Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation in Palestine

Abstract

The rich biodiversity of Palestine is due to geographic and geologic factors and is directly related to why it formed the Western part of the Fertile Crescent where humans first domesticated animals and plants. In this chapter, we review and discuss (1) some of the data known on biodiversity in Palestine, (2) threats to this biodiversity (focusing on three areas, climate change, water and liquid waste, and occupation/colonization), and (3) efforts at environmental conservation. In the threatened areas, we explain potential impact of climate change and the way colonization/occupation has damaged the local environment. We highlight opportunities for moving forward toward a strategy that ensures sustainability of both nature and human population. Environmental education rooted in justice and sustainability will be key factors in forging future strategies.

Full text

1© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
M. Öztürk etal. (eds.), Biodiversity, Conservation and Sustainability in Asia,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59928-7_1
Chapter 1
Biodiversity andEnvironmental
Conservation inPalestine
MazinB.Qumsiyeh andMohammedA.Abusarhan
1.1 Introduction
In the late twentieth century, the conservation of biological diversity became a main
goal of global actions for a sustainable planet. This followed signicant decline in
biodiversity accompanying the industrialization that spread widely in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries resulting in climate change and habitat destruction (Nurlu
etal. 2008). Two key organizing documents emerged to set the stage for global
actions: the Global Biodiversity Strategy and the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) (both in 1992).
Palestine connects Africa with Eurasia, and it is where the rst humans migrated
out of Africa and also where the rst human agriculture developed. The geologic
history especially the formation of the Great Rift Valley formed varied topography
and evolutionary changes with a rich fauna and ora. There are diverse habitats
covering ve ecological zones (Central Highlands, Semi-coastal Region, Eastern
Slopes, Jordan Rift Valley, and Coastal Regions) and ve phytogeographical areas
(Coastal, Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, Saharo-Arabian, and Sudanese/Ethiopian)
(Qumsiyeh 1985; Soto-Berelov etal. 2015). Mild weather, rich soils, rich wildlife,
and presence of wild edible fauna and ora allowed humans to go from being
hunter-gatherers to developing an agricultural and nomadic shepherd life
(McCorriston and Hole 1991; Eshed etal. 2004). The transition to agriculture from
hunter-gatherer communities also allowed increase in population and more time for
people to develop civilizations.
Our region has undergone signicant human-induced environmental changes
including those caused by migrations, industrialization, climate change, and coloni-
zation, among others. This had a huge impact on biodiversity, but few studies have
M. B. Qumsiyeh () · M. A. Abusarhan
Palestine Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainability, Bethlehem University,
Bethlehem, Palestine
e-mail: mazin@qumsiyeh.org

2
addressed this. Just this year (2019), we noted numerous ecologically destructive
incidents: trees were uprooted and agricultural lands ravaged by the Israeli army in
Battir and Nahalin in Bethlehem governorate; wastewater dumped by colonists
from “Betar Illit”; seedlings sabotaged by settlers in Burqa, Nablus governorate;
continued environmental siege on Gaza that is devastating the environment; and
much more.1 Israel’s tendency to put polluting industries in Palestinian areas has
unsurprisingly produced negative health consequences for the people living there as
well as for the local ecosystem. For example, signicant genotoxicity is caused by
Israeli industrial settlements on the Palestinian villagers near Salt (Hammad and
Qumsiyeh 2013), and recycling of e-waste that mostly originates in Israel in Idhna
in the Hebron District impacted local health and environment (Khlaif and Qumsiyeh
2017). Also the local people engaged in many practices that impact the environ-
ment. Thus, in this chapter, we review data on what is known about threats to biodi-
versity in Palestine (a small but critical part of the Fertile Crescent) and discuss
opportunities for conservation and sustainable living for both people and fauna
and ora.
1.2 Status ofKey Taxa Related toConservation
The area has been sporadically studied before by visitors to the “Holy land” from
Tristram (1866, 1884) to Morton (1924) to David Harrison in the 1960s (e.g.,
Harrison and Bates 1991). In the 1950s and 1960s, there were some studies of fauna
and ora by the Israelis. The most notable of these was a series called “Fauna
Palaestina” issues by the Israel Academy of Sciences, and good published work
continued to ow into the 1980s (Levy and Amitai 1980; Yom-Tov and Tchernov
1988; Zohary 1973; Werner 1988).
Due to the colonization and occupation, research here still lags behind in
Palestine (Qumsiyeh and Isaac 2012). Among native Palestinian zoologists, Dr.
Sana Atallah (d. 1970) focused on mammals (Atallah 1977, 1978). Key taxa/groups
that are useful for measuring environmental threats and thus important for conserva-
tion status were studied in Palestine. These include mollusks (Amr etal. 2018; Bdir
and Adwan 2011, 2012; Handal etal. 2015, 2016; Heller and Arad 2009), amphib-
ians (Salman etal. 2014), birds (Khalilieh 2016; Awad etal. 2016), and mammals
(Atallah 1977, 1978; Qumsiyeh 1985, 1996; Werner 1988; Harrison and Bates
1991; Whitaker et al. 1994; Qumsiyeh et al. 1996; Qumsiyeh et al. 1998;
Mendelssohn and Yom-Tov 1999; Benda etal. 2010). For example, earlier studies
on the freshwater snails of historical Palestine include those of Tristram (1884) and
Germain and de Kerville (1922) and were supplemented by work of Abdel-Azim
1 See, for example, http://www.lrcj.org/publication-3-1169.html, http://www.lrcj.org/publica-
tion-3-1170.html, http://www.lrcj.org/publication-3-1171.html.
M. B. Qumsiyeh and M. A. Abusarhan

