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The globalIzaTIon of InTernaTIonalIzaTIon?
Elspeth Jones and Hans de Wit
, scholarly and public attention with re-
spect to internationalization in higher education has focused on the West-
ern world. As Upenyu and Ress note, “very little research has aimed to
understand and conceptualise internationalisation eorts in the context
of the historical particularities of the postcolonial condition.” For several
years we have written about whether the concept of internationalization of
higher education has itself become globalized. Are institutions, countries,
and regions simply mimicking the priorities of Anglo-Western forms of in-
ternationalization, or are distinctive forms of the concept emerging that
better reect local needs and priorities? In this chapter, we reect further
and summarize some key points, by which we hope to raise awareness of
alternative approaches in dierent global contexts.
With an increasing number of countries and types of institutions
around the world engaging in the process of internationalization, our work
considers the impact on policy and practice of new perspectives coming
from voices and regions that do not normally have a strong presence in
the discourse. Our concern is to emphasize that internationalization should
no longer be considered in terms of a Westernized, largely Anglo-Saxon,
and predominantly English-speaking paradigm. Indeed, we go further and
identify, “the need to learn from other non-western national and cultural
contexts—to understand the full extent of internationalization as a phe-
nomenon and what we can learn from each other in order to benet stu-
dents, employers and nations.”
We see rapid changes in international higher education, which have
only increased in range and complexity over the past decade. Global com-
petition for talent, growing complexity in cross-border activity, branch
campuses, and the creation of global professionals and citizens are issues
that are becoming essential parts of the language of university leaders in all
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36 | International Education at the Crossroads
parts of the world. Notions of importing and exporting countries are being
turned upside down as students choose study destinations in countries that
were once seen as only sending students to the West to study. Global mobil-
ity ows are increasingly complex, oering new opportunities for those able
and willing to access them. Non-Western countries are emerging as key
players and beginning to challenge the dominance of Western discourse
on internationalization. ere are increasing expectations of employers for
cross-culturally capable graduates, ideally with international experience, to
meet these demands.
Scott has argued that “under the impact of accelerating globalization
... a new paradigm of international education might emerge that is both
more threatening and more helpful.” Certainly, the world is facing strong
threats to the underlying values of cooperative internationalization. Rising
populism, nationalism, and xenophobia, at a time when political instability
has led to increasing migration, all contrive to make the jobs more dicult
of those who view internationalization as far more than simply a neoliberal
or market-driven concern. On the other side of the political divide, the need
for higher education to address global societal challenges, summarized in
the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations, implies a global
agenda. Balancing and integrating local needs with global demands is a
major challenge for higher education institutions in the context of ongo-
ing massication on the one hand and the demand for a global knowledge
economy on the other. What are the implications of this changing world-
wide panorama for internationalization and the call for a more localized
approach to internationalization?
In , we wrote that “a globalized interpretation of internationaliza-
tion requires a more nuanced approach to its delivery than has hitherto
been the case,” and suggested a range of factors that needed to be taken into
account, including:
• geographical variation in social and economic needs resulting in
dierentiated local and regional responses;
• ethical issues in global engagement and sustainability of practice;
and
• the importance of careful consideration of the local context and
culture when engaging in cross-border activity.
In , we argued that a globalized view of internationalization requires
us to:
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e Globalization of Internationalization? | 37
• Put political and economic rationales in context by measuring the
things which are important, not simply those which can be mea-
sured.
• Exploit the globalization of internationalization by learning from
partners and from diversity of policy and practice.
• Remember the link between international and intercultural; inter-
nationalization of curriculum, teaching and learning, at home as
well as abroad, should be a key priority.
• Understand the transformational potential of internationalization
and the link with employability and citizenship—enable students,
faculty, and support sta to benet from this.
• Practice what we preach; learn from internationalization research
and practice in other parts of the world.
If we can seize the potential of globalized internationalization, resisting the
“increasing trend to view internationalisation as a marker of institutional
reputation or as a proxy for quality,” we can better realize its benets for
students and the wider university community.
One of the main risks is that internationalization continues to be per-
ceived as strengthening the dominance of the existing powers in interna-
tional higher education: regions, nations, and institutions. Will new re-
gional alliances become an alternative for the European Union and the
United States, and will the creation of new post‒Cold War blocks of politi-
cal and economic inuence provide a new focus to higher education institu-
tions and national higher education systems? Will institutions from Asia,
Latin America, and Africa be able to compete as world-class universities in
ranking and branding? Will successful forms of south-south cooperation
emerge as an alternative to current unequal north-south partnerships?
