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Relational spirituality profiles and flourishing among emerging religious leaders
Abstract
We advanced an integrative trend examining religiousness/spirituality (R/S) and flourishing using person-centered data analyses. Specifically, we tested a relational spirituality model (RSM) proposition that a latent profile comprised balanced dwelling (e.g. R/S commitment) and seeking (e.g. R/S exploration) would emerge and display greater flourishing, relative to the other subgroups, and we did so using a diverse sample of emerging religious leaders attending 17 graduate theological schools across North America (N = 580; Mage = 31.56; SD = 11.13; range = 19–71; 47.8% female; 62.7% White). A 5-profile model best fit the data, which included an Integrated profile that depicted a balanced relational spirituality that displayed flourishing. Findings suggested that an RSM theoretical framing of R/S indicators provided a distinct relational characterization and contextual lens to offer guidance on promoting flourishing, and specifically, by intervening into the dwelling–seeking dialectic, and self- and relational regulation.
... Client reports of greater R/S struggles have predicted lower levels of life functioning over and above the effect of mental health symptoms, and R/S dwelling and R/S seeking were each positively associated with client preferences for R/S engagement in psychotherapy (Sandage et al. 2022). Prior research has also shown the potential for balanced R/S dwelling-seeking to have a salutary influence on symptoms and well-being (e.g., Jankowski et al. 2021b). ...
... However, this protective effect was not associated with linear trajectories of improvement. Nevertheless, the protective effect is consistent with prior findings that tested the RSM theoretical premise that integrated R/S dwelling and seeking can be adaptive (e.g., Jankowski et al. 2021b). Specifically, Jankowski et al. (2021b) found a subgroup of participants who reported high levels of R/S dwelling and seeking, and who also exhibited low symptoms and high levels of subjective and eudaimonic well-being. ...
... Nevertheless, the protective effect is consistent with prior findings that tested the RSM theoretical premise that integrated R/S dwelling and seeking can be adaptive (e.g., Jankowski et al. 2021b). Specifically, Jankowski et al. (2021b) found a subgroup of participants who reported high levels of R/S dwelling and seeking, and who also exhibited low symptoms and high levels of subjective and eudaimonic well-being. As such, the protective influence of high R/S dwelling and seeking could represent greater critical reflection on the complexities of R/S commitments and relational connection with the sacred in the face of the pandemic. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has spurred a global surge in empirical research examining the influence of the pandemic on individuals’ mental health symptoms and well-being. Within this larger literature is a rapidly growing literature on the associations among religiousness/spirituality, COVID-19 impact, symptoms and well-being. Largely absent from this literature is a specific research focus on psychotherapy clients, and the influence of religiousness/spirituality and COVID-19 impact on change during treatment. One prominent theory in the existing literature centers on the notion that religiousness/spirituality is a coping resource for individuals during times of adversity. Yet, existing empirical findings present mixed evidence for the religious/spiritual coping hypothesis. We expanded upon these emerging research trends to examine the influence of religious/spiritual struggles, religious/spiritual commitment, religious/spiritual exploration, and COVID-19 impact ratings on psychotherapy change in a sample of adult clients (N = 185; Mage = 38.06; SD = 15.78; range = 19–81; 61.1% female; 69.7% White). The results of latent trajectory analysis identified three subgroups that differed on initial levels of symptoms and well-being and the nature of change over three time points. The COVID-19 impact ratings predicted change trajectories. As more positive ratings of COVID-19 impact increased, membership in the no change trajectory was more likely relative to the deterioration trajectory at high levels of both religious/spiritual commitment and exploration. The implications emphasize the need for judicious assessment of religiousness/spirituality and COVID-19 impact before integrating religiousness/spirituality into treatment.
... The current study is part of a larger project on the assessment of character and spiritual formation among emerging R/S leaders attending North American graduate theological schools (e.g., Jankowski et al., 2021Jankowski et al., , 2022. We employed a longitudinal survey design, or prospective cohort design, to assess seminarians' religiousness/spirituality, virtues, mental health symptoms, well-being, and context specific items (e.g., "I feel valued at my seminary institution"). ...
... As such, our sample may not generalize to other adults. However, our demographic data were consistent with a nationally representative US sample (see Jankowski et al., 2021). Specifically, the demographic patterns for age, gender, race/ethnicity, marital status, ideological commitment, and ecclesial-family representation found in a Pew Research Center (2018) 1 3 study mapped similarly onto levels of religiousness/spirituality as did our findings. ...
