International humanitarian law and its significance for current and future military operations

Abstract

This article examines the relationship between international humanitarian law and the development of military operations to analyze the current state of that relationship and project future scenarios in which those operations will take place and their new challenges. To this end, the article assumes a qualitative methodology and is developed in three sections: 1) definition of a military operation; 2) international humanitarian law and its role in the framework of military operations is defined; and 3) finally, in prospective, future scenarios of military operations and their relationship with international humanitarian law are considered in four dimensions: land, sea, air, and cyberspace. This prospective study focuses on the Colombian case, emphasizing on the National Army.

Full text

International humanitarian law and its signicance
for current and future military operations
Carlos Alberto Ardila Castro
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8774-6176
carlos.ardila@esdegue.edu.co
Escuela Superior de Guerra “General Rafael Reyes Prieto”, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
Erika Ramírez Benítez
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9830-8457
erika.ramirez@esdegue.edu.co
Escuela Superior de Guerra “General Rafael Reyes Prieto”, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
Jaime Cubides-Cárdenas
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6542-6892
jaime.cubides@esdegue.edu.co
Escuela Superior de Guerra “General Rafael Reyes Prieto”, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
Miles Doctus
How to cite: Ardila Castro, C. A., Ramírez Benítez, E., & Cubides-Cárdenas, J. (2020).
International humanitarian law and its signicance for current and future military ope-
rations. Revista Cientíca General José María Córdova, 18(32), 857-882. http://dx.doi.
org/10.21830/19006586.697
Published online: October 1, 2020
e articles published by Revista Cientíca General José María Córdova are Open Access
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ISSN 1900-6586 (print), 2500-7645 (online)
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Revista Cientíca General José María Córdova
(Colombian Journal of Military and Strategic Studies)
Bogotá D.C., Colombia
Volume 18, Number 32, October-December 2020, pp. 857-882
http://dx.doi.org/10.21830/19006586.697
International humanitarian law and its signicance
for current and future military operations
El derecho internacional humanitarioy su signicado para las operaciones
militares presentes y futuras
ContaCt: Carlos Alberto Ardila Castro carlos.ardila@esdegue.edu.co
abstraCt. is article examines the relationship between international humanitarian law and the
development of military operations to analyze the current state of that relationship and project
future scenarios in which those operations will take place and their new challenges. To this end,
the article assumes a qualitative methodology and is developed in three sections: 1) denition of
a military operation; 2) international humanitarian law and its role in the framework of military
operations is dened; and 3) nally, in prospective, future scenarios of military operations and
their relationship with international humanitarian law are considered in four dimensions: land,
sea, air, and cyberspace. is prospective study focuses on the Colombian case, emphasizing on
the National Army.
Keywords: armed conict; international humanitarian law; military operation; military strate-
gy; war
resumen. Este artículo investiga la relación del derecho internacional humanitario con el desarrollo
de operaciones militares, con el objetivo tanto de analizar cuál es el estado actual de esa relación
como también proyectar los escenarios futuros en los que esas operaciones se desarrollarán y sus
nuevos retos. Para ello, el artículo asume una metodología cualitativa y se desarrolla en tres seccio-
nes: 1) se dene qué es una operación militar; 2) se dene el derecho internacional humanitario
y su función en el marco de las operaciones militares, y 3) nalmente, en prospectiva, se plantean
futuros escenarios de las operaciones militares y la relación de estos con el derecho internacional
humanitario en cuatro dimensiones: terrestre, marítima, aérea y cibernética. Esta prospectiva se
enfoca en el caso colombiano, con énfasis en el estudio del Ejército Nacional.
Palabras Clave: conicto armado; derecho internacional humanitario; estrategia militar; guerra;
operación militar
Section: J    • Technological and scientic research article
Received: June 30, 2020 • Accepted: September 4, 2020
Carlos Alberto Ardila Castro, Erika Ramírez Benítez y Jaime Cubides-Cárdenas
Escuela Superior de Guerra “General Rafael Reyes Prieto”, Bogotá D.C., Colombia