3
and Gismann (1956), Heller etal. (2005), and Handal etal. (2015). Those clearly
show the utility of these taxa in assessing water quality.
So far, 373 bird species belonging to 23 orders, 69 families, 21 subfamilies, and
172 genera have been recorded from the occupied Palestinian areas (Awad etal.
2016). Birds of prey can be of good utility in assessing environmental changes
(because of their position in the food web) (Brett 1988). Amr etal. (2016) showed a
decline in biodiversity in the Bethlehem district evidenced by the study of old and
newer food pellets of the Eagle owl. Saeed and Qumsiyeh (2020) compared records
of birds reported by the rst studies done in the nineteenth century with what is
found today and showed signicant negative trends (related to human effects) such
as the disappearance of the brown shing owl. It is then clear that a study of the
threats to biodiversity is critical.
1.3 Environmental Threats inPalestine
Environmental threats are global in nature but are exacerbated in developing coun-
tries especially in regions of conict. In Palestine, even in ancient times, there is
evidence of Canaanitic villages stripping their populations of gazelles. In the more
modern era, forests in the Eastern Mediterranean region were cut down for house-
hold, industrial, and commercial uses. Under British occupation (1917–1948), and
Israeli and Jordanian rule (>1948), destruction continued, but also interventions that
were supposed to be benecial like forestation were done mostly with European
pine trees (monoculture of Pinus halepensis) (Qumsiyeh 1996).
Under Israeli occupation and colonization, Palestinians were prevented not only
from doing much of their usual agriculture but also from managing lands. Many
forested hills were converted to residential Jewish-only colonial settlements (e.g.,
Jabal Abu-Ghneim became Har Homa colony near Bethlehem) and generated far
more pollution than similar settlements inside Israel.
The modern threats were not unanticipated. For example, Ives (1950) discussed
the land’s capacity and the fact that trends which started in the 1930s if continued
would devastate the area. Not only was he right, but more threats evolved since the
1950s (Qumsiyeh 1996; Tal 2002; Qumsiyeh 2004). Alon Tal acknowledged even
before he wrote his book (2002) that: “We came here to redeem a land and we end
up contaminating it” (Beyer 1998).
The main threats to doing better conservation efforts can be simply categorized
as issues that are peculiarly Palestinian (like occupation/colonization) or global
issues. Anecdotal notes and opinions on the Palestinian environment are not
reviewed in this work (for an example of the genre of this kind of work, see Alleson
and Schoenfeld 2007; Abu Saeh 2012). The ranking of threats to the Palestinian
Environment according to the fth national CBD report is available and seems rea-
sonable though could be adjusted when and if additional data become available
(EQA 2015; Table 1.1). Another report used the Delphi approach to ask some
“experts” what the main threats are and came up with a somewhat different answer
1 Biodiversity andEnvironmental Conservation inPalestine

4
(Abdallah and Swaileh 2011; AlHirsh etal. 2016). But the key threats need not even
be prioritized to be analyzed. AlHirsh etal. (2016) used interviews with selected
individuals involved in environmental issues in Palestine to see what threats are
most prominent to the majority of those individuals.
Here we highlight three of the main threats to the Palestinian environment (cli-
mate change, water and waste water, and occupation/colonization) taken as key
examples that set the stage to discuss interventions. But even here we will have to
be limited because of space.
1.3.1 Climate Change
Climate change has a signicant effect on biodiversity, human health, and sustain-
ability (Harvell etal. 2002; Portnov and Paz 2008; Rinawati etal. 2013; Altay and
Ozturk 2018; Imanberdieva et al. 2018; Ozturk 2018; Ozturk and Altay 2018;
Ozturk etal. 2020), and this requires us to integrate educational, evolutionary, and
ecological responses into models and potential remedies (Settele et al. 2017;
Lavergne etal. 2010; Sternberg etal. 2015). The joint statement by world science
academies warns that “Developing nations that lack the infrastructure or resources
to respond to the impacts of climate change will be particularly affected..”.2 We in
2 http://nationalacademies.org/onpi/06072005.pdf.
Threats
Threat ranking
West Bank Gaza
Habitats fragmentation (due to urbanization, destruction
of forests, climate change, desertification, colonial
activities)
Very High Very High
Desertification and soil erosion (due to overgrazing,
climate change, infrastructure construction etc) High Very High
Urbanization and population growth Very High Medium
Removal of rocks for construction (stone querries etc) Very low Very High
Uprooting trees Low High
Overgrazing Low Very low
Land degradation (poor planning, soil erosion etc.) High Very High
Invasive alien species No data No data
Climate change Low Medium
Overexploitation (including poaching, overfishing etc). High Very High
Pollution (waste water, solid waste, use of chemical
pesticides/insecticides/fertilizers) Medium Very High
Colonial residential and industrial settlements and
associated infrastructure (like the Segregation wall) Very high Very low
Table 1.1 Selected threats to the Palestinian environment (After EQA 2015)
M. B. Qumsiyeh and M. A. Abusarhan

