in-game purchasing system characteristics, (2) transparency and accuracy of game design and features, (3) broad consumer protection measures, and (4) consumer information and industry accountability. It is hoped that this paper will encourage further discussion among academics, regulators, and the industry. An empirical evidence base is needed to inform the design and implementation of countermeasures for monetization schemes that increase risk of gaming-related harm for some users.
Twenty years since the Internet transformed gambling products and services, the convergence of online games and gambling has initiated a new means of consuming Internet-based media. Gambling specifically connected to eSports is a significant development, not only offering a new avenue for existing gambling products to be inserted into gaming media but also affording several novel experiences (e.g. skins and loot boxes). This study assesses participation rates and demographic characteristics of eSports spectators who gamble via an international online survey (N = 582). The sample highlighted the prevalence of young, often under-age, males in eSports-related gambling activities. Participation in gambling, and gambling-like activities, was found to be 67%, with rates of problematic and potentially problematic gambling in the sample being 50.34%. Finally, increased gambling is associated with increased spectating of eSports. Although the results are not generalisable to the wider population, they suggest a need for increased attention, from academia and regulators, regarding newly emergent gambling behaviours in contemporary digital culture.
We greatly appreciate the care and thought that is evident in the ten commentaries that discuss our debate paper, the majority of which argued in favor of a formalized ICD-11 gaming disorder. We agree that there are some people whose play of video games isrelated to life problems. We believe that understanding this population and the nature and severity of the problems they experience should be a focus area for future research. However, moving from research construct to formal disorder requires a much stronger evidence base than we currently have. The burden of evidence andthe clinical utility should be extremely high because there is a genuine risk of abuse of diagnoses. We provide suggestions about the level of evidence that might be required: transparent and preregistered studies, a better demarcation of the subject areathat includes a rationale for focusing on gaming in particular versus a more general behavioral addictions concept, the exploration of non-addiction approaches, and the unbiased exploration of clinical approaches that treat potentially underlying issues such as depressive mood or social anxiety first. We acknowledge there could be benefits to formalizing gaming disorder, many of which were highlighted by colleagues in their commentaries, but we think they do not yet outweigh the wider societal and public health risks involved. Given the gravity of diagnostic classification and its wider societal impact, we urge our colleagues at the WHO to err on the side of caution for now and postpone the formalization.
One of the most notable recent developments in survey research is the increased usage of online convenience samples drawn from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk). While scholars have noted various social and political differences (e.g., age, partisanship) between MTurk and population-based samples, the breadth and depth of these variations remain unclear. We investigate the extent to which MTurk samples differ from population samples, and the underlying nature of these differences. We do so by replicating items from the population-based American National Election Studies (ANES) 2012 Time Series Study in a survey administered to a sample of MTurk respondents. With few exceptions, we not only find that MTurk respondents differ significantly from respondents completing the 2012 ANES via the Web but also that most differences are reduced considerably when controlling for easily measurable sample features. Thus, MTurk respondents do not appear to differ fundamentally from population-based respondents in unmeasurable ways. This suggests that MTurk data can be used to advance research programs, particularly if researchers measure and account for a range of political and demographic variables as needed.
This book documents the history of ideas about problem gambling and its link to addictive disorders. The book uses a combination of literature review and conceptual and linguistic analysis to explore the way ideas about problem gambling gave changed over time. It examines the religious, socio-cultural, and medical influences on the development of the concept of problem gambling as a disease, along with the ways in which such ideas were influenced by attitudes about substance abuse. The history of mental illness, notably as it pertains to themes such as loss of control over behavior, is also addressed. The book ends with a discussion of the current status and future prospects, with an eye to which ideas about problem gambling and addictions seem most promising and which should perhaps be left behind. © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013. All rights are reserved.
Estimated effects vary across studies, partly because of random sampling error and partly because of heterogeneity. In meta-analysis, the fraction of variance that is due to heterogeneity is estimated by the statistic I (2). We calculate the bias of I (2), focusing on the situation where the number of studies in the meta-analysis is small. Small meta-analyses are common; in the Cochrane Library, the median number of studies per meta-analysis is 7 or fewer.