Carlos Alberto Ardila Castro, Erika Ramírez Benítez y Jaime Cubides-Cárdenas
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Introduction
is article provides an approach to international humanitarian law (IHL) in the context
of military operations (MO), seeking to oer a projection of these in possible future sce-
narios. With this purpose, it starts from a theoretical base, including authors such as the
English military historian John Keegan, the American historian Victor Davis Hanson, and
the expert in war studies, Lawrence Freedman. ey have analyzed the past, present, and
future of war and its magnitude in conicts. Similarly, the following documents on de-
fense doctrine in Colombia were examined: the Operations manual (Ejército, 2017c), the
Operational Law Manual (Ejército, 2017e), and the Fundamental Army Manual (2017b).
e Damascus Doctrine, which is being implemented in the Army, was also studied.
In addition, sources from international organizations (IOs) such as the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) were consulted.
e following reection of the Manual of doctrine oers an approach to the concept
of war:
Fundamentally, all warfare is about changing human behavior. It is, at the same time,
a contest of wills and a contest of intellects between two or more parties in a conict,
each trying to alter the behavior of the other side. (Ejército Nacional, 2017a)
is is related to the complex nature of warfare, highlighting its consideration as a
human activity, among other things. In this sense, Hanson (2011) points out the impor-
tance of the study of military history. Keegan arms that a part of the political institu-
tions is subscribed by relations of a conictive type. is type of relations is considered a
common form of human interaction. (Romero, 2000, p. 5)
In this sense, it is relevant to study the projection of MO and IHL in future sce-
narios in which these MO can be developed on the land, sea, air, and cyber elds. In
this order of ideas, this research raises the following question: How does IHL empower
MO, and can it be projected in the development of future scenarios on land, sea, air,
and cyberspace?
is qualitative study is developed through an analytical-descriptive approach. With
this approach, three thematic axes are identied: military operation, international humani-
tarian law, and perspective. In the latter, possibilities are determined according to a specic
actor, the Colombian National Army. e documentary analysis was done from Clauso’s
(1993) perspective, which allows structuring and analyzing sources to have a solid and
critical theoretical base.

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e denition of a military operation
On this point, Keegan (2014) states the following: “centrally, conict is a dynamic ele-
ment of a situation in which two or more parties perceive that they have incompatible
values, interests, or goals.” Davis Hanson (2011) documents the rst wars in civilization,
which arose between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in ancient Mesopotamia. Since then,
actions have not been limited to interest or triumph against an adversary but to also mit-
igating the conict’s very eects on the adversary and the troops themselves.
At present, it is pertinent to remember that MO are developed within a hierar-
chy that determines the levels of military strategy through which guidelines are generat-
ed, planning is developed, and implementation takes place. In this way, the ends to be
achieved are planned, with available means or necessary resources, and these are articulat-
ed through the ways to achieve the proposed goals.
e strategy and its levels
Western conception has given conict a negative category; therefore, it is avoided. When
a conict develops, violent characteristics and actions can occur, making it a “violent
conict.” When it intensies in variables such as weaponry and time, among others, it is
consolidated as “war” (Figure 1). e main phases of its development must be taken into
account, the oensive, the defensive, and, in certain situations, the counteroensive. e
cause of war can be political, economic, social, cultural, or geopolitical, for the control of
vital and strategic resources.
Figure 1. Transformation from conict to war.
Source: Created by the authors.

Carlos Alberto Ardila Castro, Erika Ramírez Benítez y Jaime Cubides-Cárdenas
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In general, military strategy is developed in the following scenario, understood from
the perspective of classical thinkers who take up Garay and Ramírez-Benítez (2017):
I. Liddel Hart: “e art of applying military means to achieve political ends.”
II. Andre Beaufre (1982): “e art of applying the means to achieve the objectives
set by politics.”
III. Carl von Clausewitz (2002): With a military connotation, “the theory of the
use of combat for the end of the war.”
is gives rise to the idea of tactics and strategy put forward by Bouthoul (1984),
who understood them as the art “to employ as eectively as possible the oensive and
defensive means available —weapons, troops and fortications—” (p. 265). In this way,
three scenarios with dierential aspects are considered for the development of MO:
1. Strategic area: where planning linked to the fulllment of the national interest
(vital and strategic) of a nation-state is achieved.
2. Operational context: where the development of war takes place, which is locat-
ed in a theater of operations and where land, sea, air, and cybernetic elements
intervene.
3. Tactical: where these forces are faced and where operations materialize on the
ground.
Vergara and Kenny (2011) synthesize the elements of each level like this:
[…] the strategic one, which set the objectives; the operational one, which dealt with
the maneuvers and logistics of the troops in a theater to place them in the best position
for the confrontation; and the tactical one, which dealt with the confrontations of the
forces. (p. 12)
After World War II, components of national power were incorporated into the scope
of state strategy, creating a new division (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Levels of the strategy.
Source: Created by the authors with data from Vergara and Kenny (2011, p. 13).

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Force projection
Within the conict, a model of force projection has been established, which according
to Hanson (2011) is distinguished as the western (direct) and the eastern (indirect)
(Figure 3).
I. Western (direct): ere are two actors (A and B). e objective focuses on the
need to project forces towards each other. e aim is to defeat the opponent
quickly, concentrating the means and ways available for that purpose.
II. Eastern (indirect): e actors are indirectly projecting forces onto each other.
ey seek to weaken the enemy, wearing him out and making him understand
that ghting is costly and exhausting and promoting dialogue as a measure.
Figure 3. Force projection model.
Source: Created by the authors with data from Hanson (2011).
Conceptualization of the military operation
ese two force projections determine the way in which it will operate. In that sense,
considering the denition of MO found in the Operations manual of the Army (2017c),
e areas where MO are developed are land, sea (naval), air, and cyberspace (Figure 4).
To approximate this denition to the specic case of the Colombian Military Forces,
with emphasis on ground force, an operation is considered “a sequence of tactical actions
with a common purpose or unifying theme.” Basically, the purpose of MO is to preserve
one’s interest from that of the adversary (Ejército, 2017c). is purpose is linked to the
constitutional foundations regarding the duty to protect, which is a primary function, as
indicated by the National Army (2017e). To this end, it “must carry out forceful and
eective military operations to fulll this purpose, to subdue those who wish to attack the
Weakening
Indirect form
Direct form Destroy

