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Vos,J & van Rijn,B. (2021) The Evidence-Based Conceptual Model of Transactional Analysis: A Focused Review of the Research Literature, Transactional Analysis Journal,
Abstract
This article presents a focused review of the research literature in transactional analysis (TA). TA was developed in the 1950s as a theory of human personality and social behavior and as a comprehensive form of psychotherapy, but there has not been any systematic research to test the empirical evidence for the efficacy of TA theory and practice. The aim of this study was to develop the conceptual model of transactional analysis on the basis of a systematic review of the actual, self-reported practice of international TA psychotherapists and on the evidence found in research. The article systematically reviews common conceptual components of TA and their empirical evidence by examining the common denominator and the empirical evidence for the central clinical phenomenon, etiology, therapeutic mechanisms, therapeutic competencies, outcomes, and synthesis. TA focuses on problems in ego states (operationalized as Parent, Adult, and Child) with distinctive behavioral functions of Controlling Parent, Nurturing Parent, Adult, Adapted Child, and Free Child. Individuals can develop long-term problems in their ego states, social functioning, and self-efficacy as the result of unfavorable messages from their social context (negative parental messages in early life, lack of developing mature coping mechanisms, intergenerational messages, negative stroke balance), script decisions (accepting or rejecting unfavorable messages via behavior, emotional disconnection, or cognitive styles), life events, and genetics/temperament. TA treatment intends to help clients by developing constructive ego states, improving social functioning, and stimulating a sense of self-efficacy. Research confirms that TA improves psychopathology, behavior, and general well-being thanks to improvement in ego states, self-efficacy, and social functioning. These effects are achieved by four evidence-based therapist competencies: creating a positive client-practitioner relationship, working with experiences in the present, etiological analysis (life scripts, injunctions, counterinjunctions), and therapeutic structure (treatment contracts, treatment stages, psychoeducation/didactics). Meta-analysis of 75 studies shows that TA has moderate to large positive effects on psychopathology, self-efficacy, social functioning, and ego states. This conceptual model shows that TA can be considered a bona fide and evidence-based treatment for a wide range of clients.
... Our aim in the paper, as well as our previous publications, is to show that TAP is a distinctive model of psychotherapy based on a coherent, evidence-based conceptual model (Vos & Van Rijn, 2021b, 2021c. For example, in our previous meta-analysis, we reviewed 41 clinical trials of TAP (Vos & Van Rijn, 2022), showing that TAP improved the clients' mental health symptoms, social functioning, and general well-being with moderate and large effects. ...
... The metaanalyses on TA studies indeed showed a large variety of manuals, usually based on the individual vision of individual practitioners, with few replication studies (a partial exception is Widdowson, 2013, who developed a treatment guideline with the help of multiple therapists). However, to develop a manual, grounded in systematic research and that may be broadly applicable, we decided to base our manual on the broadest evidence possible: a survey of common practices of TA therapists, a survey of evidencebased concepts in TA, and effective components of treatment manuals (Vos & Van Rijn, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c. ...
... Finally, we developed a treatment model explicitly based on the evidence-based conceptual model developed by these studies (Vos & Van Rijn, 2021b). As detailed in these publications, all four studies were based on systematic literature reviews and meta-analysis, and therefore may be regarded as representative of the broad field of TAP. ...
Since the birth of transactional analysis (TA) in the 1950s, many psychotherapists have provided and tested TA psychotherapy (TAP) in clinical trials. However, most descriptions of TA therapy within these trials offered a general guide rather than a systematic treatment manual. This makes it difficult to attribute their outcomes directly to TAP as the variations in the therapists’ ways of working have not been sufficiently accounted for. The existing manuals are based on particular schools of TA and research-informed personal best practice, rather than systematic reviews and meta-analyses, which would ensure that they could be replicated. This article addresses that apparent gap by describing the systematic development of a semistructured treatment manual for Brief Transactional Analysis Psychotherapy for depression, in order to enable its use in practice and research. The manual was based on an international survey of TA therapists, a systematic literature review of TA psychometric instruments, and meta-analyses of TAP clinical trials, which fed into the development of the evidence-based integrated conceptual model. This model formed an operational definition of TAP and the basis of a 16-session treatment manual for mild to moderate depression. The manual consists of four stages: initial assessment and therapeutic agreement (“contract”), systematic assessment, experiential processing, decision-making and applying script changes. Two new instruments were also developed: Transactional Analysis Goal Attainment Form (TAGAF) and Transactional Analysis Psychotherapeutic Self Report Competencies Scale (TAP-SRCS).
... We defined TA psychotherapeutic treatment as the synergetic combination of each of these components in the same way as cognitive behavioral and humanistic therapies may be defined by the synergetic combination of particular key ideas and practices (https://www.ucl.ac.uk › core › competence-frameworks). This evidence-based conceptual model of transactional analysis psychotherapy is based on a systematic literature review of key TA concepts, an extensive survey among TA practitioners, and a focused literature review of empirical studies supporting each of the conceptual components (Vos & Van Rijn, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c. 1 At the core of the conceptual model of TA psychotherapeutic treatments is the ego-state model of personality, based on the concept of ego states (Parent, Adult, and Child). Parent and Child incorporate archaic experiences and introjects, and Adult is responsive to the current reality. ...
... Another principal therapeutic mechanism in TA relates to life positions that underpin many human behaviors. Life positions differentiate broad attitudes and beliefs that individuals have about themselves and others on the dimensions of "I am OK/not-OK" (more generally formulated: self-efficacy) and "Others are OK/not-OK" (more generally formulated: social functioning) (Vos & Van Rijn, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c. TA therapists aim to facilitate clients to develop constructive ego-states (e.g., to be able to distinguish between their ego-states, move flexibly between their ego-states, and function predominantly from an Adult egostate). ...
... This may consist of an etiological analysis of any influential messages the client may have received from previous generations (e.g., family myths or values), life events, genetics/biology, and the individual's responses to these messages. More explanations and operationalizations of the specific competencies can be found in Figure 1 and Vos and van Rijn (2021c). Source. ...
... This BTAP-treatment manual could be seen as a common foundation of TAP, as it was based on an international survey of TA therapists, a systematic literature review of TA psychometric tools and metaanalyses of TA clinical trials (Vos, 2023;Vos & Van Rijn, 2021a, 2021c. Specifically, the manual was based on an evidence-based conceptual model of TA (Vos & Van Rijn, 2021b), helping clients to improve via 16 sessions in four stages: initial assessment and therapeutic agreement ('contract'), systematic assessment, experiential processing, decision-making and applying script changes. ...
Introduction
Few guidelines exist on how to conduct Phase 1 feasibility studies in psychological therapies. It may be theoretically argued that small‐size feasibility studies are best studied with mixed methods. The primary aim of this study was to examine the feasibility of using mixed methods in feasibility studies. The secondary aim was to systematically explore the feasibility of a 16‐session treatment manual in transactional analysis psychotherapy (TAP) for depression developed in a prior Phase 0 study.
Method
Nine clients received therapy from three therapists, and sample characteristics were described using flowcharts and sociodemographic statistics. Interviews were conducted with clients and therapists to explore subjective experiences of changes and processes in therapy. Psychometric instruments measured the impact on mental health, quality of life and TAP‐specific outcomes. Therapist learning effects were examined through self‐reported TAP‐specific competencies. The analyses included reflexive thematic analysis, descriptive statistics, t ‐tests and repeated measures ANOVA.
Results
The results indicated that the clients experienced important changes, such as self‐insight, better coping strategies, self‐confidence and boundaries, mainly attributed to TAP and facilitated by helpful factors in TAP. Significant differences were reported in outcome measures, and analyses indicated increased competency in TAP‐specific skills. No negative side effects were mentioned.
Discussion
This study provides evidence for the feasibility of TAP for depression and the feasibility of using mixed methods in feasibility studies. Future researchers may want to use similar comprehensive mixed methods designs.