5
countries in the southern Mediterranean areas, the MENA region, will be particu-
larly vulnerable (Sala etal. 2000).
Human-induced climate change will drastically effect the Arab world (Verner
2012). A World Bank study shows impacts including water resource decline will be
drastic by 2040. In the West Bank and Gaza, while demand will double, supply will
shrink dramatically! When coupled with population growth and habitat destruction
(see Table1.1), both the World Bank (Verner 2012) and the UN predict situation to
become unlivable (UN 2012).
Newer models attempt to integrate species’ own responses (ecologically, geneti-
cally, etc.) in predicting changes in species distribution following climate change
and its impact on the habitat (Ozturk etal. 2004, 2012a; Lavergne etal. 2010). But
preliminary data in Palestine in at least one study shows decline in vertebrate biodi-
versity as desertication spread into the Bethlehem district (Qumsiyeh etal. 2014).
1.3.2 Water andLiquid Waste
The situation of water is becoming very critical in the MENA region. While it is
clear how it impacts human health and well-being, it is also critical for the ecosys-
tem. Open water sources if closed off to use only for humans will impact a diversity
of organisms. The government of the state of Israel which controls Palestinian
(native) water claims there is water shortage, but the reality is that there is simply
unequal distribution. For example, Israel diverts and uses most of the water resources
of the Jordan River basin for irrigation farming through the so-called Israel national
water carrier/canal (Elmusa 1998). From 1250 million cubic meters (mcm) per year,
the river’s ow declined to <20mcm (Soffer 1994). Palestinians used 140 pumping
units along the Jordan River before 1967, and all were destroyed or conscated by
the occupation authorities. Now Palestinians use <0.5% of the river basin waters.
After a thorough review of the hydrological data, Elmusa (1998) concluded that:
“Israel takes 80–90% of the freshwater resources of geographic Palestine. … The
disparity in extraction between the two sides has translated into a conspicuous water
gap in all sectors. … The gap is even more conspicuous between the Palestinians
and the Israeli settlers who consume ve to six times as much per capita as do the
Palestinians and are proigate irrigation water users” (Elmusa 1998).
The UN Commission on Human Rights reported in 2000 that:
The Palestinian use of the Jordan River before 1967 was through 140 pumping units. Israel
either conscated or destroyed all of those pumping units. In addition, Israel closed the
large, irrigated areas of the Jordan Valley used by Palestinians, calling them military zones
that later were transferred to Israeli settlers. At present Israel extracts more than 85 per cent
of the Palestinian water from the West Bank aquifers.
Through military orders, all water in the occupied territories is designated “state
owned by Israel” even though this violates the Fourth Geneva Convention (UNEP
2003). Palestine (a state not recognized by Israel as the occupying authority) did
attempt to draft water and other natural resources’ laws. The Palestinian authority
even failed to get Israel to agree to many waste water and solid waste projects.
1 Biodiversity andEnvironmental Conservation inPalestine

6
As Israel takes 91% of the West Bank Water resources, it provides much of it to
illegal settlers (UN Commission of Human Rights 2000). It is obvious that all these
measures contravene International law and conventions such as the Fourth Geneva
Convention and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (Elmusa 1998). Israel also declared places like the Jordan valley closed mili-
tary zones. Vast tracks of Palestinian agricultural lands were thus essentially cons-
cated and many of them turned to Jewish settlements.
The Oslo agreements were supposed to lead to ending the occupation but simply
entrenched it with all attendant strengthening of Israeli control over the natural
resources including water. International treaties and laws pertaining to water were
ignored in deference to “might makes right.” Regardless of political outcomes, there
is simply a very small geographic territory (historic Palestine) with one hydrologi-
cal system (Elmusa 1998). One democratic state ensuring distribution of water to its
citizens based on international guidelines is actually most logical. The situation in
Gaza is now catastrophic and cannot continue (Baalousha 2006; UN 2012). Water
desalination projects as solution in Gaza have their own environmental issues.
The Israeli actions toward water sources have been catastrophic for nature biodi-
versity since the creation of “State of Israel,” starting from drying out al Hula wet-
lands which eradicated life there and not ending with the Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal
project. The latter is a prime environmental problem and should not have been
implemented (the project already started). Its impact in the OPT will be most acutely
felt in the unnatural “replenishment” of the Dead Sea while leaving the Jordan val-
ley essentially dry and with continued environmental deterioration. We did some
work on this, but much more research needs to be done, and the summary of these
things are beyond the scope of this report.
But there is also mismanagement of the shrinking and limited water resources on
the Palestinian side. A decaying water infrastructure is not upgraded because state
funding has other priorities (like security, education, and healthcare). So there is
some loss of water through the existing pipeline structures. In some areas, there is
poor protection to freshwater supplies. For example, in the biodiversity important
area of Al-Bathan near Nablus, the sewage water course merges with the freshwater
spring course just below the picnic and park areas (ARIJ 2015). Further, there is no
organized program to alert tourists to conserve water even as the ministry of tourism
pushes hard to increase number of pilgrims to the Holy Land. Clearly some things
can and should be done regardless of the status of the occupation.
The situation for sewage management in the occupied Palestinian areas is criti-
cal. In Gaza, a signicant portion of the sewage ows untreated to the Mediterranean
Sea. According UNEP (2003), 70% of solid waste in the occupied Palestinian ter-
ritories is organic waste. This is a very high number and one that gives us an oppor-
tunity for signicant reduction via composting to generate fertilizers. Sewage can
also be treated, and other solid waste like metals and plastics and glass can be recy-
cled. Waste water is dumped on some signicant supposedly protected areas like
Wadi Qana, Wadi Nar, and Wadi Far’a (Bathan), around Salt (EQA 2015), and into
the Mediterranean Sea where it is highly damaging to the environment (Akram and
Cheslow 2016).
M. B. Qumsiyeh and M. A. Abusarhan