Religious/spiritual commitment tends to show positive associations with well-being, and yet, questions remain about the mechanisms for the association. Some have recently proposed that virtues may mediate the religious/spiritual commitment – well-being association. However, empirical support for this mediating role stems largely from cross-sectional studies. Further, scholars have increasingly drawn attention to validity concerns when studying religiousness/spirituality, virtues, and well-being. As such, we explored associations among religious/spiritual commitment, virtues, and well-being, prior to and after conducting factor analysis. Our sample consisted of graduate students attending 18 seminaries across North America (N = 580; Mage = 31.50; SD = 11.12; 47.3% female; 62.9% White). Patterns of associations initially showed evidence of construct overlap among two pairs of virtues, which was confirmed by factor analytic findings, the latter which suggested a five-factor first-order structure of the virtues. Latent variable modeling showed cross-sectional associations between greater religious/spiritual commitment and greater well-being through greater blessedness and forgiveness. Longitudinal associations did not replicate the cross-sectional findings, but did show associations between prior levels of greater humility and later levels of greater eudaimonic well-being, and between greater hedonic well-being at time 1 and greater blessedness at time 3 through greater eudaimonic well-being at time 2. Greater religious/spiritual commitment at time 1 also predicted greater well-being at time 3, through a synchronous mediation process involving blessedness at time 2. Findings highlight the importance of attending closely to potential construct overlap in the measurement of religiousness/spirituality, virtues, and well-being.
... Work related to the spiritual formation of students, which can be curricular or co-curricular in nature, has now been codified into current (and perhaps even more so, future) accreditation standards in graduate-level theological education programs (Reisz, 2003). Moreover, in recent years, empirical studies into the spiritual formation of both seminary students (e.g., Blea et al., 2021;Jankowski et al., 2021) as well as seminary faculty (Hydinger et al., 2022) have also proliferated. Despite these developments, however, no widely agreed upon models nor standards of best practice (or even common practice) exist to guide seminaries as they implement such formation-related training within their degree programs, or as they seek to assess the quality or effectiveness of such training. ...
In recent decades, theological schools have demonstrated increased interest in educational models that not only transmit knowledge and skill to students, but also prepare them to have the character and virtue dispositions needed to successfully navigate the moral challenges that await them in future ministry settings. This shift is reflected in the most recent 2020 accreditation standards of the Association of Theological Schools (ATS), which highlight the importance of “personal and spiritual formation” as a key facet to seminary programs. Research conducted by the ATS (2018) into how seminaries understood the terms “personal and spiritual formation” revealed that over 40% of seminaries do not have a formal or working institutional definition of personal and spiritual formation. While this finding may be understandable given the complexities of terms and definitions in light of diverse Christian spiritual traditions, it also highlights an area of crucial need given the centrality of spiritual formation to the mission of theological education. Accordingly, the aim of this present paper is to support work in this area and to stimulate a larger discussion into the topic of spiritual formation within the seminary context by articulating and putting forth four different institutional perspectives on the topic (from Fuller Theological Seminary, George Truett Theological Seminary, Talbot School of Theology, and Trinity Evangelical Divinity School).
... Work related to the spiritual formation of students, which can be curricular or co-curricular in nature, has now been codified into current (and perhaps even more so, future) accreditation standards in graduate-level theological education programs (Reisz, 2003). Moreover, in recent years, empirical studies into the spiritual formation of both seminary students (e.g., Blea et al., 2021;Jankowski et al., 2021) as well as seminary faculty (Hydinger et al., 2022) have also proliferated. ...
In recent decades, theological schools have demonstrated increased interest in educational models that not only transmit knowledge and skill to students, but also prepare them to have the character and virtue dispositions needed to successfully navigate the moral challenges that await them in future ministry settings. This shift is reflected in the most recent 2020 accreditation standards of the Association of Theological Schools (ATS), which highlight the importance of ‘personal and spiritual formation’ as a key facet to seminary programs. Research conducted by the ATS (2018) into how seminaries understood the terms ‘personal and spiritual formation’ revealed that over 40% of seminaries do not have a formal or working institutional definition of personal and spiritual formation. While this finding may be understandable given the complexities of terms and definitions in light of diverse Christian spiritual traditions, it also highlights an area of crucial need given the centrality of spiritual formation to the mission of theological education. Accordingly, the aim of this present paper is to support work in this area and to stimulate a larger discussion into the topic of spiritual formation within the seminary context by articulating and putting forth four different institutional perspectives on the topic (from Fuller Theological Seminary, George Truett Theological Seminary, Talbot School of Theology, and Trinity Evangelical Divinity School).