... In Transactional analysis, the European Association for Transactional Analysis funded a step-by-step approach to providing that evidence for its approach. The research has involved an evaluation of practices of transactional analysts internationally, (Vos & van Rijn, 2021c); as systematic review of the approach specific psychometric instruments, as well literature (Vos & van Rijn, 2021a, 2021b and finally an explorative metaanalysis of the state of the Transactional Analysis research (Vos & van Rijn, 2022). All of these research steps build towards developing an RCT, which is still seen as a gold-standard of research into the efficacy of psychotherapeutic approaches, and show the role that professional umbrella organisation have in developing research evidence needed for purposes of recognition. ...
This paper will reflect politicization of psychotherapy research and its impact on humanistic and integrative psychotherapy approaches like Transactional Analysis. The author will reflect on the steps in developing recognition and the role of on case study methodology in developing research evidence base for psychotherapy, bridging the gap between research and clinical practice and developing an individualised treatment. The gives a brief outline of different types of case studies and reflect on their foci, strengths and limitations, and ethical implications, with some examples of their use.
... We propose a psychoanalytical Transactional Analysis (TA) approach based on Berne (1964) and Harris (1973) as a way to uncover the psychology that informs the relationship structures in the workplace and the related emotions between co-workers (Molesworth et al., 2018). While there is a relatively large body of literature related to TA from both practitioners and scholars published mainly in the specialist Transactional Analysis Journal, the majority of these publications cite studies from clinical/therapy, social work and educational settings (e.g., Hall, 2019;Vos & van Rijn, 2021). The application of TA in organisational settings is still very much in its infancy, but there is growing interest in how it can be used to help us understand relationships at work, workplace culture and relations within groups at work (van Poelje & de Graaf, 2022). ...
The growing and unmet demand for coding skills is becoming critical in a world that is ever-more driven by digital technologies, embedded algorithms and artificial intelligence systems. However, sustainability of the profession is threatened because of the failure to attract and retain women developers, which has been an ongoing and corrosive problem for decades and remains unresolved. While many previous studies attribute ‘toxic’ workplace cultures in the software development industry, as a major contributing factor, few examine their root causes and almost none offer practical solutions. To address this lack of both knowledge and effective response, we propose a novel approach building on psychoanalytical Transactional Analysis (TA) theory that is little used in the field of management and organisation studies. TA theory provides a framework using common and simplified language to better understand why communications in the workplace fail, and how occupying incompatible ego states might lead to ‘negative’, ‘problematic’ and, in the worst cases, ‘toxic’ behaviours and workplaces. We propose a TA-based model (OCTAPos) that helps explain how crossed communications at work can result in a lack of acceptance of women in the workplace and attrition among female software developers and the resultant dearth of diverse coders. We further propose a theoretically informed HRM Structured TA Response (STAR) to help increase self-awareness, emotional intelligence, empathy and mutual understanding, with the ultimate aim of positively impacting prevailing attitudes, behaviours and organisational culture to achieve more inclusive and sustainable recruitment and retention in the longer term.
... Transactional analysis (TA) was invented by Eric Berne in 1958 [19] as group therapy [20], and this analysis proposed to find three ego states' (parent, adult, and child) problems [21]. Massey [22] said that it can be considered in both social psychiatry and psychology. ...
This study examined strokes, marital intimacy, marital satisfaction, and divorce intentions among participants who are members of a couple, based on their leisure sports participation. We conducted a questionnaire survey with 321 participants. The validity and reliability were checked, and a multivariate analysis of variance was conducted to test for differences between groups. The results revealed that among couples engaging in the same leisure sports activity, positive stroke was high, and negative and no strokes were low. Couples not engaging in the same activity exhibited a partial positive effect when both or one of the individuals engaged in leisure sports activities. Among couples in which both individuals did not engage in leisure sports activities, negative results were found for all factors. Furthermore, couples engaging in the same activity showed high marital intimacy and satisfaction. Moreover, couples engaging in the same activity showed the lowest intention to divorce, whereas couples who did not engage in leisure sports activities showed the highest intention to divorce. These findings suggest that leisure sports activities positively affect relationships, and this effect increases when couples participate in the same sport. Future research should investigate methods for couples to engage in leisure activities and how they can be activated.
... In the present research protocol, we propose a randomized controlled study designed to test the efficacy of an online group psychological intervention protocol to contrast academic burnout. We opted for Transactional Analysis (TA) as the theoretical background of this intervention (Berne, 1961;Vos and van Rijn, 2021). Even if TA has received limited attention by psychotherapy research, it is widely taught and practiced internationally within recognized academic and professional institutions (Vos and van Rijn, 2022), and it has a large history of application in organizational settings in Europe and United Kingdom (for organizational TA manuals see: Davidson and Mountain, 2016;Cannavale and Castagna, 2018;van Poelje and de Graaf, 2021). ...
Academic burnout is a condition characterized by exhaustion, cynicism, a distant attitude toward studying, and diminished self-efficacy in academic activities. Preliminary scientific findings indicate that interventions designed to alleviate work burnout also hold promise for mitigating academic burnout, however clear evidence based on randomized controlled trials is still missing. This research protocol describes a randomized controlled trial aimed at evaluating the efficacy of an online group psychological intervention to contrast academic burnout. Participants with high levels of burnout will be assigned to a psychological counseling group or a waiting list control group. The research comprises several phases: (T0) Screening, Recruitment, and Randomization; (T1) Baseline assessment (pre-intervention); (T2) Outcome Assessment (post-intervention); and (T3) Follow-up Assessment (3 months post-intervention). The primary outcomes include burnout symptoms, general wellbeing, and academic achievement. Additionally, secondary variables such as effort-reward imbalances, satisfaction/frustration of basic psychological needs, intrapersonal and interpersonal emotion regulation, coping strategies, and social support will be examined. The psychological intervention strategies will encompass psychoeducation, self-awareness enhancement, cognitive restructuring, and promotion of social support. This research protocol is an initial step toward evidence-based psychological interventions to treat academic burnout.
... Ego states are represented by a three-dimensional psychological structure consisting of three main concepts called "Parent (P)," "Adult (A)," and "Child (C)." This primary structure has functional dimensions that are divided into critical or blaming parent (CP), nurturing parent (NP), adult (A), natural child (FC), and adapted child (AC) (Bando, 2018;Vos & van Rijn, 2021a). The concept of ego states refers to a set of thoughts, feelings, and behavioral patterns that sometimes change based on circumstances. ...
Objective: Understanding personality characteristics can help us understand how individuals manifest their personality through their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Among numerous tools available to assess personality, one of them is the Egogram questionnaire. Accordingly, the purpose of this research was to standardize the Tokyo University Egogram questionnaire (TEG3). Methods and Materials: The present research was a descriptive correlation study with a standardization approach. The statistical population of the study included women and men aged 20 to 40 in Tehran in 2021. 2707 participants, including 1585 women and 1122 men, were selected through convenience sampling. The Egogram questionnaire was designed based on the transactional analysis theory, which included 5 factors: the criticizing parent, the supportive parent, the adult, the natural child, the adapted child, and the Q validity scale and L lie scale. Data were analyzed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, Cronbach's alpha, and SPSS.22 software. Findings: The results of the validity, internal consistency, and reliability of the tool using Cronbach's alpha, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed that the Egogram questionnaire consists of 5 factors in the Iranian culture, and the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of all the factors is above 0.7. Also, the Pearson correlation coefficient showed an acceptable internal consistency within the questionnaire factors among women and men. Conclusion: This questionnaire can be used as a practical and new tool in the field of personality psychology and approaches such as schema therapy.
... The transactional model of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) proposes that "challenges and threats, arise from cognitive judgments of the meaning of a situation and one's ability to respond to the situation". It, however, considers primary appraisal that refers to "to the judgment of a situation as being benign or stressful" (Vos & van Rijn, 2021). Benign situations are judged as requiring no instrumental action on the part of the individual to facilitate a positive outcome, whereas stressful situations are judged to require specific actions. ...