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constitutional order and the constitutional principle that the monopoly of arms is at the
head of the State.” (p. 5)
MO are also based on what was dened by the Constitutional Court (2002) as the
Public Force:
[…] protects the population by carrying out its mission with the appropriate rmness
and forcefulness to subdue those who subvert the constitutional order and defy the
democratic principle, according to which the State is entrusted with a monopoly on
the legitimate use of arms. (Ejército, 2017e, p. 6)
ese operations can be developed in a range that covers the relationship of the op-
erational level with the strategic level and the tactical level. In this range, MO are classied
as follows: 1) major operations or campaign; 2) crisis response and limited contingency
operations; and 3) military meetings, security operations in situations, and cooperation in
security and deterrence (Ejército, 2017c, p. 3).
MO develop in a volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous context (VICA). is
context, for example, involves hybrid-type conicts, in which actors facing state forces
“are capable of using the coordinated tactics of regular armies, while carrying out crimi-
nal activities, terrorist attacks, and employing the latest technological advances” (Baques,
2015, cited in Torrijos & Balaguera, 2017, p. 55). In these confrontations, the distinction
between combatants and civilians is blurred, “Since regular army partners do not adhere
to international humanitarian law, they often resort to various indiscriminate forms of
violence to achieve their objectives.” (Torrijos & Balaguera, 2017, p. 56)
Figure 4. Conceptualization of MO.
Source: Created by the authors with data from the National Army (2017c).
Major operaons and
campaigns
Terrestrial Aerospace Naval Cyberspace
“An operaon is a sequence of
taccal acons with a common
purpose or unifying theme.”
Crisis Response and
Limited Conngency
Operaons
Military meeng,
cooperaon in security
and deterrence

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In the Colombian context, after the signing of Final agreement for the end of the conict
and the construction of a stable and lasting peace (Final Agreement) between the Government
of Juan Manuel Santos and the FARC guerrillas in the year 2016, the Military Forces are
going through a stage in which functions for “non-war” operation scenarios are being in-
tegrated —for example, the care of natural disasters—, with a “multi-mission” approach,
assumed by the ground force for the stabilization and consolidation scenario.
For the development of MO, situational awareness is necessary as a basis for decision-
making at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels. is awareness makes it possible to
determine the way in which MO are developed, basically based on the following questions
Where am I? Where is my opponent? and, What is the context in which it takes place?
In contexts where the civilian population, economic infrastructure, and other fac-
tors are present, the application of two principles of warfare is taken into account: 1) the
economy of strength, knowledge and, situational awareness to economize the means for the
greater outreach of the MO; and 2) the objective, which can be established when full situ-
ational awareness is developed. Otherwise, when these elements are unknown, and there
is no situational awareness, the operations entail additional costs, collateral damage and
are not focused on a mission to be accomplished.
e denition of IHL and its role as a MO enabler
General conceptual framework of IHL
is section sets out the general framework of IHL. IHL is generally recognized as the
“law of war” or the “law of armed conict.” It is the set of norms that, from the humani-
tarian eld, “seeks to limit the eects of armed conict. It protects people who do not or
no longer participate in the ghting and limits the means and methods of waging war.”
(CICR, 2004)
is branch of international law is found in the 1949 Geneva Conventions and is
complemented by the 1977 Additional Protocols on the Protection of Victims in Armed
Conict (CICR, 2004). In IHL, there is a distinction between armed conicts according
to the environment in which they take place. On the one hand, conicts of an interna-
tional character involve a confrontation between two or more States. For these conicts,
the provisions of the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I apply. On the oth-
er, conicts of a non-international nature take place in the territory of the same State
and are generally confrontations between the regular armed forces and the illegal armed
groups. ese conicts are regulated by the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol
II (CICR, 2004).
ese rules strike a balance between humanitarian issues and the military require-
ments of a state. In this way, IHL is regulated by two mutually related regulations, as
shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5. IHL regulations.
Source: Created by the authors.
Hague Law
e competence of these rules implies the development of regulations for the conduct of
hostilities and the limitation of the means and modes that can be used in the confronta-
tion. us, Hague law encompasses the protection of combatants and non-combatants,
with a focus on prevention (Bugnion, 2001). e main rules recognized in this branch of
IHL are the 1899 Convention and the 1907 Convention; the others taken up in Table 1
are complementary and relevant.
Table 1. Hague Conventions for the conduct of hostilities
Standard Year Title Aspects that it regulates
Hague
Convention
II
July 29th,
1899
On the laws and
customs of land
warfare
Of the belligerents
(Of the prisoners of war, sick, and wounded)
From the hostilities
(Of the means to harm the enemy, of the sieges
and bombings; Of the spies; Of the parliamen-
tarians; Of the capitulations and the armistice)
Of the military authority over the territory
of the Enemy State
Of the warring inmates and the wounded
cared for in a neutral country
Table continues...