... The present study is part of a larger study involving students attending a theologically diverse group of Christian seminaries (Catholic, Evangelical, Greek Orthodox, Mainline Protestant) across North America (e.g. Jankowski, Sandage, Wang, et al., 2022;Jankowski et al., 2021). The larger study is focused in part on the R/S and virtue formation of students obtaining theological education. ...
Religious/spiritual communities in the United States hold significant differences in the relative valuing of social order and progress toward social justice, and religious/spiritual leaders play an influential role in fostering those values. This recognition has prompted calls for theological education to revise the process of student formation, equipping them to address an increasingly diverse social world and the social disparities within their larger communities. Right-wing authoritarianism tends to be associated with a preference for social order and various forms of prejudice, and negatively associated with prosocial attitudes and behaviors. However, there is a limited amount of research examining associations between right-wing authoritarianism and the prosocial constructs of social justice commitment and compassion. The present study explored the longitudinal associations between right-wing authoritarianism, social justice commitment, and compassion in a sample of graduate students from 18 Christian seminaries across North America over two and a half years of their education ( N = 580; M age = 31.50; 47.3% female; 62.9% White). Longitudinal data analysis indicated that right-wing authoritarianism exerted a negative influence on social justice commitment and compassion, during the initial time interval which then faded over time. Results also indicated a reciprocal process among right-wing authoritarianism and social justice commitment. Practical implications centered on the potential for interventions targeting the reduction of right-wing authoritarianism to increase social justice commitment and compassion, and interventions targeting greater social justice commitment to lower right-wing authoritarianism.
... For Christian seminary students, this can lead to shame as individuals can hide or overspiritualize the phenomenon and begin to feel that they may be isolated and "failures" because they cannot attain the success that they had imagined. In fact, in a large-scale ecumenical and empirical study involving seminarians enrolled in 16 different North American seminaries, the researchers reported that almost half of the entire sample responded to a battery of measures of flourishing and spiritual well-being in a manner that was overly optimistic and consistent with social desirability bias (Jankowski et al., 2021). ...
Financial stress is a growing concern for Americans. One population that is particularly susceptible to financial stress and its negative consequences are students enrolled in seminaries many of whom will graduate with large amounts of debt while entering a profession with unique financial challenges that can make repaying student loan debt a daunting task. Prior studies have found that financial stress can lead to poor spiritual, mental, and relational health outcomes. However, research has not yet established that spiritual health is a key part of the mechanism by which financial stress is linked with mental and rela-tional health. The current study involved 189 students from five theological seminaries. Structural equation modeling revealed that spiritual health accounts for some of the negative impact of financial stress on both mental and relational health outcomes. These results suggest that the spiritual health of seminary students represents a salient focal point for potential interventions seeking to improve the holistic health of this population.
... They go on to posit that there is value to investigating both the end-result of a formative process as well as the pathways towards those end-results. In this way, the spiritual and character formation of seminarians is an active process requiring intentional, value-driven, and flexible engagement practices that facilitate virtue development within the context of both religious commitment and religious exploration (Bond et al. 2011;Jankowski et al. 2021). ...
The practice of prayer has been shown to predict various mental health outcomes, with
different types of prayer accounting for different outcomes. Considering the numerous stressors facing seminary students, which have only intensified throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, prayer may be a common coping strategy for students who study theology, spiritual growth, and leadership. The present study investigates the role that different types of prayer may have in reducing anxiety, depression, and work burnout among seminary students. Experiential avoidance is proposed as a mediator such that specific types of prayer contribute to greater spiritual and characterological formation through staying engaged in the midst of struggle. Longitudinal data was collected from
564 graduate seminary students from 17 institutions accredited by the Association of Theological Schools. Based on previous research, we hypothesized that experiential avoidance would mediate the relationship between colloquial, liturgical, meditative, and petitionary prayer types and the negative mental health outcomes of anxiety, depression, and work burnout. Results confirmed significant negative relationships between colloquial, liturgical, and meditative prayer types and all three mental health indicators, fully mediated by experiential avoidance. Petitionary prayer was not significantly related to lower levels of mental health. These results indicate that engaging in certain prayer practices may be a protective factor by facilitating experiential engagement.