We use Mathematica software to calculate the expectation and bias of I (2).
I (2) has a substantial bias when the number of studies is small. The bias is positive when the true fraction of heterogeneity is small, but the bias is typically negative when the true fraction of heterogeneity is large. For example, with 7 studies and no true heterogeneity, I (2) will overestimate heterogeneity by an average of 12 percentage points, but with 7 studies and 80 percent true heterogeneity, I (2) can underestimate heterogeneity by an average of 28 percentage points. Biases of 12-28 percentage points are not trivial when one considers that, in the Cochrane Library, the median I (2) estimate is 21 percent.
The point estimate I (2) should be interpreted cautiously when a meta-analysis has few studies. In small meta-analyses, confidence intervals should supplement or replace the biased point estimate I (2).
Recently, the American Psychiatric Association included Internet gaming disorder (IGD) in the appendix of the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The main aim of the current study was to test the reliability and validity of 4 survey instruments to measure IGD on the basis of the 9 criteria from the DSM-5: a long (27-item) and short (9-item) polytomous scale and a long (27-item) and short (9-item) dichotomous scale. The psychometric properties of these scales were tested among a representative sample of 2,444 Dutch adolescents and adults, ages 13-40 years. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that the structural validity (i.e., the dimensional structure) of all scales was satisfactory. Both types of assessment (polytomous and dichotomous) were also reliable (i.e., internally consistent) and showed good criterion-related validity, as indicated by positive correlations with time spent playing games, loneliness, and aggression and negative correlations with self-esteem, prosocial behavior, and life satisfaction. The dichotomous 9-item IGD scale showed solid psychometric properties and was the most practical scale for diagnostic purposes. Latent class analysis of this dichotomous scale indicated that 3 groups could be discerned: normal gamers, risky gamers, and disordered gamers. On the basis of the number of people in this last group, the prevalence of IGD among 13- through 40-year-olds in the Netherlands is approximately 4%. If the DSM-5 threshold for diagnosis (experiencing 5 or more criteria) is applied, the prevalence of disordered gamers is more than 5%. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
Mechanical Turk (MTurk), an online labor system run by Amazon.com, provides quick, easy, and inexpensive access to online research participants. As use of MTurk has grown, so have questions from behavioral researchers about its participants, reliability, and low compen-sation. In this article, we review recent research about MTurk and compare MTurk participants with community and student samples on a set of personality dimensions and classic decision-making biases. Across two studies, we find many similarities between MTurk participants and traditional samples, but we also find important differences. For instance, MTurk participants are less likely to pay attention to experimental materials, reducing statistical power. They are more likely to use the Internet to find answers, even with no incentive for correct responses. MTurk participants have attitudes about money that are different from a community sample's attitudes but similar to students' attitudes. Finally, MTurk participants are less extraverted and have lower self-esteem than other participants, presenting challenges for some research domains. Despite these differences, MTurk participants produce reliable results consistent with standard decision-making biases: they are pres-ent biased, risk-averse for gains, risk-seeking for losses, show delay/expedite asymmetries, and show the certainty effect—with almost no significant differences in effect sizes from other samples. We conclude that MTurk offers a highly valuable opportunity for data collection and recommend that researchers using MTurk (1) include screening questions that gauge attention and language comprehension; (2) avoid questions with factual answers; and (3) consider how individual differences in financial and social domains may influence results.
Increasing emphasis has been placed on the use of effect size reporting in the analysis of social science data. Nonetheless, the use of effect size reporting remains inconsistent, and interpretation of effect size estimates continues to be confused. Researchers are presented with numerous effect sizes estimate options, not all of which are appropriate for every research question. Clinicians also may have little guidance in the interpretation of effect sizes relevant for clinical practice. The current article provides a primer of effect size estimates for the social sciences. Common effect sizes estimates, their use, and interpretations are presented as a guide for researchers.