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Standard Year Title Aspects that it regulates
e Hague
Convention
June 15 -
October
18, 1907
For the peaceful
resolution of
international
disputes
General Peacekeeping
Good oces and mediation
From international commissions of inquiry
International arbitration
(Of the arbitral justice, Of the Permanent
Court of Arbitration, Of the arbitral proce-
dure)
Convention 1997
On the prohi-
bition of the
use, stockpiling,
production
and transfer of
anti-personnel
mines and on
their destruction
Destruction of stockpiled anti-personnel
mines
Destruction of anti-personnel mines in
mined areas
International cooperation and assistance
Transparency measures
Facilitation and clarication of compliance
National implementation measures
Dispute resolution
Meetings of States Parties
Convention
December
2nd, 1983
December
21, 2001
(amend-
ment)
About certain
conventional
weapons
“e purpose is to restrict the use of cer-
tain specic types of weapons that cause
combatants excessive injury or unnecessary
suering, or that aect civilians” (ONU,
2001, par. 2)
Convention 1972
On the prohibi-
tion of bacterio-
logical weapons
and toxins and
their destruction
“It is complementary to the Protocol in that
it prohibits the development, production,
stockpiling, acquisition, retention, and trans-
fer of bacteriological weapons and requires
their destruction. e complementarity of
these two texts is also endorsed in the pre-
amble and in Article 8 of the Convention.”
(CICR, 2003)
Source: Created by the authors with data from ICRC (1899); UN (1997; 2001); ICRC (2003).

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Law of Geneva
e Geneva Conventions are essentially constituted around the humanitarian aspect.
ese agreements seek to guarantee the attention of the victims, understood as: “wound-
ed or sick soldiers, castaways, prisoners of war or civilians” (Bugnion, 2001) (Table 2).
Table 2. Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocols
Standard Year Title Aspects that it regulates
First
Geneva
Convention
August
12, 1949
To alleviate the
fate of the wound-
ed and sick in the
armed forces in
the eld
Injured and sick
Sanitary Units and Facilities
Sta
Buildings and material
Sanitary transports
Distinctive sign
Application
Repression of abuses and violations
Second
Geneva
Convention
To alleviate the
fate of the wound-
ed, sick and ship-
wrecked of the
armed forces at sea
Wounded, sick and shipwrecked
Hospital ships
Sta
Sanitary transports
Distinctive sign
Application
Repression of abuses and violations
ird
Geneva
Convention
Concerning the
treatment of
prisoners of war
General protection of prisoners of war
Captivity
End of cautiverio
Information Oce and Prisoner of War
Relief Societies
Fourth
Geneva
Convention
On the Protection
of Civilian Persons
in Time of War
General protection of the population
against certain eects of war
Status and treatment of protected persons
Table continues...

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Standard Year Title Aspects that it regulates
Protocol I
Additional to
the Geneva
Conventions
June 8,
1977
Concerning the
protection of
victims of inter-
national armed
conicts
Wounded, sick and shipwrecked
(protection, sanitary transports, missing and
deceased persons)
Methods and means of warfare.
Combatant and prisoner of war status
(methods and means of warfare)
Civilian population
(General protection from the eects of hosti-
lities, relief to the civilian population, treat-
ment of persons in the power of a party to the
conict)
Execution of the Conventions and the
present Protocol
(repression of violations of the conventions or
of the present protocol)
Protocol II
Additional to
the Geneva
Conventions
Concerning the
protection of
victims of non-in-
ternational armed
conicts
Humane treatment
(fundamental guarantees, persons deprived of
their liberty, criminal proceedings)
Wounded, sick and shipwrecked
(protection and assistance, search, distinctive
sign, among others)
Civilian population
(protection of persons and property, prohibi-
tion of forced displacement, among others)
Source: Created by the authors with ICRC data (1949a; 1949b; 1949c; 1949d; 1977a; 1977b).
e harmonization between these two types of IHL found common ground with
the development of the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions (1977), which
set out rules regarding victims and the conduct of hostilities. e International Court of
Justice, in its advisory opinion of July 8, 1996, determined: “ese two branches of the
law applicable in armed conict have developed such close links that they are considered
to have gradually formed a single complex system, now called international humanitarian
law.” (Bugnion, 2001)
Perspectives for the conceptualization of IHL
ere are various perspectives to dene IHL, provided by international organizations and
other institutions. erefore, in terms of academic perspectives, the conceptualization
of Swinarski (1990) and Bugnion (2001) is taken up again; In turn, from international
organizations, the one elaborated by the UN and the ICRC is studied; from the eld of
defense, the Ministry of National Defense is used (2017).