The COVID-19 pandemic has provided a unique circumstance for the study of resilience, and clergy resilience has garnered increased research attention due to greater recognition that religious/spiritual leaders are at risk for elevated levels of anxiety and burnout. We examined longitudinal patterns of change during the pandemic in a sample of emerging leaders (N = 751; Mage = 32.82; SD 11.37; 49.9% female; 59.8% White). In doing so, we offered a conceptual and methodological approach based on historical and critical evaluations of the study of resilience. Results revealed a subgroup that exhibited resilience over three waves of data. The labeling of this trajectory was based on established criteria for determining resilience: (a) significant adversity in the form of COVID-19 stress at time 1, which included the highest levels of the subjective appraisal of stress; (b) risk in the form of low religiousness/spirituality and greater likelihood of reporting marginalized identifications, relative to those who were flourishing; (c) a protective influence for transformative experiences to promote positive adaptation; and (d) interruption to the trajectory in the form of improvement in levels of symptoms and well-being. Practical implications center on the potential for transformative experiences to clarify emotional experience and construct new meaning.
Prior research on the religiousness/spirituality—well-being association has largely neglected the dimension of religious/spiritual exploration, and the recent trend examining virtues, religiousness/spirituality, and well-being has predominantly involved cross-sectional data. We expanded prior research by analyzing a longitudinal model consisting of three waves of data, approximately 6 months between waves, that explored the associations between experiential avoidance, humility, patience, religious/spiritual exploration, and distinct dimensions of well-being. We used joy as an indicator of the positive emotion dimension of subjective well-being, and presence of meaning in life as an indicator of eudaimonic well-being. We used a diverse sample of emerging religious leaders attending 18 graduate theological schools across North America (N = 283; Mage = 29.81; SD = 0.51; range = 19–62; 47.7% female; 61.8% White). We observed a negative influence for initial levels of exploration on later joy and meaning in life, when initial levels of experiential avoidance were high and humility was low. In contrast, we found a positive influence for initial levels of exploration on later joy and meaning in life, when initial levels of experiential avoidance remained high and humility was high. Initial levels of patience exhibited a positive influence on meaning in life 1 year later, indirectly via greater levels of exploration at time 2. Practical implications centered on providing opportunities for individuals to explore alternative beliefs, practices and experiences, and encouraging engagement in humility and patience self-cultivation practices, each of which could move them toward greater well-being.
Latent profile analysis (LPA) is a categorical latent variable approach that focuses on identifying latent subpopulations within a population based on a certain set of variables. LPA thus assumes that people can be typed with varying degrees of probabilities into categories that have different configural profiles of personal and/or environmental
attributes. Within this article, we (a) review the existing applications of LPA within past vocational behavior research; (b) illustrate best practice procedures in a non-technical way of how to use LPA methodology, with an illustrative example of identifying different latent profiles of heavy work investment (i.e., working compulsively, working excessively,
and work engagement); and (c) outline future research possibilities in vocational behavior research. By reviewing 46 studies stemming from central journals of the field, we identified seven distinct topics that have already been investigated by LPA (e.g., job and organizational attitudes and behaviors, work motivation, career-related attitudes and
orientations, vocational interests). Together with showing descriptive statistics about how LPA has been conducted in past vocational behavior research, we illustrate and derive best-practice recommendations for future LPA research. The review and "how to" guide can be helpful for all researchers interested in conducting LPA studies.
Synthesizing diverse strands of theory and research, this compelling book explores the psychology of religion and spirituality through an innovative attachment lens. Pehr Granqvist examines the connections between early caregiving experiences, attachment patterns, and individual differences in religious cognition, experience, and behavior. The function of a deity as an attachment figure is analyzed, as are ways in which attachment facilitates the intergenerational transmission of religion. The book also shows how the attachment perspective can aid in understanding mystical experiences, connections between religion and mental health, and cultural differences between more and less religious societies. Granqvist's conversational writing style, concrete examples, and references to popular culture render complex concepts accessible.