7
There is a real crisis in logistics and nancing for proper solid waste disposal in
Palestine (Abu Thaher 2005; Al-Khatib et al. 2007). The majority of solid waste
disposed of in Palestinian areas like Nablus is organic which indicates a great poten-
tial for resource utilization such as for composting/fertilizer generation (Al-Khatib
etal. 2010). But as in many developing countries, management of such solid waste
lags behind signicantly (Ahmed and Ali 2004).
1.3.3 Occupation/Colonization
Palestine had an indigenous Canaanitic population going back thousands of years
and living in small village communities with few urbanized areas (like Jerusalem,
Hebron, and Nablus). At the dawn of the industrial revolution, the population was a
few hundred thousand (3% Jewish, 13% Christian, 80% Muslim, 4% other). The
industrial age and improvement in health resulted in population expansion, but the
Zionist project resulted in ethnic cleansing of most of the natives to be replaced by
an immigrant, mostly European-Jewish population (Pappe 2006). Over 500 villages
and towns were destroyed (most in 1948–1950, some in 1967). While Israel was
created on 78% of Palestine, the remaining 22% was occupied in 1967 (Masalha
1992; Qumsiyeh 2004). In 1967, Imwas village was depopulated, and in its place,
Canada Park was built. In all other areas of the occupied territories, forests and
vegetation cover was removed to build the Israeli settlements which now house
hundreds of thousands of Israelis. Simultaneously, rules were introduced that pre-
vented Palestinians not only from doing much of their usual agriculture but also
from managing forested lands or building in open spaces.
Currently nearly one million Israelis live in the occupied West Bank (WB). The
WB is also divided into several categories: Jerusalem annexed to Israel, area C
under Israeli civil and military control, area B under Israeli military control only
(18.3%), and Area A under Palestinian civil and partial security control (17.7%)
(ARIJ 2015). 30% of the territory is designated as closed military zones and “nature
reserves” (these are occasionally reclassied to allow colonization). Israeli colonies
were built on hilltops to t into a pattern as to control the natural resources and
control the native Palestinians (Benvenisti 2002). Environmental and human sus-
tainability were not taken into considerations in these political decisions (ARIJ
2015). Untreated sewage water is discharged by settlers on Palestinian areas (ARIJ
2005; Newman 2009).
Israeli polluting industries were built near Palestinian communities in the occu-
pied territories (due to tax incentives and lax laws). Gishuri Industries as an example
manufactures pesticides and fertilizers next to Tulkarm. Signicant pollution from
this and other companies in this area has damaged citrus and vineyards (ARIJ 2015).
We also showed signicant genotoxic effect of the Barqan Industrial settlement on
Burqeen village (Hammad and Qumsiyeh 2013).
Israel built “bypass” roads and other infrastructures in the occupied areas to
serve the Jewish colonies. Lands were conscated to build these, including extra
1 Biodiversity andEnvironmental Conservation inPalestine