Drawing on Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional stress theory, this study aims to explore a broader range of what constitutes work stress among life insurance agents and their needs for organisational work stress prevention. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with life insurance agents (n = 45) that focused on their stress experiences and needs regarding the prevention of work stress. Performing thematic analysis, topics, and themes were extracted from the verbatim transcribed interviews using Atlas.ti. Respondents located the stress factors that affected their mental health which should be targeted for prevention. Various themes were extracted, falling under job responsibilities, handling customers and maintaining long-term relationships, work pressure, mental health indicators, and measures to handle stress. The findings of this research specified that life insurance agents have multifaceted work stress prevention needs where mapping this could facilitate intervention implementation. The agents were explicit about the causes of stress emerging due to relationship between the individual and the challenging environment, leading to Litigation Stress Syndrome. This study sets a platform for the insurance sector to take necessary steps in helping the agents to mitigate stress and cultivating an innovative habit of mindful selling in them by implementing mindfulness interventions.
... Найчастіше такою «вигодою» є відмова від відповідальності. Про відмову від відповідальності як основну проблему стосунків особистості з державою писав ще К. Юнг (Jung, 1958 Теоретико-методологічною основою дослідження стали положення та принципи транзактного аналізу у консультуванні і психотерапії (Berne, 1961;Corey, 2013;Vos & Rijn, 2021), рольових теорій (Berne, 1964;Goffman, 1969;Hornostai, 2007), а також концепції організаційної ідентичності особистості (Kreiner & Ashforth, 2004;Boroş, 2008 Keywords: civic identity, deformations, transactional analysis, psychological counseling. ...
В статті описано основні етапи психолого-консультативної роботи (на основі постулатів транзактного аналізу) з проблемами громадянської ідентичності, проаналізовано динаміку громадянської ідентичності клієнтів під час консультативних сесій. Встановлено, що основна деформація громадянської ідентичності клієнтів полягала у їх спрямованості на деструктивну ігрову та сценарну взаємодію з державою, яка перешкоджала нормальній соціальній самореалізації особистості і спричиняла постійний пошук «кращої» держави і «кращого» громадянства; меншою мірою була представлена інша деформація громадянської ідентичності – це її фактична несформованість. Психолого-консультативна робота з клієнтами спрямовувалася на відмову від гри; усвідомлення власної парадигми відносин з державою і її зміна; напрацювання нових (не-ігрових) способів поведінки в «тригерних» ситуаціях взаємодії з державою. Порівняльний аналіз результатів діагностики громадянської ідентичності до і після психолого-консультативної роботи засвідчив зростання концептуальності та суб’єктної орієнтованості громадянської ідентичності клієнтів, а також підвищення ієрархічного положення громадянської ідентичності (її репрезентованості) в структурі інших ідентичностей особистості.
... At the core of transactional analysis is a model of ego states. The first-order structural model assumes 3 ego states: Child, Parent, and Adult (Stewart, Joines, 2016;Emmerton, Newton, 2004;Vos, van Rijn, 2021). Child state -behaviors, thoughts, and feelings, reproduced from childhood. ...
This article is a case study of coping with the challenge of change at Primary School No. 6 in Września from October to December 2021. Underlying the intervention work described in the case study was the model of implementing change in an organization proposed by Kurt Lewin (Lewin,1951; Bhayangkara,2020) and John Fisher’s approach to the individual coping with change (Fisher,2012). In this paper, we look at the process from the perspective of educational transactional analysis.The purpose of the process was to increase the sense of psychological and content security of the 7th and 8th grade community during the period of December 2021.630 individuals actively participated in the process. The analysis was based on qualitative research in 5 groups of school community members: teachers (N=45), students (N=300), parents (N=280), a group of psychologists, and educators (N=3), and school management (N=2). The process included: observation, in-depth interviews, group work, and discussion. Participants also had an opportunity to individually analyze conclusions and proposals developed during the process. As a result of the actions taken, comprehensive solutions and recommendations were proposed, which were communicated and implemented in the community of classes VII and VIII, among students, teachers, and parents. In this paper, we show why parallel work with all major stakeholder groups is necessary to effect change in the school.
... At the core of transactional analysis is a model of ego states. The first-order structural model assumes 3 ego states: Child, Parent, and Adult (Stewart, Joines, 2016;Emmerton, Newton, 2004;Vos, van Rijn, 2021). Child state -behaviors, thoughts, and feelings, reproduced from childhood. ...
This article is a case study of coping with the challenge of change at Primary School No. 6 in Września from October to December 2021.Underlying the intervention work described in the case study was the model of implementing change in an organization proposed by Kurt Lewin (Lewin,1951;Bhayangkara,2020) and John Fisher’s approach to individual coping with change (Fisher,2012). In this paper, we look at the process from the perspective of educational transactional analysis.The purpose of the process was to increase the sense of psychological and content security of the 7th and 8th grade community during the period of December 2021.630 individuals actively participated in the process. The analysis was based on qualitative re-search in 5 groups of school community members: teachers (N=45), students (N=300), parents (N=280), a group of psychologists and educators (N=3) and school management (N=2). The process included: observation, in-depth interviews, group work, and discussion. Participants also had an opportunity to individually analyze conclusions and proposals developed during the process.As a result of the actions taken, comprehensive solutions and recommendations were pro-posed, which were communicated and implemented in the community of classes VII and VIII among students, teachers and parents. In this paper we show that and why parallel work with all major stakeholder groups is necessary to effect change in the school.
... If the leaders and owners are not carrying any unconscious fear, rather feel safe in their existence, they eventually take a more objective approach and see things as they are (Harris, 1969;Vos & van Rijn, 2021). A failure of an employee which brings financial loss or disrepute to the organization may not threaten suchleaders and the owners at a personal level. ...
A culture of fear, control, and meaninglessness can effectively kill the entrepreneurial spirit within an organization. This chapter will explore why such a culture typically takes root and how it is deadly for the organization's entrepreneurial orientation. The chapter is based on an interdisciplinary reflective analysis done by exploring disciplines including depth psychology, neuroscience, positive psychology, and organizational behavior. The chapter argues from the perspectives of these disciplines that it is perhaps the factor of safety, risk-taking, collaboration, and meaningfulness if present in organizational culture that will eventually cultivate the spirit of entrepreneurship in an organization. While discussing these factors, the chapter also explains how seemingly irrational forces of the unconscious mind keep the leadership from adopting a behavior which is fundamentally important in fostering a culture where entrepreneurial behavior takes root. The chapter also explains how these psychic forces can be turned around to cultivate an entrepreneurial culture in an organization.
... If the leaders and owners are not carrying any unconscious fear, rather feel safe in their existence, they eventually take a more objective approach and see things as they are (Harris, 1969;Vos & van Rijn, 2021). A failure of an employee which brings financial loss or disrepute to the organization may not threaten the leaders and the owners at a personal level. ...
A culture of fear, control, and meaninglessness can effectively kill the entrepreneurial spirit within an organization. This chapter will explore why such a culture typically takes root and how it is deadly for the organization's entrepreneurial orientation. The paper is based on an interdisciplinary reflective analysis done by exploring disciplines including depth psychology, neuroscience, positive psychology, and organizational behavior. The chapter argues from the perspectives of these disciplines that it is perhaps the factor of safety, risk-taking, collaboration, and meaningfulness if present in organizational culture, will eventually cultivate the spirit of entrepreneurship in an organization. While discussing these factors, the chapter also explains how seemingly irrational forces of the unconscious mind keep the leadership from adopting a behavior which is fundamentally important in fostering a culture where entrepreneurial behavior takes root. The paper also explains how these psychic forces can be turned around to cultivate an entrepreneurial culture in an organization.