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Academic perspective
e academic reections are based on the regulations given by the ICRC. is regulation
was established to limit violent acts that could develop in human nature and their inter-
action in civilization. François Bugnion (2001) determines the following:
Civilizations have established rules to limit violence, even in a situation of war, because
placing limits on violence is the very essence of civilization. […] It can be said that all
civilizations have equipped themselves with rules of a humanitarian nature.
Due to the importance they have acquired during the very development of civiliza-
tions, IHL rules have become customary (Swinarski, 1990, p. 17). Also, in Figure 6, its
functionality is determined.
Figure 6. e functionality of IHL.
Source: Created by the authors with data of Swinarski (1990, pp. 21-22).
Perspective of international institutions
e ICRC has been “the prime mover in the development of international humanitar-
ian law” (Bugnion, 2001). is body has assumed the functions set out by Swinarski
(1990, p. 79):
• Maintain and disseminate the fundamental principles.
• Assume the tasks recognized by the Geneva Conventions.

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• Work for the application of IHL to armed conict.
• Maintain neutrality and the mission of protecting military and civilian vic-
tims.
Other actors work and maintain their mission in favor of IHL by promoting peace
and security at the global level, acting as a priority in States in humanitarian crisis or
conict. In the case of Colombia, the internal conict has been accompanied by States
(the USA, among others), international organizations (UN, among others), non-govern-
mental organizations (NGOs), and think tanks (Cubides-Cárdenas, Ramírez-Benítez et
al., 2018, p. 201).
e UN (2019) has developed a corpus iuris at the international level, with treaties
and conventions, to safeguard human rights. To this end, it promotes the settlement of
international disputes through peaceful elements such as dialogue, arbitration, or judicial
settlement, as stated in Article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations. Concerning IHL,
these rules “have played a major role in the eorts to develop international humanitarian
law. e Security Council has become exponentially involved in the protection of civil-
ians in armed conict.” (ONU, 2019)
At the regional-hemispheric level, the Organization of American States (OAS)
(2019) has an International Law Department that promotes IHL guidelines for compli-
ance through actions such as assisting the Permanent Council and member states in the
negotiation process for IHL resolutions. It also coordinates with the ICRC to support de-
cisions by member states in relation to IHL and maintains a range of courses and seminars
in the Americas (OEA, 2020, par. 1-2).
Perspective of the defense eld
As for the vision of the Colombian Armed Forces, their conceptual denition of IHL is
as follows: “is the body of international law by which armed conict is regulated; it aims
to protect people not involved in the conict and to establish the means and methods of
warfare.” (Ejército, 2017b)
As of 2018, the Ministry of Defense established the Integral policy of Human Rights
and International Humanitarian Law, to establish a road map for the behavior of the forc-
es in the development of operations, and integrated capacities for the fulllment of IHL
and HR (Ministerio de Defensa Nacional, 2017).
IHL as a potentializer of military operations
As a starting point for determining how IHL enhances MO, the principles of IHL are
taken into account with an emphasis on the principle of “humanity” (Figure 7).

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Figure 7. Principles of IHL.
Source: Created by the authors with data from the National Army (2017b).
In developing this fundamental principle, the nature of the opponent can be cat-
egorized in two ways: 1) Humanized, treated consistently with this categorization, or 2)
dehumanized, their rights are not recognized. e adversary must be correctly dened,
seen, and recognized as human, even if the interest is not shared. is enhances the power
of combat and the MO; it legitimizes the forces’ actions and the State that applies the IHL
rules, making it transversal in the preparation of MO (Figure 8).
Figure 8. IHL as MO enabler.
Source: Created by the authors with data from the National Army (2017b).
MO are enhanced by IHL, whose application begins with the use of force. In a
VICA context such as Colombia’s, the threats facing the State are mutating. Along with
Humanity
Proportionality
Distinction
Military necessity
Limitation
Caution in the
attack
Non-reciprocity
Internal
External
Adversary
Environment
Legality
Need
Proportionality
Exceptionality
Increases legitimacy
Increases situational
awareness
It is the basis for the
application of force

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the principle of humanity, the principles of “proportionality and distinction set limits to
security policies” (Corte Constitucional, 2002), which does not imply ignorance of the
need and applicability of others. In this sense, it is worth asking what has happened in the
development of the conict in Colombia. As a society, Colombia has reected on nding
a legal framework at one with the developing situation for the public ocials in charge of
the Government’s public policy.
us IHL increases situational awareness because it establishes where the opponent
is, what he is like, and how he must develop in a context to defeat him. Moreover, both
internally and externally, it gives legitimacy to MO.
Future scenarios of military operations and their
relationship to IHL
e development of new forms of warfare (hybrid, cybernetic, among others) represents a
challenge for MO in the future. In the face of this, through IHL, new ways are sought to
fulll the purpose that has been historically preserved: limit the violent actions that take
place in the conicts, regulate the actions of the combatants and protect the civilian pop-
ulation. Compliance with IHL is essential in confrontational environments. is implies
respect for ICRC provisions such as the distinction, that is, the obligation of the opposing
parties to identify and dierentiate themselves from the civilian population.
e ICRC stresses that modern MO are shaped by the ghting generated by armed
conicts, peace support operations, and operations to maintain and protect constitu-
tional purposes. erefore, IHL is congured as an axis in their planning (Mulinen,
2014).
Projection of future scenarios for the development of military operations
e transformation of confrontations, of means and modes, has congured new sce-
narios. Kaldor (1999) dened “new wars” as those that have developed since the
post-Cold War in which several aspects have been recongured because of globaliza-
tion and the interaction it facilitates. Among these new scenarios, cyberspace, where
confrontations can be generated on various scales, with political, economic, social,
and other eects.
Kaldor (1999) exposes the characteristics of state and non-state actors, as well as
the eects that the actions have on the civilian population, In this regard, IHL is of
great importance in the regulation and protection of human rights. Moreover, illegal
groups resort to terrorism and counter-insurgency tactics and develop actions of illegal
economies.