8
“security zones and buffers” around roads, walls, etc. The landscape was severely
damaged; 51.2km2 were destroyed just in 2000 for roads that do not served the local
population. Land that was used by Palestinians or by wildlife thus was urbanized.
Palestinians in the West Bank make 2.5million people living in a built-up area of
367.7km2, a density of 6800 Palestinians per square kilometer which is 10 times
more dense than for Israelis (ARIJ 2015). The disparity between settlers and natives
in land control, economy, and access is also compounded by disparity in use of
natural resources discussed earlier (Gordon 2008).
There are many other issues where the occupation negatively impacts sustainable
development and the environment (MOPAD 2014). For example, tourism industry
was mostly taken over, and it is supporting Israeli economy while negatively impact-
ing the Palestinian economy and the Palestinian environment (Shay 2016; Isaac
etal. 2016). Another example is the destruction of Bedouins life in the Negev (creat-
ing “concentration areas” for them) (Weizman and Sheikh 2015).
Politics trumping facts can be devastating to understanding of issues like envi-
ronment and water. For example, deliberately misstating facts, hiding them, selec-
tivelyusing (mis)information, and much more were done by Israeli ofcials to serve
their political interests in the Jordan River basin (Messerschmid and Selby 2015).
Israel’s unilateral actions of colonial settlement expansion and destruction of native
lives have had devastating impacts on the Palestinian environment and raise signi-
cant questions about the possibility of planning let alone sustainability under occu-
pation (Isaac etal. 2004). There may be a good reason to engage in legal proceedings
that would be backed by good research and enlisting the services of good legal
scholars and lawyers to pursue clams of environmental injustice and damages at
local, national, and international fora.
The term “Green-washing the occupation” comes to mind when we realize that
in many cases Israel takes land on the pretext of protecting it only to build colonies
on it (Etkes and Ofran 2007). Ras Imweis and adjacent areas are a good example of
this (became the settlement Nahal Shiloh). “Nature Reserves” and closed areas
became pretexts for land conscation. Such exploitation was obvious in the
Bethlehem Governorate, when Har Homa settlement was established in 1997 on
Abu Ghneim Mountain (Fig.1.1).
1.4 Biodiversity Conservation Strategies inPalestine
The key vision that drives or should drive environmental conservation in Palestine
as elsewhere should be a vision of a sustainable human population in a sustainable
diverse natural environment. The latter must protect all elements of the ecosystem
including plant-animal interactions. Since the industrial revolution, sustainability of
ecosystems around the world has eroded due to human activity that causes habitat
loss and environmental degradation. In the last few decades and especially with the
growing realization of global human-induced climate change, there has been
increased awareness and efforts focused on environmental conservation and at least
M. B. Qumsiyeh and M. A. Abusarhan

9
trying to halt destruction and mitigate effects with even some efforts going toward
reversal of human-induced habitat changes. Most efforts are focused on in situ con-
servation of natural resources (Adams etal. 2004; AlHirsh etal. 2016).
The Governing Council/Global Ministerial Environment Forum in Cartagena,
Colombia, asked the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) to look at the
state of the environment in Palestine. The results of a detailed study (UNEP 2003)
led to more work and nally summarized in the Fifth National Report to the
Convention on Biological Diversity (EQA 2015).
In 2015, EQA, through funds from the Belgian Cooperation Program, conducted
a study of rich biodiversity areas. A total of 50 proposed protected areas were listed
in the occupied Palestinian territories (Table1.2); several of them are already listed
as protected or important plant areas. Results of this study excluded some of these
sites, since they are located within towns or cities or used as quarry pits. A detailed
report is still under revision at the EQA.Boundaries of 29 areas were modied;
three were not modied, while 18 were excluded from the proposed list. Two addi-
tional sites were suggested: Dura al Qare’a and Um al Safa 2. We also have a new
study in the Wadi Makhrour area near Bethlehem that proposes it as a protected area
(PIBS unpublished data).
Biodiversity conservation and protected areas in particular are covered by the
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). The Plan focuses on pro-
tected areas and participation by the local and encourages capacity building in areas
of biodiversity conservation. The Plan also addressed gaps that are very essential to
develop concepts in biodiversity and protected areas conservation. These gaps include
Fig. 1.1 The Israeli colony of Har Homa which was built and is still being expanded on a forested
Palestinian Hill (called Jabal Abu Ghneim)
1 Biodiversity andEnvironmental Conservation inPalestine

10
lack of primary scientic data, information, and documentation on biodiversity in
Palestine and lack of and/or limited human resources. There are very few biologists
especially marine and wildlife biologists and taxonomists, oceanographers, conserva-
tion managers, etc. and adequate legal frameworks and environmental policy and
legal framework on which to base all activities for the conservation and sustainable
use of biodiversity in Palestine, lack of coordination among national and local stake-
holder agencies in biodiversity, and inadequate awareness and commitment to biodi-
versity. The objectives of the NBSAP for Palestine are in line with other countries in
environmental conservation and sustainability. Now the EQA is engaged with us to
build an updated and new NBSAP and produce the Sixth National CBD Report.
The earlier report from the state of Palestine in compliance with CBD listed
many priorities ranging from basic research in biodiversity, threat assessments, bet-
ter private-public relationships, using cultural heritage, better protected area man-
agement, stemming desertication, mitigation and adaptation to climate change,
and habitat restoration (EQA 2015). The report lists in its executive summary 14
recommendations. Here they are paraphrased:
• Collaborative Management of Biodiversity
• Updating NBSAP
• Meet Aichi targets
• Mainstream biodiversity
• Better research to ll the gaps in knowledge
• Emphasize ecosystem services
• Work on areas like poaching (see, e.g., Helal and Khalilieh 2005), wildlife trade
(e.g., Yom-Tov 2003), genetic diversity, biosafety, genetic modied organisms
(GMOs), invasive species, and mitigation and adaptation
• Better investigations and rankings of threats as well as modeling and structuring
responses scientically and with community involvement
The ve NBSAP objectives were identied with very limited progress achieved
since the Fourth National Report. The only thing mentioned elsewhere in the same
report but not clearly mentioned in these ve objectives is the value of doing
Table 1.2 Key biodiversity areas that were listed in the Palestinian territories
Governorate No. Area
Bethlehem 7 Al Jaba’h, Jabal Abu Ghunaim, Mar Saba, Suleiman pools, Wadi Herodian,
Wadi Makhrur, Wadi Fouqin
Hebron 11 Adderat-Yatta, Al Fawwar, Beit Fajjar, Beit Kahil, Beit Umar, Beit Ummar,
Deir Razeh, Ithnah-Souba, Kanar, Tarqoumia, West Karma
Jenin 5 Aqqaba, Kufer El Rai, Quen, Um Al Rihan, Um Al Tut
Jericho 3 Ain Esultan, Deir Hajalih, Wadi Auja
Jerusalem 8 Abu Deis, Anata, east of Aza’ym, Hizma, Mar Elias, Nabi Musa, north Tuur,
beginning of Wadi Ennar
Nablus 6 Aqrabaniya, El Mizrab, Ein Sabastia, Salman Faresi, Talouza, Wadi Faraa
Qalqilya 2 Azzoun, Jayous
Ramallah 6 Al Jalazon, Ain Qinia, Beir Zeit, Jabal El Nijma, Turmus Ayya, Um Safa
Salt 2 Al Matwi, Wadi Esha’ir
M. B. Qumsiyeh and M. A. Abusarhan