There are 2 families of statistical procedures in meta-analysis: fixed- and random-effects procedures. They were developed for somewhat different inference goals: making inferences about the effect parameters in the studies that have been observed versus making inferences about the distribution of effect parameters in a population of studies from a random sample of studies. The authors evaluate the performance of confidence intervals and hypothesis tests when each type of statistical procedure is used for each type of inference and confirm that each procedure is best for making the kind of inference for which it was designed. Conditionally random-effects procedures (a hybrid type) are shown to have properties in between those of fixed- and random-effects procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A large, integrated survey data set provided by the Ontario Problem Gambling Centre was used to investigate psychometric properties of the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). This nine-item self-report instrument was designed to measure a single, problem gambling construct. Unlike its nearest competitor--the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS)--the PGSI was designed specifically for use with a general population rather than in a clinical context. The present analyses demonstrated that the PGSI does assess a single, underlying, factor, but that this is complicated by different, multiple factor structures for respondents with differing levels of problem gambling severity. The PGSI also demonstrated small to moderate correlations with measures of gambling frequency and faulty cognitions. Overall, the PGSI presents a viable alternative to the SOGS for assessing degrees of problem gambling severity in a non-clinical context.
Do purchasable randomised reward mechanisms in video games (loot boxes) constitute gambling? Opinions often rest on whether virtual items obtained from loot boxes have real-world value. Using market data from real transactions, we show that virtual items have real-world monetary value and therefore could be regulated under existing gambling legislation.
Loot boxes represent a form of microtransaction in many video games that have some resemblance with gambling. Research on this subject is still in its infancy, and particular there are few studies involving young people. Using cross-sectional survey data from a representative sample of 1,137 participants aged 12-16 years, this study examined loot box engagement patterns and links with problem gambling severity. Nearly half (45.6%) of the participants that were involved in gaming in the past year engaged in loot box activities at some level, and loot box users were predominantly male. The vast majority of the males (93%) had earned, bought, or sold items from a loot box whereas 15% of the females reported engagement with loot boxes. There was a significant positive correlation between loot box engagement and problem gambling severity when controlling for core demo-graphic factors. Compared to participants with no engagement or participants who solely obtained a loot box, the proportions of at-risk and problem gamblers were higher among those, who had purchased or sold items from a loot box. The findings provide new insights into the links between loot box engagement and problem gambling among adolescent populations. Specifically, the study provides new knowledge on different engagement patterns among loot box users and their implications. On this basis, different measures to reduce loot box purchases and reduce marketplace structures are discussed.
Players of collectible card games often buy sealed physical packs of cards known as ‘booster packs’. Booster packs share many formal similarities with loot boxes. Buying loot boxes has reliably been linked to problem gambling.Because booster packs are similar to loot boxes, it is possible that a similar relationship between buying them and problem gambling exists. In order to investigate this, a large sample of collectible card game players (n=726) were recruited. Results indicated no statistically significant link between spending on booster packs in physical stores and problem gambling (p=0.110, η2 = 0.004), and a relationship of small magnitude between spending on booster packs in online stores and problem gambling (p=0.035, η2 = 0.008). Follow-up equivalence tests using the TOST procedure rejected the hypothesis that either of these effects was of practical importance (η2 > 0.04). Overall, it appears that booster packs may not be linked to problem gambling in the same way as loot boxes.
The revised edition of the Handbook offers the only guide on how to conduct, report and maintain a Cochrane Review ? The second edition of The Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions contains essential guidance for preparing and maintaining Cochrane Reviews of the effects of health interventions. Designed to be an accessible resource, the Handbook will also be of interest to anyone undertaking systematic reviews of interventions outside Cochrane, and many of the principles and methods presented are appropriate for systematic reviews addressing research questions other than effects of interventions. This fully updated edition contains extensive new material on systematic review methods addressing a wide-range of topics including network meta-analysis, equity, complex interventions, narrative synthesis, and automation. Also new to this edition, integrated throughout the Handbook, is the set of standards Cochrane expects its reviews to meet. Written for review authors, editors, trainers and others with an interest in Cochrane Reviews, the second edition of The Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions continues to offer an invaluable resource for understanding the role of systematic reviews, critically appraising health research studies and conducting reviews.