Transactional analysis (TA) is a psychological theory and method of psychotherapy developed by Eric Berne in the late 1950s. It focuses on the interactions, or “transactions,” between individuals and analyzes the ways these exchanges are influenced by different states of the mind: Parent, adult, and child. TA is often used for communication improvement, understanding relationship dynamics, and personal development. TA is a widely embraced and frequently used type of psychotherapy. It is a valuable resource for people who want to explore their ego states and unconscious life scripts to improve their communication skills and relationships. People willing to develop greater self-awareness and take responsibility for their decisions and actions may be suited to this therapeutic method. It focuses on how people interact with others, including the therapist, to demonstrate their ego states and the types of games and scripts they engage in within social settings. The system of here-and-now emotional analysis, or neopsyche, is termed the adult; the system of introjected psychic material, or exteropsyche, is called the parent; and the system of instinctual drives and basic needs is the child. The unit of social intercourse is called a transaction. If two or more people encounter each other… sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called transactional stimulus. Another person will then say or do something which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is called the transactional response. TA focuses on problems in ego states (parent, adult, and child) with distinctive behavioral functions of controlling parent, nurturing parent, adult, adapted child, and free child. Individuals can develop long-term problems in their ego states, social functioning, and self-efficacy as the result of unfavorable messages from their social context (negative parental messages in early life, lack of developing mature coping mechanisms, intergenerational messages, and negative stroke balance), script decisions (accepting or rejecting unfavorable messages via behavior, emotional disconnection, or cognitive styles), life events, and genetics/temperament. TA treatment intends to help clients by developing constructive ego states, improving social functioning, and stimulating a sense of self-efficacy. Research confirms that TA improves psychopathology, behavior, and general well-being, thanks to improvement in ego states, self-efficacy, and social functioning. These effects are achieved by four evidence-based therapist.
A l’ère où il semble devenu évident pour beaucoup que l’humanité doive changer sa façon d’habiter la terre, des prédictions d’avenirs très distincts parcourent les réseaux et nos cerveaux. Dans une perspective immédiate de davantage de respect vis-à-vis de la nature, une question pragmatique peut s’ériger en chacun de nous : « que faire ? ». Dans une logique d’écologie de l’humain et de co-énonciation avec le vivant, cet article propose une piste possible vers l’émergence d’une éthique à l’échelle individuelle. Au-delà d’une anxiété paralysante, ou d’une action précipitée, peut-on penser une éthique rassurante, allant de soi ? Après l’examen des causes profondes de la crise écologique, l’idée proposée ici est qu’une co-énonciation avec le vivant, au service du vivant, pour la création d’un nouveau monde écologique, passe à l’échelle individuelle par une harmonie intérieure. Il s’agit alors de sortir de l’emprise des pièges d’un numérique débordant et d’effacer les dissonances internes que nos facettes scientifique et artistique peuvent avoir, dissonances parfois renforcées et/ou révélées par les arts numériques. Nous chercherons à montrer comment, en se réappropriant ces « désaccords intérieurs » et en pratiquant une démarche d’écologie introspective via l’art et la science, nous pouvons progressivement nous « défragmenter » par ce que l’on appellera via un élargissement de concept, une « co-énonciation intra-personnelle ». Par là même, des transformations salutaires pour le collectif humain et non humain s’opèrent. Parallèlement, la mise en place de qualités d’être impliquant le corps et l’esprit pour vivre la co-énonciation ouvre le chemin vers une éthique spontanée, joyeuse, allant de soi. Dans cette optique, les arts numériques deviennent un moyen d’expression créatif parmi d’autres, au service d’une co-énonciation écologique c'est-à-dire respectueuse de la nature, sans en être son substitut.
The author reviews all articles on relationship, couples, and marriage psychotherapy and counseling published in the Transactional Analysis Journal (TAJ) between 1970 and 2021 to determine whether transactional analysis has a substantive model of relationship psychotherapy. He synthesizes the content in search of a coherent, integrated, systematic approach to this practice and to determine whether it is informed by contemporary theory and practice. Since the 1970s, the publication in the TAJ of papers on relationship psychotherapy has steeply declined as the broader relationship psychotherapy field has become enlivened. Discussion focuses on the significant work needed to develop this area of practice.
Objectives
Despite many studies on transactional analysis (TA) psychotherapy, there are no comprehensive reviews or meta-analyses on its effectiveness. We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis on TA psychotherapeutic treatments to examine the extent of psychological and psychosocial change in pre-post studies, the effects compared with other treatments in randomized clinical trials, and factors explaining these effects and differences.
Method
We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis according to Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiolog (MOOSE) and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines in Pubmed, Medline, PsycInfo, Web-of-Knowledge, and scholar.google.com .
Results
Overall, 41 clinical trials of TA treatments had moderate to large effects on psychopathology (Hedges’s g = .66), social functioning ( g = .62), self-efficacy ( g = .80), ego-state functioning ( g = .69), well-being ( g = .33), and behavior ( g = .56). Compared with control conditions, TA had moderate to large effects on psychopathology ( g = .61), social functioning ( g = .69), self-efficacy ( g = .88), ego-states ( g = .70), well-being ( g = .85), and behavior ( g = .46). TA was more effective on most outcomes in individuals, groups, and families than in schools or prisons. Psychopathology changes were significantly predicted by improvements in ego-states, self-efficacy, social functioning, and client–practitioner relationship ( r² range = .27–.43). Treatments were more effective if they included systematic assessment, treatment stages, psycho-education, TA-unique techniques, and an experiential focus ( r² range = .03–.31).
Conclusions
TA may be considered an effective treatment for many clients.
Aim of this study was to investigate the antecedents and consequences of organizational conflict and negative affectivity at work based on the life positions framework. Life positions are basic beliefs about self and others, which are used to justify decisions and behavior, and they are among the constructs proposed within the Transactional Analysis Theory. Another goal of the study is to portray the relationship of life positions with motivational needs and psychological symptoms. For this purpose, survey data on life positions, organizational conflict, negative affectivity at work, counterproductive work behavior, job satisfaction, motivational needs and psychological symptoms was raised from 353 academic and administrative personnel employed in a public university. Results of the tested path model revealed that individuals with higher levels of I'm OK, You're OK reported lower levels of organizational conflict, experienced less negative affectivity and exhibited less counterproductive behaviors. Moreover, increase of organizational conflict and negative affectivity at work was accompanied by increase in counterproductive behavior and decrease in job satisfaction. Additional analyses of variance showed that the I'm OK, You're OK group had the lowest scores in terms of somatization, hostility, and depression. The group with the highest need for approval is I'm Not OK, You're OK, while the one with the highest need for power is I'm OK, You're Not OK. Potential future studies based on Transactional Analysis are discussed in light of the findings of this research.
Zusammenfassung
Transaktionsanalyse hat sich in ihren 70 Jahren Praxis und Theorieentwicklung zu einer sehr erprobten, integrativen, offenen Beratungstheorie entwickelt. Der Artikel zeigt wesentliche Aspekte transaktionsanalytischer Haltung und transaktionsanalytischer Vorgehensweise auf. Insbesondere ist die beziehungsorientierte Metatheorie dabei von großer Bedeutung. Auf die Strukturierung der Einzeltheorien der Transaktionsanalyse zu Menschenbild, Persönlichkeit, Beziehung und Kommunikation, Entwicklung und Veränderung, Wirklichkeit und Kontextbezug sowie Professionsmethoden zeigt ein durchaus komplexes Praxisbeispiel die Vielfalt des Interventionsspektrums auf.
Since the creation of transactional analysis (TA) in the 1950s, almost 50,000 handbooks, theoretical articles, and personal perspectives have been published about it. However, the application of TA has not been systematically studied. The research described in this article involved an online survey titled the Transactional Analysis Review Survey (TARS), which consisted of ten open and 45 closed questions. Items were derived from the most frequently cited TA publications and focused on the psychotherapist’s perspective on metalevel reflection, a central clinical phenomenon, etiology of psychological problems, therapeutic mechanisms, and therapist competencies. Data were analyzed with thematic analysis, principal component analysis, and latent class analysis. The survey was filled out by 238 TA therapists, and most reported seeing TA as a therapeutic approach, a general attitude and view of the world, and their preferred model in their practice. According to their reports, TA focused on the client’s ego states and transactions, social functioning, and self-efficacy, which helped improve their psychological health, self-realization, and general and behavioral well-being. Clients’ most frequently reported problems were seen as caused by negative messages early in life (scripts), lack of development of mature coping mechanisms, transgenerational messages, life events, denial of existential givens, and genetics/temperament. Individuals were understood to have some choice in accepting or rejecting the negative impact of these messages and life events via behavior, emotions, and cognitive styles. TA was viewed as helping clients via the therapeutic work with their ego states, social functioning, and self-efficacy. The changes were facilitated by the therapist competencies of positive client-practitioner relationship, working at experiential depth in the here and now, etiological analysis, and providing treatment structure. Thus, TA seems to offer a coherent conceptual framework for psychotherapeutic practice. Further empirical validation of this framework is required.