For further info and order, see: https://www.guilford.com/books/Attachment-in-Religion-and-Spirituality/Pehr-Granqvist/9781462542680/reviews
For podcast interview: https://newbooksnetwork.com/pehr-granqvist-attachment-in-religion-and-spirituality-a-wider-view-guilford-press-2020/
Prior research has demonstrated that religiousness is associated with and potentially facilitative of self-regulation, though most of the research has been cross-sectional. The present longitudinal study examined dynamic relations between religiousness development and self-regulation formation from early adolescence into young adulthood. The sample included 500 U.S. adolescents and their parents. The data were restructured by adolescent age and analyzed from ages 11-22. The analyses involved latent curve models with structured residuals (LCM-SR). First, univariate latent growth curve models were estimated for religiousness, as well as adolescent-reports and parent-reports of adolescent behavioral self-regulation, cognitive self-regulation, and emotional self-regulation. Religiousness decreased over time while self-regulation increased (except for adolescent-report behavioral self-regulation, which followed a u-shape). Bivariate latent growth curve models pairing religiousness with each self-regulation variable found significant positive correlations between change in religiousness and change in adolescent-report cognitive and emotional self-regulation and parent-report emotional self-regulation. After adding in cross-lagged paths, relations between these slopes went away, but positive bidirectional cross-lagged associations in both directions were found between religiousness and adolescent-report cognitive self-regulation and parent-report emotional self-regulation. These results provide evidence for dynamic relations between religiousness and self-regulation across adolescence and into young adulthood. Further, the findings point to possible specificity based on the self-regulation dimension and whether data are adolescent-report or parent-report. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
Although emerging adults are engaged in heightened levels of meaning-making (Barry and Abo-Zena (eds) in Emerging adults’ religiousness and spirituality: meaning-making in an age of transition. Oxford University Press, New York, 2014), research has focused on either religiousness or spirituality (R/S) in each study. While R/S individually have been associated with emerging adults’ psychological adjustment (Rew and Wong in J Adolesc Health 38:433–442, 2006), scholars have rarely explored the specific profiles of R/S adjustment. Thus, a diverse group of undergraduate students (N = 792; Mage = 19.61, SD= 1.86; 69% women) completed questionnaires online involving these constructs. Preliminary analyses revealed strong correlations between R/S, which might be indicative of multicollinearity. A two-step cluster analysis revealed three distinct adjustment profiles. Adjustment was positive in instances of high R/S and low R/S. However, moderate levels of R/S were associated with poor adjustment. Subsequent research may verify these profiles and further explore multicollinearity in religiousness and spirituality research.
A theory is proposed to explain how religion/spirituality (R/S) is related to positive youth development and thriving. The concept of telos is employed to define thriving as continued growth through strength-based living that leads to contributing to one’s communities and living out one’s ethical ideals. Virtue development is proposed as a primary process by which R/S promotes thriving. Virtues are defined as hybrid personality units emerging when characteristic adaptations are given meaning by a transcendent narrative identity. R/S contributes to virtue formation through the ideological, social, and transcendent contexts embedded within religion by providing opportunities to grow both the characteristic adaptations and transcendent narrative identities necessary for virtue formation in youth and, ultimately, thriving. Implications for future research are discussed.
Latent class analysis (LCA) is a statistical method used to identify unobserved subgroups in a population with a chosen set of indicators. Given the increasing popularity of LCA, our aim is to equip psychological researchers with the theoretical and statistical fundamentals that we believe will facilitate the application of LCA models in practice. In this article, we provide answers to 10 frequently asked questions about LCA. The questions included in this article were fielded from our experience consulting with applied researchers interested in using LCA. The major topics include a general introduction in the LCA; an overview of class enumeration (e.g., deciding on the number of classes), including commonly used statistical fit indices; substantive interpretation of LCA solutions; estimation of covariates and distal outcome relations to the latent class variable; data requirements for LCA; software choices and considerations; distinctions and similarities among LCA and related latent variable models; and extensions of the LCA model. To illustrate the modeling ideas described in this article, we present an applied example using LCA. Specifically, we use LCA to model individual differences in positive youth development among college students and analyze demographic characteristics as covariates and a distal outcome of overall life satisfaction. We also include key references that direct readers to more detailed and technical discussions of these topics for which we provide an applied and introductory overview. We conclude by mentioning future developments in research and practice, including advanced cross-sectional and longitudinal extensions of LCA.
Philosophical and religious traditions often refer to ‘the virtuous person.’ This terminology usually carries with it the assumption that a class of individuals exists who have achieved a virtuous state. This study attempted to test that implication. The VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) is intended as a comprehensive assessment of character strengths, which are conceptualized as markers of virtuous character. One prior study using taxometric methods found no evidence for the existence of such a category of individuals using VIA-IS scores. Subsequent literature has suggested the superiority of finite mixture modeling for identifying categorical structure. Latent profile analyses of 1–10 classes were conducted in a stratified sample of 10,000 adults. The results provided little evidence for class structure, and support thinking of virtue as something we must continuously pursue rather than a state that we achieve.