Loot boxes are items in video games that may be bought with real-world money but contain randomised contents. Due to similarities between loot boxes and gambling, various countries are considering regulating them to reduce gambling-related harm. However, loot boxes are extremely diverse. A key problem facing regulators is determining whether specific types of loot boxes carry more potential for harm, and should be regulated accordingly.
In this study, we specify seven key ways that loot boxes may differ from each other: They may involve paid or unpaid openings; give opportunities for cashing out; allow gamers to pay to win; involve the use of an in-game currency; feature crate and key mechanics; show near misses; and contain exclusive items.
We then use a large-scale preregistered correlational analysis (n = 1200) to determine if any of these features strengthen the link between loot box spending and problem gambling. Our results indicate that being able to cash out, showing near-misses, and letting players use in-game currency to buy loot boxes may weakly strengthen the relationship between loot box spending and problem gambling. However, our main conclusion is that regardless of the presence or absence of specific features of loot boxes, if they are being sold to players for real-world money, then their purchase is linked to problem gambling.
Loot boxes are virtual items in many video games that let players to “gamble” on an item of chance. Loot boxes bring an element of gambling into video games, which might prime video game users to engage in online gambling activities. However, few studies have focused on this emerging issue. The present study investigated the relationships between loot box purchases and problem video gaming and problem gambling severity. Cross-sectional, self-report data were collected from 618 adult video gamers (M = 27 years of age, SD = 8.9, 63.7% male) via an online survey. Nearly half of the sample (44.2%) spent money on loot box purchases in the past year. Loot box purchasers played video games and gambled online more frequently, reported more extended gaming and online gambling sessions, and endorsed higher levels of problem video gaming and problem gambling severity as well as greater mental distress relative to those who did not buy loot boxes. Results from a series of path analyses revealed that loot box purchasing was directly related to problem video gaming and problem gambling severity as well as indirectly through an increased video gaming/online gambling engagement, which in turn is related to elevated psychological distress. The present findings provide insight into the role of loot box purchasing in the transition from recreational engagement in video gaming and online gambling to problem video gaming and/or problem gambling.
Loot boxes are virtual goods in video games that produce randomly-generated in-game rewards, and have attracted scrutiny because of a resemblance to gambling. This study tests relationships between gaming involvement, engagement with loot boxes, and their associations with disordered gambling and gambling-related cognitions. Online questionnaires were completed by 144 adults via MTurk (Study 1) and 113 undergraduates (Study 2). Gaming and loot box-related variables included estimated time spent gaming and monthly expenditure, the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale (IGDS), and questions that assessed perceptions and behaviours related to loot boxes. Most participants thought loot boxes were a form of gambling (68.1% & 86.2%). A subset of items were condensed into a unidimensional “Risky Loot-box Index” (RLI) via exploratory factor analysis. In Study 1, the RLI showed significant associations with the Problem Gambling Severity Index (r =.491, p <.001) and the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (r =.518, p <.001). Overall, gambling-related variables predicted 37.1% (p <.001) of the variance in RLI scores. Findings were replicated, though attenuated, in Study 2. These results demonstrate that besides the surface similarity of loot boxes to gambling, loot box engagement is correlated with gambling beliefs and problematic gambling behaviour in adult gamers.
The video game industry has ignited a global controversy surrounding microtransactions in gaming, especially the use of loot boxes: randomized rewards with potential real-world value. Consumers and legislators are calling for the regulation of these revenue models on the grounds that they are unfair, predatory, or could be considered gambling. This article examines the controversy from a management perspective. First, I outline current regulatory responses to the controversy and what they mean for business practices. Then, I explain ongoing industry-level and firm-level attempts to self-regulate as a way to placate consumers and governments. These tactics highlight a wide range of broader strategies that game developers and other stakeholders can pursue in order to improve customer relations and, more publicly, signal their commitment to self-regulation and avoiding consumer harm. These practices can be applied more broadly to firms that offer controversial products or services that do not yet fit within current regulatory frameworks.