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Two main features characterize the confrontations that are currently taking place: 1)
the use of advanced technology, which incorporates developments in defense such as preci-
sion weapons, information warfare, unmanned means, anti-missile shields, among others;
and 2) a “mix of terrorism and low-intensity, conict,” in which “ideas” are projected as an
essential element (Benedicto, n. d., p. 19). In this context, a “gray zone” is evident where
new hybrid conicts may appear, requiring the military to specialize in dealing with them
(Figure 9).
Figure 9. Future MO scenarios.
Source: Created by the authors with data from e White House (2015).
us, at present there are various scenarios in which MO are developed or can be
projected and in which IHL should be a fundamental norm for regulation. e following
is a general description of these projections in various elds.
Terrestrial
e convergence of criminal, terrorist, and insurgent actors and means generates a space
in which illegal organizations act synergistically to aect states and ignore the norms that
preserve the dignity of human beings in scenarios of armed conict. It is, therefore, a
challenge for armies to specialize in addressing these threats, such as the use of improvised
explosive devices or unconventional weapons by such organized armed groups (Ardila et
al., 2017; Díaz et al., 2019).
State Conicts: Large-scale use
of military units and equipment,
in dierent domains, to defeat
the enemy.
Probability
Consequences
Hybrid conicts:
Combination of regular and
irregular forces to create
confusion, gain initiative and
paralyze the enemy.
Non-State Conicts: Use of small
units to undermine control over
populations, using improvised
explosive devices, small arms,
propaganda and terror.

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Maritime
e use of maritime means to develop criminal economy activities by illegal groups
requires building a governance space in the international system to join eorts and in-
tegrate means with a global reach. erefore, the proper implementation of a maritime
strategy for the achievement of the national interests of the State is fundamental to the
scope of a national project (Uribe et al., 2016). In this sense, capacities are required
to strengthen naval power: a navy that can exercise eective control of the territory
(Rivera-Páez, 2018).
Air
Air defense development is an essential issue for states. Technology has been fundamen-
tal to the development of autonomous weapons in the context of confrontations. ese
weapons have opened up a space in which the responsibility to respect human rights and
IHL is not clearly established.
Cybernetics
At the beginning of the 21st century, technological advances in information and commu-
nication have represented a milestone known as “the third wave” e rst is linked to the
agrarian revolution, and the second, caused by the industrial revolution (Toer, 1980).
With globalization, this new scenario has generated new forms of global interaction and
caused barriers, such as time and space, to become blurred. At the same time, it has also
represented an environment that illegal groups have taken advantage of e rst is illicit
actions. In this respect, Becerra and León (2019) propose:
e fourth technological revolution broadened the spectrum of threats to which states
must respond. An example of this is represented by the terrorist attacks […], cyberter-
rorism has become a global weapon that threatens the state, business emporiums, and
individuals. (p. 62)
e new capabilities provide a technological advantage, which can be exploited if
applied with primacy and speed. us, maintaining greater power over the opponent is
a deterrent: “this technological battleeld has to be consistent with the geopolitical situ-
ation, strategic interests, and achievable resources” (Fontenla, 2008, p. 131). e North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) produced the Tallinn manual on the international
law applicable to cyber warfare in 2013 (Schmitt, 2013), resulting from a study of the im-
plications of IHL in cyber-armed conict. Although this manual is not binding on states,
it is an important step forward for regulation.