11
research; see above also from (EQA 2015). Vulnerable areas are of particular inter-
est for further study because environmental degradation in Palestine has been accel-
erated with industrialization and large-scale deforestation.
In terms of conservation, there are even fewer scientic research studies pub-
lished in the last 25years. However, there were important larger reports that we
considered that contributed to our understanding of environmental issues in the OPT,
including biodiversity conservation. There were of course hundreds of other docu-
ments and research reports consulted during the course of this study (list of refer-
ences cited at the end of the chapter). Two key factors that enter into success of
environmental conservation in any country are economic and social factors. As noted
above, the level of GDP is directly correlated with environmental concern (Mills and
Waite 2009). The 13million Palestinians in the world are now dispersed in many
countries with 7.5million being refugees or displaced people. In historic Palestine,
over 6.2million Palestinians still live, but nearly 30% of them are internally dis-
placed or recognized as refugees. The GDP per capita of Palestinians is 1/8th that of
Israelis who share with them the space of historic Palestine, but this gets more dis-
torted during the cyclical uprisings against the occupation (Hever 2010). This has
impact on environment and R&D (Qumsiyeh and Isaac 2012). For example, accord-
ing to UNEP (2003), the GDP of the OPT which grew at 6% in 1999 shrunk by 6.5%
in 2000 due to Israeli measures in response to the 2000 uprising. Further, there was
a decline in GDP growth in the past few years as population grew while the economy
did not expand (MOPAD 2014). There was some evidence that poorer communities
and countries do worse in protecting their own environments, but this has been chal-
lenged, and richer countries may be fueling their own prosperity via exploitation of
natural resources in poor countries (Mills and Waite 2009).
There has to be benet sharing from conservation and biodiversity. Gorlach etal.
(2011) summarized potential economic benets from environmental conservation
efforts (if successful) in the OPT.Though this benet assessment was mostly based
on little data collected on the ground, it does highlight the signicant potential
impact of saving our environment nancially. Here are examples:
• Air: If air pollution is cut by 50%, modeling suggests premature mortality could
decline by 220 and morbidity by 440 per year. Monetary benet could be of
68million euros per year.
• Water: Improved access to water services could signicantly improve the qual-
ity of life for 1.2million Palestinians. Improved wastewater treatment (perhaps
concomitant with reduction of waste water in general) could have signicant
impacts on biodiversity, groundwater quality, and human health.
• Waste: Reducing solid waste would have signicant impact on air quality, on
environmental health, on human economy, and on biodiversity.
The use of plants and animals for humans is a eld that needs much examination
as it related to environmental conservation directly especially in terms of sustain-
able use of resources (Nurlu etal. 2008; Gucel etal. 2006, 2012; Khan etal. 2014;
Altay etal. 2015; Ozturk etal. 2012b, 2014, 2017a, b). In Palestine as elsewhere,
there is an interest in ethnobotany and ethnozoology (Ali-Shtayeh and Jamous
2006; Ali-Shtayeh etal. 2014; Palevits and Yaniv 2000; Said etal. 2002).
1 Biodiversity andEnvironmental Conservation inPalestine