This article presents a group-based method to jointly estimate developmental trajectories of 2 distinct but theoretically related measurement series. The method will aid the analysis of comorbidity and heterotypic continuity. Three key outputs of the model are (a) for both measurement series, the form of the trajectory of distinctive subpopulations; (b) the probability of membership in each such trajectory group; and (c) the joint probability of membership in trajectory groups across behaviors. This final output offers 2 novel features. First, the joint probabilities can characterize the linkage in the developmental course of distinct but related behaviors. Second, the joint probabilities can measure differences within the population in the magnitude of this linkage. Two examples are presented to illustrate the application of the method.
This meta-analysis tested the Dodo bird conjecture, which states that when psychotherapies intended to be therapeutic are compared, the true differences among all such treatments are 0. Based on comparisons between treatments culled from 6 journals, it was found that the effect sizes were homogeneously distributed about 0, as was expected under the Dodo bird conjecture, and that under the most liberal assumptions, the upper bound of the true effect was about .20. Moreover, the effect sizes (a) were not related positively to publication date, indicating that improving research methods were not detecting effects, and (b) were not related to the similarity of the treatments, indicating that more dissimilar treatments did not produce larger effects, as would be expected if the Dodo bird conjecture was false. The evidence from these analyses supports the conjecture that the efficacy of bona fide treatments are roughly equivalent.
The goal of the study was to develop a computer-aided system that is able to identify key moments in transcripts from psychoanalytic sessions and to provide an adequate theory of change. The term key moment refers to 1 or more sessions of a treatment or to segments of a session that are seen as clinically important and often considered to be a turning point or breakthrough and that mirror points of insight as they occur in the course of the psychotherapeutic process. It will be shown that patterns built of combinations of the content analysis variables “emotion tone” and “abstraction” allow for describing therapeutic cycles including key moments. The method is shown successfully for a single case and for a sample of improved and not improved patients.
Can psychotherapy reduce the incidence of health problems? A general model of psychosomatics assumes that inhibiting or holding back one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors is associated with long-term stress and disease. Actively confronting upsetting experiences—through writing or talking—is hypothesized to reduce the negative effects of inhibition. Fifty healthy undergraduates were assigned to write about either traumatic experiences or superficial topics for 4 consecutive days. Two measures of cellular immune-system function and health center visits suggested that confronting traumatic experiences was physically beneficial. The implications for psychotherapy as a preventive treatment for health problems are discussed.
The present article emphasizes the concept related to attachment and the importance of
attachment on psychosocial functioning of children, adolescents and adults with the help of studies conducted in the field of developmental psychology. Secure attachment towards parents in infancy has generally associated with perceived strength, whereas attachment difficulties may lead to maladjusted behavior which further influences psychological as well as social functioning of individuals in future. Studies have revealed the quality of parental attachment and parental trust to be the strong predictors of well-being. Cross cultural and gender based studies have examined the attachment related behaviors, feelings in terms of child rearing practices and beliefs that are practiced in different culture. Studies indicate that almost in all cultures parental care generally lead to better psychosocial functioning among boys and girls.
Life Position, one of the central concepts in Transactional Analysis, is a person’s convictions about the worth of the self and others—a basic psychological stand, which is deeply ingrained. There are four Life Positions: “I’m OK–You’re OK”, “I’m OK–You’re not OK”, “I’m not OK–You’re OK”, and “I’m not OK–You’re not OK”. Contradicting Berne’s theory of only one depressive position (“I’m not OK–You’re OK”), past findings showed that both “I’m not OK–You’re OK” and “I’m not OK–You’re not OK” positions relate to depression, with the “I’m not OK–You’re not OK” position relating to depression more strongly than the “I’m not OK–You’re OK” position. The disparity between Berne’s original theorizing of depression and the empirical findings may support an alternative conceptualization of the depressive’s Life Position, which was the theoretical gap of this research. This research aimed to investigate the differences in how each Life Position relates to depression, and how the underlying convictions of Life Position predict depression. The Life Position Scale and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale were filled in by individuals of the general population. Post hoc analysis revealed that the “I’m not OK–You’re not OK” position related most to depression, followed by the “I’m not OK–You’re OK” position, the “I’m OK–You’re not OK” position, and finally the “I’m OK–You’re OK” position. The results also showed that both negative convictions of the self and others contributed significantly to depression, but the former predicted depression more than the latter. Applications of these findings into theoretical and therapy settings were explored.
Introduction:
The present paper aims to identify and characterize studies that assess the repercussions of parental rearing styles on development of psychopathological symptoms and to examine the possible relations between parental rearing behaviors and development of early maladaptive schemas (EMS).
Methods:
A systematic search was conducted on the PsychNet, BVS, Scopus, Web of Science and PubMed databases for empirical studies published up to 2018 in Portuguese, English, or Spanish that investigated and characterized the effects of parental rearing styles.
Results:
The electronic search identified 321 articles on the various different databases, only 22 of which met the criteria for inclusion and were read in full. Correlations were found between EMS and maternal rejection, parental rearing styles and depression in the studies. EMS were also found to act as mediators in the relationship between parental rearing styles and/or education and dysfunctional symptoms during personality development.
Conclusions:
In the studies selected, parental rearing styles stood out from other variables that influence personality development and activation of schematic patterns. It is therefore important to highlight the importance of conducting studies in this area to provide information that can promote care and prevention strategies in early childhood.
Research on the connection between sleep-related problems and Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS) is scarce. The aim of the current study was to investigate a potential link between EMSs and poor sleep quality. Participants (n = 249) were selected from a larger sample of 1253 European Portuguese college students who completed the BaSIQS and the YSQ-S3. The major inclusion criteria for the selected participants were high versus low scores on the BaSIQS (poor versus good sleep quality). Students with poor sleep quality had significantly higher levels of Abandonment/ Instability, Mistrust/Abuse, Social Isolation/Alienation, Vulnerability to Harm or Illness, Entitlement/Grandiosity, Self-Sacrifice, and Negativity/Pessimism. These data suggest that EMSs are associated with poor sleep quality. However, additional studies are necessary to better understand this relationship.
Children of mothers with elevated depressive symptoms may observe and learn a maladaptive cognitive style, including low perceptions of agency, that is, low perceived control over their emotions and circumstances. In turn, children may face increased cognitive vulnerability to depressive symptoms; however, this mediational model has yet to be tested. Using a longitudinal design and testing our hypotheses within a community sample, we investigated the mediating role of maternal agency in the associations between maternal depressive symptoms and child behavioral helplessness and depressive symptoms one and a half years later ( M = 18.58 months, SD = 6.91 months). A diverse sample of school-age children ( N = 137, 57.4% female, Mage = 9.74 years, SDage = 1.51 years) and their mothers ( N = 122) reported on their depressive symptoms at Time 1. A subsample of children and mothers returned to report on depressive symptoms at Time 2 ( N = 68 dyads; 49 with complete data prior to multiple imputation). Maternal agency was coded from narrative responses to the Parent Development Interview–Revised for Parents of School-aged Children (Slade et al., 2009), completed at Time 1. Child behavioral helplessness was indicated by low strategy use at the end of a challenging puzzle task at Time 2. Results revealed that lower maternal agency predicted higher child depressive symptoms at Time 2 and mediated the associations between higher maternal depressive symptoms at Time 1 and higher child behavioral helplessness and depressive symptoms at Time 2. Implications for clinical intervention and future investigations are discussed.