Internationalization in higher education certainly has become a broad-
er global concept than its dominant perception in the developed, in par-
ticular English-speaking, world. e number of articles, books, and reports
on the internationalization of higher education; the active role of national
governments, higher education organizations, and institutions; and the in-
ternational education associations in emerging and developing countries il-
lustrate this increasing importance. It is also reected in Global Surveys on
Internationalization by the International Association of Universities (IAU).
But at the same time, we see a trend toward the homogenization of
activities, approaches, policies, and strategies, similar to those in the tradi-
tional industrialized world. As de Wit, Rumbley, Craciun, and their coau-
thors observe in a report for the World Bank on national tertiary education,
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38 | International Education at the Crossroads
internationalization strategies and plans of low- and middle-income coun-
tries largely copy the Western paradigm in focusing strongly on mobility,
on reputation and branding, and on south-north relations. is is, to a
great extent, driven by economic rationales, increased competitiveness, and
the dominance of the Western university model. Rankings exacerbate this,
along with the numerical indicators used to measure internationalization:
numbers of international students, international scholars, and mobile stu-
dents and sta, as well as the number of internationally coauthored publica-
tions. ese indicators tend to drive governments and institutional leaders
in higher education to focus (a) on increasing these quantitative targets and
(b) on policies for realizing them, such as teaching in English, tuition-fee
policies, exclusive focus on research, and so on. Little space is le for in-
novative ideas for internationalization, embedded in the local and institu-
tional context.
To counter the perception of homogenization, the book we edited with
Gacel-Ávila and Jooste presented a number of approaches to international-
ization that were embedded in specic regional, national, or institutional
contexts. Embracing this kind of diversity led Egron-Polak and Mar-
molejo to write that “the concept of ‘emerging voices’ in the new higher
education landscape should be comprehensive and inclusive in scope. It is
not only one single, unied voice, nor does it always come from the same
cluster of countries or from the same type of institutions.”
Several key themes were identied in the book. We now consider three
of these, which respond to views that the majority of internationalization
follows similar patterns the world over.
Internationalization in School Education
It would seem obvious to suggest that internationalization should be fun-
damental to education at all levels, yet the discourse has largely neglected
internationalization in primary and tertiary education. In fact, internation-
alization at those levels has evolved substantially, but this has largely been
ignored in the debate on the internationalization of higher education until
fairly recently, and, indeed, de Wit observed that “higher education has to
realise that internationalisation starts not only at the university but before
that and they should support and collaborate with the other levels of educa-
tion, take advantage of this development and build their own strategy on
it.” Rizvi points to an internationalization approach that is important for
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e Globalization of Internationalization? | 39
both developing and developed countries: “While issues internal to higher
education are well-researched, seldom examined are the questions of the
ways in which the schools sector prepares students for international higher
education, as well as the implications for universities of the attempts by
schools to internationalize their policies, programs and practices.” Ac-
cording to Rizvi, this underlines the need for universities to develop closer
and more direct links with schools and school systems around the world.
Internationalization is not the exclusive domain of higher education and
can only reach full potential if it is aligned with and built on other levels of
education.
Internalization and Social Responsibility
Another dimension of higher education internationalization that has been
rather ignored concerns the social role and responsibility of higher educa-
tion. Egron-Polak and Marmolejo argue (in this volume and elsewhere) that
the United Nations’ Agenda for Sustainable Development may oer
a new framework within which internationalization of higher education
could evolve. ey conclude that
Higher education institutions already contribute, in a variety of ways, to goals
such as those of the Agenda and have done so for decades. ey collabo-
rate to build capacity in partner institutions in many disciplines, they inter-
nationalise their curriculum with the aim of instilling in graduates a global
consciousness; they have focused on developing learning outcomes linked to
global citizenship; undertake research on sustainable lifestyles and alterna-
tive economic models, develop new health policies and practices that expand
access to treatment, train teachers at home and internationally, etc. However,
these valuable activities are oen somewhat marginal in the overwhelming
focus of internationalisation strategies on attracting more international stu-
dents, on nding partner institutions that enjoy a strong international repu-
tation, on building partnerships according to self-interest due to pressure to
show impact at home, focusing on research that has the greatest potential to
raise both individual and institutional status and others.