12
Poverty reduction and environmental conservation are directly linked, and we
are not able to do proper conservation without tackling poverty in developing coun-
tries (Adams et al. 2004; Ozturk and Kebapci 2005; Ozturk etal. 2010; Ozturk
2013). Further it is possible to use socioeconomic incentives at periphery of pro-
tected areas or even allow managed use of natural resources as a form of poverty
reduction which also incentivizes the local people to protect their environment
(Ozturk and Kebapci 2005; Sunderlin etal. 2005; Ozturk etal. 2010).
Modern conservation philosophy argues that the local buy-in is critical for suc-
cess of conservation efforts. We in Palestine certainly need to think strategically
about how people around protected areas are to benet from protection. There are
models in nearby areas, for example, the way the Royal Society for Conservation of
Nature worked with local communities to ensure active buy-in via direct benet
from things like ecotourism and environmentally sensitive agriculture.
Religious attitudes can be of potential use to promote environmental awareness
and conservation. Religious clerks (Muslim and Christian) can introduce many con-
cepts of conservation and environmental practices in the Friday and Sunday ser-
mons. Several authors dealt with the ethical and divine relation of Islam to
environment conservation (Amr and Quatrameez 2002). Islamic teachings are full
of orders and events that encourage conservation as the concept of “Al Himma,” to
save water, clean environment, and many others. Similarly, in Christianity, basic
teachings include many environmentally friendly practices. In Palestine, The Holy
Land, with so many religious connections and about a million devout pilgrims per
year, it is incumbent upon policy makers and stakeholders to research ways to reach
out to those who are religious with the message of environmental conservation.
The Palestinian Environmental Law needs to be updated. Violations of the law
should include higher penalties. Obstacles to implementation include the fact that
most (81%) of the protected areas are in Area C under Israeli rule. For example, the
nascent state of Palestine cannot plan or protect its natural resources including areas
like the unique corridor of Ein Fash’kha to Ein Jedi along the Dead Seaif it cannot
access them (Garstecki etal. 2010; EQA 2015; http://www.nsp.pna.ps/en/). It is also
worth noting that 36.2% of the designated protected areas overlap with Israeli
settlements and 39.5% overlap with closed military areas and bases. Such utiliza-
tion of a protected area conrms that their declaration does not respond to the inter-
national denition of a protected area, which calls mainly for biodiversity
conservation (Ghattas 2008).
Despite all these obstacles, we think some things can still be done. The Palestine
Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainability (PIBS), the Palestine Museum of
Natural History (PMNH), and the Palestine Conservation Botanical Gardens
(PCBG) were started at Bethlehem University with a vision of sustainable human
and natural communities and ecosystems. The mission focuses on research, educa-
tion, and conservation. The motto is RESPECT—for ourselves, for others, and for
the environment. Via working with mainly school children, we do education tailored
to different ages (Figs.1.2, 1.3 and 1.4). We also built educational material via
intensive research to assess need and local cultural peculiarities. For example, we
developed six educational modules in the areas of agriculture, biodiversity, geogra-
M. B. Qumsiyeh and M. A. Abusarhan

13
Fig. 1.2 Children learning via playing, for example, imagining being a scorpion
Fig. 1.3 Museum staff
member (Elias Handal)
with students in show
and tell
1 Biodiversity andEnvironmental Conservation inPalestine

14
Fig. 1.4 Girls at the museum showing their gifts and decorations made from recycled solid waste
Fig. 1.5 One of many locally sensitive educational modules (in this case a poster on biodiversity)
done related to climate change and conservation
phy, energy and transportation, waste and chemicals, and climate change (see the
example in Fig.1.5). PIBS/PMNH annual report is found here: https://www.pal-
estinenature.org/about- us/nal- annual- report.pdf.
For short videos about other activities/accomplishments, please see https://youtu.
be/BPhFLOsEIM0 and https://youtu.be/AZOoOzXU7tQ.
M. B. Qumsiyeh and M. A. Abusarhan

15
1.5 Discussion
Palestine (renamed Israel in 1948) now has over 12 million people. Half the popula-
tion is Israeli-Jewish, and they control 91.7% of the land, and the other half are
native Christians and Muslims who control less than 8.3% of the land. Additionally,
close to 6 million Palestinians live outside the country (mostly refugees). Israel is
trying a three-pronged program: (a) preventing refugees from returning, (b) incen-
tives and other tools to lure in as many Jewish (or even non-Jewish but not native)
immigrants who identify with Zionism, and (c) making life so hard for the remain-
ing Palestinians that they leave (or even outright removing them) (Qumsiyeh 2004).
Environmental destruction is related to instability, inequality of resource distribu-
tion, and habitat destruction in Palestine (Kelly and Homer-Dixon 1996; Qumsiyeh
2013). Solving this requires addressing these issues.
Alatout (2006) showed that differences in perception of power relationships
impact perceptions of issues of environmental justice between Palestinians and
Israelis. Basically those in power view environmental issues in terms of improve-
ments in their quality of life, while Palestinians view them as issues of sovereignty,
property rights, and mere survival.
In the past 25years, there has been a revival of interest in studies of biodiversity
among native Palestinians. Of course we have in no way even approached the level
of publications or interest in nearby countries like Jordan or Israel, but we must
guard against a decline of that interest in biodiversity research seen, for example, in
Israel in association with industrialization (Dayan et al. 2011). We will discuss
below examples of this revival of interest, including the establishment of a number
of programs at universities (e.g., master programs in Environmental Studies at
Al-Quds and Birzeit and the Institute of Biodiversity and Sustainability at Bethlehem
University). But we must also separate scientic work from anecdotal notes and
opinions on the Palestinian environment.
A big challenge to the EQA and relevant agencies working on Palestinian diver-
sity is that there are so few baseline studies on where are the rich biodiversity areas
and what they contain in the OPT (a gap of knowledge). Recent work in the past
5years on protected areas and their buffer zones in Palestinian areas can provide a
model for biodiversity conservation while promoting ecosystem services. Two
prominent examples from our work is Wadi Al-Quff (Qumsiyeh 2016a, b; Qumsiyeh
etal. 2016; Khalilieh 2016) and Wadi Makhrour. Al-Makhrour is the last remaining
biodiversity-rich area in the Bethlehem district, 2.6km2 of natural areas interspersed
with agriculture and rich ora and fauna and an equivalent buffer zone of more than
5km2. It is also one of 13 important bird areas in Palestine rich in cultural heritage,
including old Roman tombs, ancient wells, old Palestinian watchtowers, and a part
which is considered a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.However, no management
plans or conservation programs have been implemented by any organization in the
area. The valley suffers from habitat loss and land fragmentation, causing biodiver-
sity loss, and from challenging livelihood conditions as a result of (among others)
the lack of economic motivations, no subsidies for farming practices, and inadequate
markets for extra production. A project initiated by our institute there showed that
we can use education, permaculture, agricultural, and ecotourism to actually make a
difference even under these difcult circumstances of occupation and colonization.
1 Biodiversity andEnvironmental Conservation inPalestine