Three studies examined the possibility that being liked intrinsically by others - for who one is - reduces self-esteem defense, whereas being liked for what one has achieved does not. All 3 studies contrasted the effects on self-esteem defense of liking based on intrinsic or achievement-related aspects of self. Study 1 showed that thoughts of being liked intrinsically reduced defensive bias toward downward social comparison. Study 2 demonstrated that being liked for intrinsic aspects of self reduced participants' tendency to defensively distance themselves from a negatively portrayed other. Study 3 revealed that being liked for intrinsic aspects of self encouraged a preference for upward over downward counterfactuals for a negative event. In all 3 studies, similar reductions in defensiveness were not found when liking was based on achievements. Discussion focuses on implications for understanding the functional value of different bases of self-worth.
The present study applied a semiparametric mixture model to a sample of 284 low-income boys to model developmental trajectories of overt conduct problems from ages 2 to 8. As in research on older children, 4 developmental trajectories were identified: a persistent problem trajectory, a high-level desister trajectory, a moderate-level desister trajectory, and a persistent low trajectory. Follow-up analyses indicated that initially high and low groups were differentiated in early childhood by high child fearlessness and elevated maternal depressive symptomatology. Persistent problem and high desister trajectories were differentiated by high child fearlessness and maternal rejecting parenting. The implications of the results for early intervention research are discussed, with an emphasis on the identification of at-risk parent - child dyads.
We investigated the relationships of adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing behaviors with their early maladaptive schemas (EMS), coping responses, and schema modes. We focused on EMS related to experiences of disconnection and rejection that comprise vulnerable emotions, such as shame, mistrust, deprivation, abandonment, and isolation/alienation. This cross-sectional study included a total of 699 adolescents (combined clinical and non-referred sample) who were 11 to 18 years old (M = 14.6; SD = 1.6), and of which 45% was male. All participants completed self-report questionnaires on EMS, coping responses, schema modes, and behavior problems. We aimed to clarify the relationships between these variables by testing mediation, moderation, and moderated mediation models. In general, coping responses functioned as mediators rather than moderators in the relationships between EMS and schema modes. Furthermore, EMS regarding experiences of disconnection and rejection were related to both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, and coping responses and schema modes mediated these effects. In conclusion, although adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior problems manifest quite differently, they seem related to the same EMS.
Annex 1 – the Big List: References to Transactional Analysis research 1963- 2010
Purpose:
Social isolation and related concepts have been discussed increasingly in the field of mental health. Despite this, there is a lack of conceptual clarity and consistency in the definition and operationalisation of these terms. This review aimed to provide a clear framework for social isolation and related concepts, and to identify well-established measures in the field of mental health for each conceptual domain discussed.
Methods:
We used an iterative strategy of expert consultation and literature searching. A multi-disciplinary group of senior academics was consulted both before and after the literature searching to identify relevant terms, conceptual papers, or recommended measures. Our conceptual framework was also validated through expert consultation. We searched the Web of Science database using terms suggested by experts and subsequently identified further relevant studies through review articles and by reading full texts and reference lists of included studies. A narrative synthesis was conducted.
Results:
We developed a model with five domains incorporating all the concepts relevant to social isolation in regular use in the mental health research literature. These five domains are: social network-quantity; social network-structure; social network-quality; appraisal of relationships-emotional; and appraisal of relationships-resources. We also identified well-developed measures suitable for assessing each of the five conceptual domains or covering multi-domains.
Conclusions:
Our review proposes a conceptual model to encompass and differentiate all terms relating to social isolation. Potential uses are in allowing researchers and intervention developers to identify precisely the intended outcomes of interventions, and to choose the most appropriate measures to use in mental health settings.
Purpose:
Engaging in exploratory risky behaviors and experiencing poor mental health during early adolescence are important markers for poor health during adulthood. Prior research suggests protective effects from cognition, but less is known about the associations between early childhood cognition and early adolescent psychosocial well-being, as identified by self-esteem, mental health, and exploratory risky behaviors. This article investigates the extent that early adolescent psychosocial well-being at the age of 11 years is associated with patterns of cognitive skills measured across the first decade of a child's life.
Methods:
We used data collected from the four follow-up sweeps of the UK Millennium Cohort Study and utilized latent profile analysis to identify three discernible cognitive profiles (n = 16,899).
Results:
We find cohort members in low-achieving profiles to be more likely to engage in exploratory risky behaviors-drinking, smoking, and antisocial conduct-and to have poor self-esteem and more problem behaviors, compared with their peers in high-achieving profiles. Socioeconomic and family psychosocial markers considerably attenuated these disadvantages.
Conclusions:
Understanding which adolescents have adverse psychosocial well-being has implications for the prevention of chronic diseases and for clinical care and policy.
A theory describing the development of alternating, dissociated, victim/masochistic and perpetrator/sadistic ego states in persons who grew up with abusive primary caretakers is proposed, and a paradigm for treatment is derived from the theory. Alternating ego states can be observed throughout the spectrum of dissociative disorders, from Borderline Personality to Dissociative Identity Disorder. Dependence on an abusive caretaker creates a series of relational dilemmas for the child. To maintain attachment, abuse must be dissociated, but to protect the self from abuse, need for attachment must be disavowed. Disorganized attachment may result. When alternating ego states are understood as evolving from defensive schemas developed to negotiate the dilemmas of attachment to an abuser, the following therapeutic techniques can be derived: (1) identifying adaptive needs and maladaptive defenses; (2) interpreting ego state switches as attempts to resolve relational dilemmas; (3) gradually bridging dissociation between states; (4) using transference and countertransference to understand relational patterns; and (5) cultivating more adaptive interpersonal skills within the therapeutic relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Objectives
Despite many studies on transactional analysis (TA) psychotherapy, there are no comprehensive reviews or meta-analyses on its effectiveness. We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis on TA psychotherapeutic treatments to examine the extent of psychological and psychosocial change in pre-post studies, the effects compared with other treatments in randomized clinical trials, and factors explaining these effects and differences.
Method
We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis according to Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiolog (MOOSE) and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines in Pubmed, Medline, PsycInfo, Web-of-Knowledge, and scholar.google.com .
Results
Overall, 41 clinical trials of TA treatments had moderate to large effects on psychopathology (Hedges’s g = .66), social functioning ( g = .62), self-efficacy ( g = .80), ego-state functioning ( g = .69), well-being ( g = .33), and behavior ( g = .56). Compared with control conditions, TA had moderate to large effects on psychopathology ( g = .61), social functioning ( g = .69), self-efficacy ( g = .88), ego-states ( g = .70), well-being ( g = .85), and behavior ( g = .46). TA was more effective on most outcomes in individuals, groups, and families than in schools or prisons. Psychopathology changes were significantly predicted by improvements in ego-states, self-efficacy, social functioning, and client–practitioner relationship ( r² range = .27–.43). Treatments were more effective if they included systematic assessment, treatment stages, psycho-education, TA-unique techniques, and an experiential focus ( r² range = .03–.31).
Conclusions
TA may be considered an effective treatment for many clients.
Since the founding of transactional analysis (TA) by Eric Berne in
the 1950s, many psychometric instruments have been developed
to operationalize TA concepts. Several studies have provided general
reviews of these, but the studies are not systematic and do
not assess the psychometric quality of the instruments. We conducted
a systematic literature review of all psychometric instruments
operationalizing TA concepts by searching in Pubmed,
Medline, PsycInfo, APA articles, Web-of-Knowledge, and scholar.-
google.com. The study quality was evaluated with the consensusbased
standards for the selection of health measurement instruments
(COSMIN). Of the 12,287 initial search hits, we selected 56
instruments in 263 studies. Among those, the Schema Mode
Inventory, the Tokyo Egogram, the Adjective Check List, the
ANINT-A36, and the Life Position Scale were found to have fair to
good overall COSMIN quality. Except for the Life Position Scale,
they operationalize ego states (Parent, Adult, Child) and the functional
analysis concepts of Critical Parent, Nurturing Parent, and
Adapted/Free Child. The Life Position Scale operationalized the
positive and negative positions toward self and others. Other
questionnaires had poor to fair COSMIN quality, usually because
of a lack of studies. Meta-analyses indicated that psychopathology
and physical symptoms are associated with strong Critical Parent,
strong Adapted Child, weak Integrated Adult, negative coping
styles, and negative positions toward oneself and others. Many
instruments need further validation and translation into more languages.