In two recent contributions to University World News, Brandenburg,
de Wit, Jones, and Leask argue that there is a need for institutions to con-
sider their role in supporting internationalization for society, a concept de-
scribed by them as follows: “Internationalisation of Higher Education for
Society (IHES) explicitly aims to benet the wider community, at home or
abroad, through international or intercultural education, research, service
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40 | International Education at the Crossroads
and engagement.” ematic examples of internationalization of higher
education for society include its contribution in relation to the refugee crisis
facing the Middle East and Europe and lessons for similar crises elsewhere,
its role in helping to rebuild postconict countries, and the enhancement
of social inclusion.
Immigration Patterns and Refugees
Streitwieser, Miller-Idriss, and de Wit argue that
Universities’ reception of refugees ought to be understood within broader
higher education internationalization frameworks and global engagements,
because receiving countries’ eorts to help refugees maintain and acquire
high-level skills during periods of crisis and displacement will have a signi-
cant and ongoing impact on the recovery and reconstruction eorts of send-
ing regions once the conict ends. While developing countries are usually the
primary senders and receivers of refugees, the crisis that began in Europe in
has changed that pattern once again.
ey state that such an understanding will not only solve the immediate
problems of the individuals concerned but will also help to ensure that these
individuals have the skills and knowledge needed for reconstruction when
political stability has returned. ey believe that the Syrian refugee crisis
has helped to showcase on a grand scale, arguably unprecedented in mod-
ern times, how university internationalization can be connected to broader
issues of global stability in the short and longer term. Ergin, de Wit, and
Leask refer to this as forced internationalization, stating that, “whereas in
the past, internationalization of higher education has primarily been volun-
tary and part of deliberate institutional (and in some cases governmental)
policy, this emerging form of internationalization is forced.”
International Dimensions of Higher Education in Postconict Settings
e world is faced with an increasing number of postconict settings: Af-
ghanistan, Colombia, Iraq, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, and Syria,
to mention some key current ones. Heleta argues that universities from the
developed and emerging world need to play a crucial role here, through col-
laboration and provision of assistance: “Despite the enormous challenges
facing post-conict countries, rebuilding and gradual internationalisa-
tion of higher education need to be considered as priorities by local and
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e Globalization of Internationalization? | 41
international actors. Students in these countries deserve quality and relevant
education that prepares them for global engagement and functioning.”
Internationalization and Social Inclusion
ere are some interesting examples of how internationalization can be
used as a means to enhance the social inclusion of traditionally disadvan-
taged populations in the Latin American and Caribbean region. is in-
cludes women living in rural areas struggling to set up their own business
as a means of subsistence. Ramírez Sánchez, Cáceres Seguel, and Pinto
showcase the experience of a group of women entrepreneurs who were able
to consolidate their marketing strategies and make innovations in their
products thanks to the internationalization program of the Viña del Mar
University, Chile.
Social responsibility and global citizenship development are increas-
ingly present in higher education internationalization discourse, in partic-
ular for developing countries. Here it appears that higher education shows a
more focused acknowledgment of the social mission of universities than in
the developed world, where the notion of society has become more market
focused and such terms as workforce development and employability domi-
nate the agenda of higher education and its internationalization.
Regional Trends in Internationalization
Until relatively recently, internationalization trends in dierent parts of
the world have tended to follow traditional models. Student mobility from
developing regions to more developed economies and transnational educa-
tion (or international program and provider mobility) delivered by Anglo-
Western institutions have been the main area of focus. However, a number
of other trends have begun to emerge in recent years. For example, there has
been an increase globally in the number of programs delivered through the
medium of English in order to attract students who do not speak the local
language. Alongside this, improving perceptions of institutional quality in
countries previously seen as sending students rather than receiving them
have disrupted traditional global student ows. Education hubs in East and
Southeast Asia, as well as dominant destination countries in the Middle
East and parts of Africa and Latin America, are now creating opportunities
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42 | International Education at the Crossroads
for wider participation in international education than ever before. Some
other notable trends were described in de Wit, Gacel-Ávila, and Jones.
As far as the Latin America and Caribbean region is concerned, Gacel-
Ávila, Bustos-Aguirre, and Celso Freire noted short-term mobility as an
innovative strategy that has been gaining importance in the past ten years,
expanding international opportunities for students. However, regional
economic and political instability, along with a lack of eective long-term
planning and implementation, have begun to undermine eorts and prog-
ress made.
Abouchedid and Bou Zeid’s study of the Middle East and North Af-
rica (MENA) also presented key obstacles, such as that many institutions in
the region lack the important physical and nancial resources required for
internationalization. ere is inadequate government funding for public
universities and overdependence on student fees in private institutions.