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Approach to military operations and IHL in the Colombian State
In Colombia, during the government of Juan Manuel Santos, the aspect of security was
complemented with justice, democracy, and peacebuilding, as expressed in the National
Development Plan (PND in Spanish) 2014-2018 “All for a New Country.” In Chapter
VIII, this PND sets out objectives for the guarantee of rights and the duty of the State to
protect the population (Departamento Nacional de Planeación [DNP], 2014). Garay and
Ramírez-Benítez (2017) summarize the following strategies of this PND:
[…] prevention and ght against crime, implementation of technologies for security,
strengthening police presence, protection of critical infrastructure […]. Highlighting
deterrent capabilities for national security and defense, incorporating cyber defense,
intelligence systems.” (p. 443)
Later, with the government of Iván Duque Márquez, security has been linked to
legality, entrepreneurship, and equity, as consolidated in the PND 2018-2022 “Pact for
Colombia. Pact for Equity” (DNP, 2018). e articulation of the PND with the guide-
lines of Agenda 2030, where the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and the aspects
of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) are grouped,
should be taken into account. us, security is linked to legality. In addition, there is an
emphasis on “e Peace that Unites Us,” which concentrates on areas of action related to
SDG 16: “Peace, justice and strong institutions” (Figure 10).
Figure 10. Main areas of two components of the PND 2018-2022
Source: Created by the authors with data from the PND (2018).
On the other hand, the current government proposes the “Defense and Security Policy
for Legality, Entrepreneurship and Equity,” to provide guidelines on how to address security
challenges by adopting a multidimensional approach, resulting in a number of protected
areas such as water, biodiversity, and the environment as the main and prevailing interest.

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In the Defense sector, the axis of public policy is the strengthening of the capacities
of the public forces to face conict scenarios, as well as challenges and risks to security in
which diverse forms of illegality converge (Cubides-Cárdenas et al., 2017, p. 112). is
convergence refers to how dierent threats are related in terms of their means, objectives,
or actors, such as insurgent activities and the crime of drug tracking. Added to this is
the complexity of new technologies, where criminal structures generate new threats that
the State has to face (Ardila & Cubides-Cárdenas, 2016; Cancelado, 2019). Given this,
the National Army is in a transformation process, guided by the multi-mission approach,
which focuses on various areas of action for stabilization and consolidation, oriented,
expressly by Damascus Doctrine. It constitutes the doctrinal source for structuring the
bases of leadership and strengthening of the Military Forces, based on their capabilities
and development in complex scenarios (Acosta, 2019).
e main characteristics of the National Army in terms of foresight are men-
tioned below, in consideration of a document from the Red de Seguridad y Defensa de
América Latina (Resdal) prepared by Donadio et al. (2018), as well as other data from
the National Army.
Education
In this area, as a strategy for strengthening education, training, and military doctrine,
ere is the “Minerva” Strategic Military Education Plan (2015) of the Education System
for the Armed Forces, based on the Damascus Doctrine for the transformation and pro-
jection of the Army into ve essential pillars (Figure 11).
Figure 11. Education Pillars of the “Minerva” Strategic Education Plan
Source: Created by the authors with data from Donadio et al. (2018, p. 1).

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is approach involves processes to promote human rights and IHL in order to
“form integral soldiers with principles, values, virtues and professional ethics; reective,
with skills to develop complex analysis with military criteria” (Donadio et al., 2018, p. 1).
e purpose is also to develop capacities to counter “criminal phenomena associated with
drug tracking and the illicit exploitation of natural resources; as well as in the defense
and support of civil authorities.” (p. 1)
International scope
e support of international missions for the maintenance of peace and the export of
security is essential. Security export is a key cooperation factor, as dened by Tickner
(2016), through the exchange of knowledge, training, among other aspects of defense
favorable to the security of the State1.
As stated by Garay and Ramírez-Benítez (2017), the strengthening of cooperation is
timely to counteract threats in the regional environment, such as transnational organized
crime, drug tracking networks, among other threats2. In this sense, partnerships to ad-
dress them will be strategic to improve hemispheric security (p. 455).
For example, the Colombian state must strengthen alliances, such as its involve-
ment as a global partner of NATO in 2018, favoring its “geopolitical projection and
allows a greater rapprochement in cooperation with the international organization, in or-
der to counteract common regional and international challenges” (Farfán et al., 2019, p.
152). In addition, it is important to approach the multinational doctrine for the conduct
of multilateral operations (Ejército Nacional, 2017a). In this regard, more cooperation
agreements are expected with peers in the región, such as the United States, Mexico, and
Chile, and greater participation in peace missions (Donadio et al., 2018, p. 2).
Coordination with other institutions
e “conjuncture” and the coordination have been two elements strengthened by the
National Army. In the rst place, the “conjunction” of the Army with the National Navy
and the Air Force has boosted the development of joint operations. In this regard, a
precedent in 2004 was the creation of the rst Joint Command of the Military Forces
(Donadio et al., 2018, p. 2). is has been followed by the recent creation of the Joint
1 is export of security occurs from four areas: operational, organizational, strategic, and educational. In the
educational eld, we work in areas such as training in pedagogical, methodological, and technological aspects
for the development of instructors and trainers of military and police doctrine.
2 Borrero (2017, cited in Cubides-Cárdenas, Caldera et al., 2018) groups the current threats in the eld of
security: “a) traditional, b) armed insurgencies, c) terrorism, d) organized crime, e) uncontrolled migrations”
(p. 118).