The Schema Mode Inventory, the Tokyo Egogram, the
Adjective Check List, and the Life Position Scale are the best validated
questionnaires. These could be used by researchers to test
treatment effectiveness and by psychotherapists to examine the
problems and etiology of clients.
Since the creation of transactional analysis (TA) in the 1950s, almost 50,000 handbooks, theoretical articles, and personal perspectives have been published about it. However, the application of TA has not been systematically studied. The research described in this article involved an online survey titled the Transactional Analysis Review Survey (TARS), which consisted of ten open and 45 closed questions. Items were derived from the most frequently cited TA publications and focused on the psychotherapist’s perspective on metalevel reflection, a central clinical phenomenon, etiology of psychological problems, therapeutic mechanisms, and therapist competencies. Data were analyzed with thematic analysis, principal component analysis, and latent class analysis. The survey was filled out by 238 TA therapists, and most reported seeing TA as a therapeutic approach, a general attitude and view of the world, and their preferred model in their practice. According to their reports, TA focused on the client’s ego states and transactions, social functioning, and self-efficacy, which helped improve their psychological health, self-realization, and general and behavioral well-being. Clients’ most frequently reported problems were seen as caused by negative messages early in life (scripts), lack of development of mature coping mechanisms, transgenerational messages, life events, denial of existential givens, and genetics/temperament. Individuals were understood to have some choice in accepting or rejecting the negative impact of these messages and life events via behavior, emotions, and cognitive styles. TA was viewed as helping clients via the therapeutic work with their ego states, social functioning, and self-efficacy. The changes were facilitated by the therapist competencies of positive client-practitioner relationship, working at experiential depth in the here and now, etiological analysis, and providing treatment structure. Thus, TA seems to offer a coherent conceptual framework for psychotherapeutic practice. Further empirical validation of this framework is required.
Despite considerable efforts to understand the processes that underlie the development of externalizing behavior problems, it is still unclear why externalizing problems remain chronically high for some children, emerge early and cease by late childhood for others, and arise in adolescence in some cases. The purpose of this study was to examine how a wide range of child and family risk factors are linked to trajectories of externalizing behavior and how these relationships vary from infancy to middle adolescence. We used data from the community-based Norwegian Tracking Opportunities and Problems (TOPP) study sample ( n = 921). A Cholesky factorization model was specified to separate stable and emerging risk doses across four developmental periods (infancy, early and middle childhood, and middle adolescence). Children in the High Stable class were characterized by substantially elevated risk levels in multiple domains throughout the study period. Children in the High Childhood Limited class had very high levels of temperamental emotionality, internalizing symptoms, and maternal mental distress, suggesting a substantial intrinsic emotional basis for their externalizing problems. Intrinsic factors seemed less salient for the Adolescent Onset class. These findings emphasize the need for a dynamic perspective on risk factors and support the importance of prevention and intervention efforts across multiple domains from early childhood and throughout adolescence.
Weaving together state-of-the-art research, theory, and clinical insights, this book provides a new understanding of the unconscious and its centrality in human functioning. The authors review heuristics, implicit memory, implicit learning, attribution theory, implicit motivation, automaticity, affective versus cognitive salience, embodied cognition, and clinical theories of unconscious functioning. They integrate this work with cognitive neuroscience views of the mind to create an empirically supported model of the unconscious. Arguing that widely used psychotherapies--including both psychodynamic and cognitive approaches--have not kept pace with current science, the book identifies promising directions for clinical practice.
The human life span with its radical changes and structured constraints in control potential confronts the individual with a highly taxing coping task. If developmental tasks and everyday challenges are to be tackled successfully, not only at one point in the life span, but across shifting developmental ecologies, the individual has to maintain and balance two requirements. On the one hand, expectations, plans, and evaluations have to reflect reality, so as to allow appropriate action planning. On the other hand, conceptions about life-span change need to be biased so as to protect self-efficacy, and thus maintain motivational prerequisites of action. One way to balance both these apparently contradictory requirements is strategic social comparison. Social comparison in terms of age-graded phenomena is based on normative conceptions about life-span development. Such normative conceptions help generate age-graded social reference groups, which provide both, a realistically tailored and a self-enhancing framework for personal evaluations and aspirations. Recent research is presented, which demonstrates the structure and consensual nature of normative conceptions about adult development. Moreover, development-related expectations for the self entail substantial congruence with those ascribed to "most other people," thus exemplifying a focus on validity, rather than on excessive self-serving illusion. However, differences between normative and self-related expectations reflect a self-enhancement strategy, particularly with regard to old age, which is regarded a more threatening period of the life span.
This chapter is based on pluralistic epistemology, as pluralism focuses on the existence of different co‐existing perspectives and their relationships. It provides an overview of research findings on Existential‐Phenomenological Therapies. Correia et al. found that existential therapists used four – sometimes overlapping – therapeutic competences: phenomenological skills, relational skills, explicating existential themes, and therapeutic school‐specific competences. Fundamental phenomenology research focuses on the common structure of a phenomenon such as anger, in contrast with idiosyncratic interpretative‐phenomenological‐analyses that focuses on the personal meaning and sense‐making for particular individuals. The meta‐analyses suggested a statistical trend, that applying phenomenology without simultaneously explicitly addressing existential themes such as meaning in life is less effective than combining phenomenology with explicating existential themes. Most studies are based on structured brief therapy manuals, describing therapist skills about assessment, meaning‐specific issues, existential‐phenomenological method, therapeutic relationship, and spirituality/mindfulness.
Background: Self-criticism represents a central phenomenon in a variety of mental disorders. The review looks at the recent body of literature (2012–2018) to summarize the relation of self-criticism and psychopathology beyond depression and aims at detecting how different conceptualizations of self-criticism with psychoanalytical, psychodynamic, or cognitive-evolutionary background are related to psychopathology. Furthermore, latest treatment approaches for dysfunctional forms of self-criticism are reviewed. Methods: The literature research of five databases (PsycINFO, PSYNDEX, PubMed, Medline, and Cochrane Library) took place in August 2018. Inclusion criteria for studies to enter the review narrative were an adult sample, non-clinical samples as well as clinical samples, and an empirical approach, which resulted in quantitative data. Results: 48 studies entered the review. Besides depressive symptoms, self-criticism showed positive relations to symptoms of eating disorders, social anxiety disorder, and personality disorders as well as to psychotic symptoms or interpersonal problems through different conceptualizations of self-criticism. Regarding the treatment of self-criticism, compassion- or emotion-focused therapy interventions were investigated in most of the reviewed studies and both reduced self-criticism in clinical and non-clinical samples. However, harsh forms of self-criticism were more persistent and difficult to change. Limitations: The review focused only on the latest empirical findings regarding self-criticism and psychopathology. Conclusion: Potentially functional forms and functions of self-criticism need further consideration, as they represent a possible goal of psychotherapeutic treatment. Future research should address specific questions regarding antecedents and consequences of self-criticism.
Background
Young Schema Model (YSM) emphasizes Toxic Early Childhood Experiences (TECE) as vulnerability factors to depression. However, the lack of consensus on how to define and measure TECE is likely to have led to inconsistent findings in current literature. This review maps supported and unsupported pathways to depression and measures used.
Methods
A scoping review was conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute protocol to identify primary research studies that examined developmental and maintenance pathways to depression within the YSM framework. 2463 articles were identified with 49 primary research studies selected for inclusion. As a subset of the overall review, this paper focuses on the 14 studies examining effects of TECE on depression in context of YSM.