Internationalization requires a commitment from higher education lead-
ers that should be reected in policies, mission statements, and strategic
plans, but in reality, only a few universities mention internationalization
in their mission statements, they argue. Cooperation exists only as piece-
meal initiatives taken by some higher education institutions (HEIs) on an
individual basis. e region lacks a regional qualication framework to fa-
cilitate transferability of credits and mobility of students across the diverse
HEIs of the area. Student mobility is also challenged by security problems
and political instability in the wider MENA region and by visa problems
for students wishing to travel to Europe and the United States. Privatiza-
tion policies that allow the establishment of foreign institutions are mainly
motivated by political and commercial considerations at the expense of
quality in terms of curricula, faculty qualications, and research facilities,
which greatly limit the involvement of HEIs in the regional international-
izationprocess.
Klemenčič writes about institutions in peripheral locations and argues
that, for them, “the imperatives for internationalisation are magnied by
the limited ‘organic’ intake of talent and the high salience of international
networks and graduates with international competences to aid economic
development and growth.” For such institutions, a deliberate internation-
alization strategy is indeed a necessary ingredient of their own moderniza-
tion and institutional capacity building, with regional cooperation a par-
ticularly desirable option, since it potentially helps strengthen the regional
relevance of partner institutions and their collective international status
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e Globalization of Internationalization? | 43
and visibility: “Universities in peripheral countries may not be the most
desired international partners of institutions in the educational hot spots,
but they are oen preferred partners to other institutions in the peripheral
neighbouring countries.” However, Klemenčič argues, the reality is that,
for peripheral universities, the internationalization of higher education is
oen associated with modernization, or catching up with internationalized
peers in more developed higher education hubs, and this sense of catching
up is precisely what can prompt universities into the uncritical imitation of
other institutions or internationalization agendas.
For the Caribbean region, Rampersad describes the University of the
West Indies (UWI) as illustrating the use of internationalization as an en-
gine of national and regional development. UWI’s strategy highlights how
information and communication technology can facilitate entry to new
markets and engender demand for programs in which the university enjoys
a strong reputation and has market appeal. Furthermore, Rampersad iden-
ties the strategies of expanding research links with traditional partners
that are leaders in their eld and of aggressively pursuing relationships with
counterparts in regions oering new opportunities for growth and devel-
opment. He notes that these are especially valuable where historical and
cultural links can be leveraged.
ese cases reect a dynamic and broad regional approach to interna-
tionalization. It is clear that while student mobility is an important activity,
other dimensions may be even more so. Regional and subregional integra-
tion and cooperation emerge as needing greater prominence in the analysis
of internationalization in higher education.
Similar approaches can be found at the national level in emerging and
developing countries, several of which are investing in higher education
and in world-class universities in an attempt to move up in the rankings—
their primary driver for internationalization. is means that national in-
terests prevail above institutional autonomy and initiative, and the danger
of uncritical imitation is high.
A number of alternative lessons can be learned by observing institu-
tional initiatives in internationalization. According to Hagenmeier, inter-
nationalization in a postcolonial context must arm awareness of local
identity, cultures, and languages. Critical for success, he argues, is the
strengthening of the university’s role as a catalyst connecting indigenous
knowledge, language, and culture to the wider world, for the mutual benet
of local communities, international stakeholders, and the university. His
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44 | International Education at the Crossroads
view of a conceptual link between Africanization and internationalization,
which arms rather than jeopardizes the university as an African univer-
sity embedded in indigenous communities, is in line with Knutson’s call to
problematize internationalization through indigenous world views in the
Canadian context.
Some Reections
So, to return to the question in our title, it is true that internationalization
has become increasingly a global phenomenon. However, our view is that
internationalization strategy, far from becoming globalized in the sense of
homogenization, continues to be developed beyond traditional understand-
ings. Engaging with the dierent political, economic, social, and historical
factors in regional contexts can oer new insights for those who choose not
to imitate Anglo-Western models. Some of the issues to be taken into ac-
count in these emerging contexts include:
• potential tensions arising from past colonial inuences of dierent
kinds;
• local identity, cultures, and languages;
• institutional values, including the local social role of higher educa-
tion;
• increasingly competitive operating environments;
• nding the right institutional balance between local, national, re-
gional, and global objectives;
• questions of sustainability; and
• recognizing potential contributions to addressing global challenges.