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Doctrine Center at the War College. ese are actions that represent the projection of the
Military Forces, whose role is fundamental to other objectives of the State due to their
particular characteristics and powers:
e position in the territory and the capacity of the military to be present in the ter-
ritory, be it in the urban, rural, border and maritime environment, allows them to be
close to the communities of the dierent regions in the Colombian geography. is
presence of the military remains one of the most common forms of State representa-
tion. (Caldera et al., 2019, p. 215)
Figure 12 shows the levels of inter-institutional coordination. Interaction with the
National Police and the Attorney General’s Oce, among other institutions, is particu-
larly important for MO and security actions. Currently, the Military Forces are in a pro-
cess transforming for stabilization, consolidation and interagency development with State
agencies, including intelligence elements, among others (Cubides-Cárdenas, Ramírez-
Benítez et al., 2018). In this sense, the Unied Action of the State is developed according
to the Plan Victoria Plus and now the Bicentennial Plan, as courses of MO actions that
articulate the means and modes available for the fulllment of two purposes: the interest
of the State3 and government objectives.
Figure 12. Articulation for the increase of safety conditions.
Source: Caldera et al. (2019).
3 e “national interest” is conceived as being vitally or permanently linked to the survival of the State;
Following Reynolds (1977), “national interests” are determined, in the short term, as important proximate
goals (Ramírez-Benítez & Ardila, 2020).
Justice
Social Welfare
Economic Development
Basic infrastructure
Institutional strengthening
Security
Institutional control of
the territory
Objective of the State
Unified State
Action
Governance

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Conclusion
MO are planned within the framework of goals to be achieved, with available means or
necessary resources, articulated in ways to achieve the desired end. In a VICA scenario
like Colombia’s, potential divergences between the parties can transcend because of their
magnitude, temporality, and impact, which can generate a conict that, if continued, can
escalate into armed conict and eventually war.
In this context, the relevance of IHL in the current regulatory framework (e
Hague and Geneva) is fundamental to humanize and diminish the impacts of the con-
frontations between States or with State actors. As for harmonizing between military ob-
jectives and the humanization of conicts, these nd common ground in the additional
protocols to the Geneva Conventions (1977). ey lay down rules regarding victims and
the conduct of hostilities. In turn, authors like Bugnion mention that these two currents
are so linked that they have built a unique and complex system: IHL. is system es-
tablishes principles that highlight humanity by recognizing the adversary as human to
maintain respect for human dignity.
With the transformation of war, new challenges have been generated for MO in
traditional and new scenarios (land, sea, air, and cyber) that have become a challenge for
IHL. Now, issues in this branch of the law that previously did not arise in the course of
war must be regulated to fulll the ultimate goal of limiting the actions of confrontations
and protecting the civilian population. In the Colombian case, in the military sphere
where operations are carried out and in the defense sector, the main axis is the strength-
ening of the public force, in order to face scenarios marked by conict in which multiple
challenges to security converge.
In the complex environment that characterizes the contemporary international sys-
tem, the respect for the rules of IHL is constituted as an enhancer of the combat power in
MO because it gives more legitimacy, improves situational awareness, and gives a founda-
tion to the use of force. In particular, in hybrid conict scenarios, where non-state actors
do not comply with the limits of IHL, this creates a challenge in all areas of confrontation
for the forces engaged in ghting them.
Acknowledgments
e authors wish to thank the Escuela Superior de Guerra “General Rafael Reyes Prieto”
and the Universidad Católica de Colombia for their support in the production of this article.
Disclaimer
e authors declare that there is no potential conict of interest related to the article.
is article presents collaborative research results of the project “New threats of the

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21st century, borders and human rights-Phase II” of the research group Gravity Center,
of the Escuela Superior de Guerra “General Rafael Reyes Prieto” categorized in A1 by
Minciencias.
Funding
e authors do not declare a source of funding for this article.
About the authors
Carlos Alberto Ardila Castro has a Master’s in International Relations and Business
from the Universidad Militar Nueva Granada and is a doctoral candidate in Education
from the Universidad Internacional Iberoamericana, Mexico. Research advisor and leader
of the Gravity Center group at the Escuela Superior de Guerra “General Rafael Reyes
Prieto.” Associate researcher recognized by Minciencias.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8774-6176 - Contact: carlos.ardila@esdegue.edu.co
Erika Ramírez-Benítez is a political scientist with a Master’s degree in Strategy
and Geopolitics. Student of the Master’s Degree in Analysis of Political, Economic, and
International Contemporary Problems at the Universidad Externado de Colombia and
the IAED of the Colombian Chancellery. Research advisor at the Escuela Superior de
Guerra “General Rafael Reyes Prieto.” Junior researcher recognized by Minciencias.
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9830-8457 - Contact: erika.ramirez@esdegue.edu.co
Jaime Cubides-Cárdenas is a lawyer and specialist in Public Law from the
Universidad Autónoma de Colombia, and is a specialist, with a Master’s degree in
Teaching and Research. He has a Master’s degree in Law from the Universidad Sergio
Arboleda. Research professor of the Gravity Center group at the Escuela Superior de
Guerra “General Rafael Reyes Prieto.” Senior researcher recognized by Minciencias.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6542-6892 - Contact: jaime.cubides@esdegue.edu.co
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