Results
The studies used 11 different measures to examine the role of TECE in depression. Effects of maltreatment (i.e. physical abuse, emotional abuse, emotional neglect,) and perceived parenting (i.e. low care, high rejection, high overprotection and/or control, maladaptive parenting styles) on depression are well supported. Effects of sexual abuse and physical neglect on depression are currently inconclusive.
Conclusion
In conclusion, findings revealed the inconsistent definition and measurement of TECE (with 11 different measures) in current literature. Findings support the effects of physical abuse, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, low care, high rejection, high overprotection and/or control, and maladaptive parenting styles on depression. Limitations of existing studies include researchers’ inconsistent definition and measurement of TECE, under-examined TECE sub-constructs and possible moderating relationships, predominant cross-sectional design, and homogeneous sampling. Limitations of the scoping review include its small number of studies and the absence of evaluation of the measures used. Nevertheless, this review represents the first step in the systematic examination of the empirical basis of YSM and is an important contribution to depression treatment and innovation.
The transtheoretical model and the stages of change are often used to adapt treatment to the individual client. The aims of this study were to review the stages of change and popular measures of change readiness in psychotherapy and to conduct a meta‐analysis of the relation between readiness measures and psychotherapy outcomes. We report data from 76 studies, encompassing 25,917 patients. Moderate‐sized effects (d = 0.41) were found for the association among multiple disorders, including substance and alcohol use, eating disorders, and mood disorders. Outcomes were a function of the pretreatment stage of change; that is, the farther a patient along the stages, the better the treatment outcomes. This review added 37 studies to the data reported in 2010, further strengthening the link between readiness and therapy outcomes. The article concludes with limitations of the research, diversity considerations, and therapeutic practices for stage matching in psychotherapy specifically and behavioral health more generally.
Objective
Many psychotherapists speak with clients about meaning in life. Meaning is an neutral evidence-based term for a subjective sense of purpose, values, understanding, self-worth, action-directed goals, and self-regulation. Since little is known about its effectiveness, our study aimed to determine the effects of meaning-centered therapies (MCTs) on improving quality of life and reducing psychological stress.
Method
Independent researchers selected and scored articles in multiple languages in multiple search engines. Weighted pooled mean effects were calculated following a random-effects model. Sensitivity analyses included moderators, study and sample characteristics, risk of bias, randomization, types of MCT, control condition, and outcome instruments.
Results
Some 52,220 citations included 60 trials (total sample N = 3,713), of which 26 were randomized controlled trials ( N = 1,975), 15 nonrandomized controlled trials ( N = 709), and 19 nonrandomized noncontrolled trials with pre/post measurements ( N = 1,029). Overall analyses showed large improvements from baseline to immediate posttreatment and follow-up on quality of life (Hedges' g = 1.13, SE = 0.12; g = 0.99, SE = 0.20) and psychological stress ( g = 1.21, SE = 0.10; g = 0.67, SE = 0.20). As effects varied between studies, further analyses focused only on controlled trials: MCT had large effect sizes compared to control groups, both immediate and at follow-up, on quality of life ( g = 1.02, SE = 0.06; g = 1.06, SE = 0.12) and psychological stress ( g = 0.94, SE = 0.07, p < 0.01; g = 0.84, SE = 0.10). Immediate effects were larger for general quality of life ( g = 1.37, SE = 0.12) than for meaning in life ( g = 1.18, SE = 0.08), hope and optimism ( g = 0.80, SE = 0.13), self-efficacy ( g = 0.89, SE = 0.14), and social well-being ( g = 0.81, SE = 13). The homogeneity of these results was validated by the lack of significance of moderators and alternative ways of selecting studies. Metaregression analyses showed that increases in meaning in life predicted decreases in psychological stress (β = –0.56, p < 0.001).
Significance of results
MCT strongly improves quality of life and reduces psychological stress. MCT should be made more widely available, particularly to individuals in transitional moments in life or with a chronic or life-threatening physical illness as they explicitly report meaning-centered concerns.
The quality of the interparental relationship is recognized as an important influence on child and adolescent psychopathology. Historically, clinically oriented research on this topic has focused on the impacts of parental divorce and domestic violence as primary interparental relationship influences on child outcomes, to the relative neglect of dimensional or qualitative features of the couple/interparental relationship for youth (child and adolescent) psychopathology. Recent research has highlighted that children are affected by attributes of interparental conflict, specifically how parents express and manage conflicts in their relationship, across a continuum of expressed severity and negativity - ranging from silence to violence. Furthermore, new evidence highlights that children's emotional, behavioral, social, academic outcomes, and future interpersonal relationships are adversely affected by conflict between parents/carers whether adults are living together or not (i.e. married or separated), or where children are or are not genetically related to their rearing parents (e.g. adoption). We review evidence and present an integrated theoretical model, highlighting how children are affected by interparental conflict and what this evidence base means for effective intervention and prevention program development, as well as the development of possible cost-benefit models. Additionally, we review policy implications of this research and highlight some very recent examples of UK-based policy focusing on addressing the interparental relationship and its impact on youth psychopathology.
Appreciation is extremely powerful. The exchange of this power through giving and receiving appreciation is enjoyed by many. Research has shown that appreciating others and receiving appreciation from others has a significant positive impact on our well-being. In this paper, along with discussing these benefits, I will elaborate on the various common languages of appreciation and the challenges faced while giving and accepting appreciation. Also, in addition to highlighting ways to make appreciation more aligned with the idea of positive psychology, I will draw on relevant literature from psychology and sociology, to propose the concepts of active constructive complimenting and active constructive accepting, as suggestions to better use the opportunity of giving and receiving verbal appreciation. In doing so, I suggest how we could transform our daily lives by building quality connections with others and have more meaningful interactions. To gain a better understanding of how people use appreciation in their daily lives, I created an online survey open to the non clinical adult population, which had inputs from 339 individuals from around the world.
Background and aims:
The focus of our study was the etiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder from attachment aspects. Our aim was to examine the representations of perceived parental treatment, attachment patterns and the level of emotion regulation of people who suffer from obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Method:
223 people participated in our study. The clinical group consisted of 92 persons with obsessive-compulsive symptoms, while the control group involved 131 people without OC symptoms. In the study we used the Young Parenting Inventory, the Relationship Questionnaire, and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Besides we compiled a questionnaire based on the DSM-5 and a demographic questionnaire. Respondents could fill the questionnaires online.
Results:
The clinical group is characterized by significantly higher toxic frustration of each five basic emotional needs than the control group. Specifically, in the case of people with OC smptoms the toxic parental treatments for Defectiveness/ Shame, Dependence/Incompetence, Enmeshment/Undeveloped self, Entitlement/Grandiosity, Approval-seeking/ Recognition-seeking, Negativity/Pessimism, Emotional inhibition, Unrelenting standards/Hypercriticalness and Punitiveness were significantly more frequent than in the control group. The OC group is also characterized by significantly lower rate of secure attachment style, while dismissive attachment style proved to be the most frequent attachment style among them. The OC group also struggle with significantly higher level of emotion regulation difficulties.
Interest in beliefs about personal control has a long history in philosophy and psychology. The theories of effectance motivation, achievement motivation, social learning, and helplessness are just a few that explore relationships between perceptions of personal competence and human behavior and psychological well-being. The importance of self-efficacy beliefs depends on the assumption that they have some causal impact. This chapter addresses them, presenting the results of meta-analyses, which show that efficacy beliefs contribute significantly to the level of motivation and performance. Understanding how self-efficacy beliefs develop requires understanding a the broader theoretical of social cognitive theory. To explain that self-efficacy beliefs are important to positive clinical psychology, the chapter focuses on four areas: self-efficacy and self-regulation; self-efficacy and psychological adjustment; self-efficacy and physical health; self-efficacy and psychological interventions. The timeless message of research on self-efficacy is that confidence, effort, and persistence are more potent than innate ability.