In summary, how can institutions operate successfully in their local,
national, and regional contexts, making a meaningful and responsible con-
tribution to the society they are part of, while also meeting international-
ization objectives? Will they take a competitive direction or the route to-
ward a more socially responsible approach?
e competitive route is dicult, requires substantial public and pri-
vate investment, and can increase the social divide. As de Wit, Hunter,
Howard, and Egron-Polak and Ilieva and Peak observe, both in the devel-
oped and the developing world, the main point of policy and action in in-
ternationalization still focuses on mobility, in particular student mobility,
and quality assurance of that process is weak. De Wit, Hunter, Howard,
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e Globalization of Internationalization? | 45
and Egron-Polak also point to the fact that this focus on mobility is not
inclusive but, rather, elitist, only reaching a small minority of students and
academics.
e more socially responsible approach is also not easy and it, too, re-
quires substantial public and private resources, but it is more socially inclu-
sive and in the long run will result in a tertiary education sector with higher
quality. is approach implies paying greater attention to internationaliza-
tion of the curriculum at home. It should align with other levels of educa-
tion and better address the international dimensions of social responsibil-
ity. e examples we have highlighted manifest both the opportunities and
the obstacles that such an approach faces.
De Wit and Leask argue that, “Aligning the practice of internationaliza-
tion with human values and the common global good, requires that we rst
challenge some of our long-held views about what it is to ‘be international’
as a university, a teacher, a student, a human being. is requires pushing
the boundaries of our own and others’ thinking, focusing on people and
ensuring that they develop and demonstrate the institution’s espoused hu-
man values.”
We hope that this chapter may provide food for thought for readers
in more developed, Anglo-Western countries as well as in developing and
emerging environments. It is crucial that we take account of dierent con-
texts in our understanding and approach, considering internationalization
in a more nuanced fashion than has been done previously. As Fanta Aw cor-
rectly remarks, “the work of internationalization is complex, multifaceted
and fraught with power relations. e need to examine carefully the role of
culture, access, knowledge and relevance in internationalization practices,
policies, and initiatives, cannot be understated.” We have attempted here
to further such examination, in order to stimulate reection, understand-
ing, and action toward innovative, sustainable, ethical, and socially inclu-
sive conceptualizations of internationalization.
Notes
. Upenyu and Ress, “Colonial Legacies,” .
. See Jones and de Wit, “Globalization of Internationalization” and “Globalized Inter-
nationalization”; de Wit, Gacel-Ávila, and Jones, “Voices and Perspectives.”
. Jones and de Wit, “Globalized Internationalization,” .
. Jones and de Wit, “Globalized Internationalization.”
. Scott, “Future Trends,” .
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46 | International Education at the Crossroads
. Jones and de Wit, “Globalization of Internationalization,” .
. Ibid., .
. Jones, “Internationalisation and the Student of the Future,” .
. Egron-Polak, “Internationalization of Higher Education.”
. De Wit, Rumbley, et al., “International Mapping.”
. De Wit, Gacel-Ávila, and Jones, “Voices and Perspectives.”
. Egron-Polak and Marmolejo, “Higher Education Internationalisation,” .
. De Wit, “School Internationalization,” .
. Rizvi, “School Internationalization,” .
. Egron-Polak, “Internationalization of Higher Education”; United Nations, “Trans-
forming Our World.”
. Egron-Polak and Marmolejo, “Higher Education Internationalisation,” .
. Brandenburg et al., “Internationalisation in Higher Education” and “Dening Interna-
tionalisation.”
. Ibid.
. De Wit, Gacel-Ávila, and Jones, “Voices and Perspectives.”
. Streitweiser, Miller-Idriss, and de Wit, “Higher Education’s Response.”
. Ergin, de Wit, and Leask, “Forced Internationalization,” .
. Heleta, “Higher Education,” .
. Ramirez Sánchez, Cáceres Seguel, and Pinto, “Internationalization Strategies.”
. De Wit, Gacel-Ávila, and Jones, “Voices and Perspectives. “
. Gacel-Ávila, Bustos-Aguirre, and Celso Freire, “Student Mobility.”
. Abouchedid and Bou Zeid, “MENA Region.”
. Klemenčič, “Internationalisation in Universities,” .
. Ibid., .
. Rampersad, “Internationalisation.”
. Hagenmeier, “Innovative Approaches.”
. Knutson, “Internationalization and Indigenization.”
. De Wit, Hunter, et al., “Internationalization of Higher Education”; Ilieva and Peak,
“Shape.”
. De Wit, Hunter, et al., “Internationalization of Higher Education.”
. De Wit and Leask, “Towards New Ways,” .
. Aw, “Foreword,” .
. is chapter draws on several of our published works, including a chapter with Joc-
elyne Gacel-Ávila in de Wit et al., Globalization of Internationalization. Her contribution to
that chapter is gratefully acknowledged.
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