Video games are increasingly exposing young players to randomized in-game reward mechanisms, purchasable for real money — so-called loot boxes. Do loot boxes constitute a form of gambling?
“Internet Gaming Disorder” (IGD) was included as a “Condition for Further Study” in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Frequent gamers have previously been shown to exhibit core symptoms of addiction, along with significant impairments in psychosocial functioning. However, there remains a lack of consensus regarding the conceptualization and assessment of video game addiction. We examined the utility of nine questions (Cronbach's α = 0.64), based directly on proposed DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for IGD, in capturing problems related to excess use of online video games. Regular video game users (n = 257) completed an online questionnaire assessing demographics, symptoms of IGD, general psychopathology, life satisfaction, self-esteem, and impulsivity. Participants meeting criteria for IGD (8.7%, n = 21) played video games significantly more often (p = 0.04) and for more hours at a time (p = 0.002), and experienced significantly greater subjective urges to use video games (p < 0.001). Furthermore, those with IGD endorsed significantly more symptoms of depression (p < 0.001), anxiety (p < 0.001), and stress (p = 0.01), lower life satisfaction (p < 0.001), and elevated motor (p = 0.02) and attentional impulsivity (p = 0.01). Proposed DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for IGD appear to capture a clinically meaningful cluster of symptoms that is associated with marked impairments in multiple aspects of psychosocial functioning.
Publication bias remains a controversial issue in psychological science. The tendency of psychological science to avoid publishing null results produces a situation that limits the replicability assumption of science, as replication cannot be meaningful without the potential acknowledgment of failed replications. We argue that the field often constructs arguments to block the publication and interpretation of null results and that null results may be further extinguished through questionable researcher practices. Given that science is dependent on the process of falsification, we argue that these problems reduce psychological science's capability to have a proper mechanism for theory falsification, thus resulting in the promulgation of numerous "undead" theories that are ideologically popular but have little basis in fact.
© The Author(s) 2012.
There are two popular statistical models for meta-analysis, the fixed-effect model and the random-effects model. The fact that these two models employ similar sets of formulas to compute statistics, and sometimes yield similar estimates for the various parameters, may lead people to believe that the models are interchangeable. In fact, though, the models represent fundamentally different assumptions about the data. The selection of the appropriate model is important to ensure that the various statistics are estimated correctly. Additionally, and more fundamentally, the model serves to place the analysis in context. It provides a framework for the goals of the analysis as well as for the interpretation of the statistics. In this paper we explain the key assumptions of each model, and then outline the differences between the models. We conclude with a discussion of factors to consider when choosing between the two models. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Behavioral scientists routinely publish broad claims about human psychology and behavior in the world's top journals based on samples drawn entirely from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. Researchers - often implicitly - assume that either there is little variation across human populations, or that these "standard subjects" are as representative of the species as any other population. Are these assumptions justified? Here, our review of the comparative database from across the behavioral sciences suggests both that there is substantial variability in experimental results across populations and that WEIRD subjects are particularly unusual compared with the rest of the species - frequent outliers. The domains reviewed include visual perception, fairness, cooperation, spatial reasoning, categorization and inferential induction, moral reasoning, reasoning styles, self-concepts and related motivations, and the heritability of IQ. The findings suggest that members of WEIRD societies, including young children, are among the least representative populations one could find for generalizing about humans. Many of these findings involve domains that are associated with fundamental aspects of psychology, motivation, and behavior - hence, there are no obvious a priori grounds for claiming that a particular behavioral phenomenon is universal based on sampling from a single subpopulation. Overall, these empirical patterns suggests that we need to be less cavalier in addressing questions of human nature on the basis of data drawn from this particularly thin, and rather unusual, slice of humanity. We close by proposing ways to structurally re-organize the behavioral sciences to best tackle these challenges.
Journal of Gambling Studies / co-sponsored by the National Council on Problem Gambling and Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming
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