16
1.6 Recommendations
1.6.1 Research
Palestine needs scientic data covering all areas relevant to protected areas and
potential protected areas by using the best available data collection methods. We
recommend this effort to collect baseline data be led by qualied academic centers
covering areas like geography, geology, hydrology, fauna, and ora. The only pro-
tected area where such data was collected is Wadi Al-Quff (Qumsiyeh 2016a, b;
Qumsiyeh et al. 2016; Khalilieh 2016). With upward of 48–51 areas in need of
protection, the work ahead of us is daunting and will take a few years. We suggest
prioritizing the work in the next 5years to study Al-Qarn, Wadi Haramya, Wadi
Al-Qelt, Um Al-Tut, and Wadi Qana. The studies must use experts after proper
announcements of funding availability.
1.6.2 Management Plans toDeal withThreats
Management plans must use ecosystem approaches and deal with social, cultural,
and economic issues. Designing Management Plans for protected areas are done by
trained experts (we have so few of those in the Middle East). Thankfully, groups like
the RSCN (Jordan) are willing to help. The conict between EQA and the MOA in
terms of authority over parks should be resolved one way or another. That the EQA
with help of some experts came up with a draft management plan for Wadi Al-Quff
is a rst step. That project costs over $100,000 and 2years of work for just one
locality. The next should be sitting down at high-level government ofcials to decide
how to and who should implement the plan. There is unfortunately a failure to do
that, and instead there is now a plan afoot to transfer the responsibility of Wadi
Al-Quff PA to the municipality of Hebron to manage it. Local municipalities are
subject to various pressures which cannot result in sustainable conservation efforts.
This would be a very bad omen for this rich area with key endangered species like
raptors. It could also set a very bad precedent.
1.6.3 Economy andEcotourism
Strategies for conservation that also enhance local economic development (e.g.
through use of permaculture) must be developed. Much can be done in promoting
tourism even under occupation if partnerships are built such as what happened with
Masar Ibrahim between academia and NGOs. Other possible partnerships are the
ones involving the private sector and civil society groups and the government min-
istries with civil society groups in more ofcial capacities. The most important is to
M. B. Qumsiyeh and M. A. Abusarhan

17
revive and invest in the capacity of a restructured EQA to oversee these partnerships
and ensure outcome-driven projects are implemented without duplication of efforts
and with maximum efciency. Tourism must be developed only if it is sustainable.
We believe in developing areas like agricultural tourism, ecotourism, cultural tour-
ism, and other forms of alternative/sustainable tourism. Similarly, much can be
done to make sure that conservation is benecial to the local community rather than
harmful to their economy.
1.6.4 Conservation Mainstreaming
Knowledge base of conservation issues in Palestine linked to global conservation
efforts (mostly developed by researchers with some support from NGOs and EQA
and MOA) must be expanded. Conservation awareness must be structured in a uni-
ed way to (a) explain what conservation is, (b) why we need it, and (c) how each
of us can affect the change in behavior. Existing ofcials in NGOs, academic insti-
tutions, and governmental bodies must prioritize conservation. In 2005, 170
Palestinian civil society organizations called for using the strategy of boycotts,
divestments, and sanctions as a peaceful non-violent strategy to end the occupation
and achieve other internationally recognized rights of the Palestinian people. Since
then, thousands of NGOs and all major academic institutions in Palestine have
adopted this call (see bdsmovement.net). Credible environmental groups did join
this campaign. Environmentally sensible choices of consumers can also be encour-
aged that are protective of the environment/ethical consumerism (see Dajani and
Isma’il 2014). The EU and other funders must stop any and all efforts to promote
normalization because they do not lead to peace. Peacemaking in situations of
occupation and colonialism has a very well-developed theoretical and practical
body of knowledge that can be evaluated but is beyond the scope of this work.
Further such efforts only make the environmental situation worse by delaying free-
dom and sovereignty for the native people.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank Prof. Zuhair Amr, Elias Handal, Mohammad Najajrah,
and our PIBS team for their support. Thanks are also due to the Environmental Quality Authority
(esp. Dr. Issa Baradiya and Mohammad Mahasne) for their help. Funding for part of the work came
from the City of Geneva, the Darwin Initiative, and the EU Peace Initiative (project Unity and
Diversity in Nature and Society).
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