Most of the world’s population identify as religious or spiritual, and most religiously affiliated believers identify with one of the world’s major monotheistic traditions: Christianity, Islam, or Judaism. Within each of these traditions, especially Christianity, one important aspect of many believers’ religion/spirituality is how they view and relate with God. The purpose of this paper is to describe a model of theistic relational spirituality (i.e., the ways monotheistic believers view and relate with God) that integrates theory and research from the fields of psychology, attachment, social cognition, and interpersonal neurobiology. We argue that theistic relational spirituality comprises two main types of God representations: doctrinal (primarily explicit and affect-light) and experiential (primarily implicit and affect-laden) representations. From an attachment perspective, we discuss the development and dynamics (e.g., context-dependence) of these God representations. We propose that doctrinal–experiential congruence forms the basis of a healthy theistic relational spirituality, when it is contextually adaptive, consistent across time and situations, and aligned with the theistic believer’s behaviors. We also delineate potentially adaptive transformation of less healthy forms of theistic relational spirituality. Lastly, we discuss ways in which this model of theistic relational spirituality might direct future research.
In four studies, the authors examined the correlates of the disposition toward gratitude. Study 1 revealed that self-ratings and observer ratings of the grateful disposition are associated with positive affect and well-being prosocial behaviors and traits, and religiousness/spirituality. Study 2 replicated these findings in a large nonstudent sample. Study 3 yielded similar results to Studies 1 and 2 and provided evidence that gratitude is negatively associated with envy and materialistic attitudes. Study 4 yielded evidence that these associations persist after controlling for Extraversion/positive affectivity, Neuroticism/negative affectivity, and Agreeableness. The development of the Gratitude Questionnaire, a unidimensional measure with good psychometric properties, is also described.
The time periods or experiences during which people believe that they encountered the sacred may be referred to as sacred moments. Such experiences might serve as transformative influences, potentially revealing fundamental truths that help to organize the ways that people view themselves, others, and the world in more coherent and adaptive ways. We hypothesized that sacred moments might therefore be beneficial during religious/spiritual (R/S) struggles, when one is experiencing stress and strain around matters of ultimate concern. In a 6-month, longitudinal study of people experiencing R/S struggles (N = 2,890, 58% women), we first aimed to identify predictors of sacred moments. We examined R/S predictors (religious belief salience, supernatural beliefs, perceived communication with God), and we also hypothesized that forming close connections with others and trait openness to experience would predict sacred moments. Second, we examined R/S and struggle-related outcomes associated with sacred moments. Latent curve growth analyses revealed that, in decreasing magnitude of effect size, perceived communication with God, openness, religious belief salience, secure attachment, and supernatural beliefs predicted sacred moments. Between- and within-person correlations showed that sacred moments were related to beneficial adaptations to struggles and spiritual growth. These findings attest to the dynamic nature of spirituality, in which periods of difficulty can be marked by transformative, spiritual high points. Because R/S struggles are common concerns in counseling settings, providers (e.g., clinicians, counselors, clergy) might want to help people experiencing struggles cultivate the sacred in their lives.
The 12-item Claremont Purpose Scale (CPS) was designed for use with adolescents, and it gauges all three dimensions of the purpose construct, including goal-directedness, personal meaning, and a beyond-the-self orientation. Repeated administration reveals promising psychometric properties. For instance, the CPS demonstrates excellent internal consistency (α = .916‒.935) and convergent validity. In exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, items fell onto the three dimensions, and the measure accounted for variance on indicators of a beyond-the-self orientation above and beyond the PIL. In addition to discussing the measure’s creation and validation, suggested uses of the CPS are also addressed.
Although Daniel Batson's (1976) construct of “Religion as Quest” has been widely applauded as an important theoretical innovation in the assessment of religious motivation, there are lingering concerns regarding the validity of the Quest construct. This study follows up some past suggestions in the literature that Quest may be a multidimensional construct and that facets of Quest may have very different relationships with religious variables. To test these hypotheses we constructed a multidimensional measure of Quest and administered it to 183 college students along with measures of spiritual well-being, Christian orthodoxy, extrinsic and intrinsic religiosity, and Batson's 12-item Quest measure. Overall, the results suggest that Quest is indeed a multidimensional construct and that the dimensions of Quest need to be assessed separately to assess Quest's construct validity. Specifically, two broad trends were noted. First, some facets of Quest seem to capture the free-roaming existential Quest Batson has frequently described. However, other facets of Quest seem to be compatible with orthodox Christian beliefs, suggesting that possessing metaphysical convictions are compatible with Quest-like attributes.
Prior research has demonstrated positive associations between general humility and well-being, and posited a protective effect for intellectual humility against maladjustment among religious leaders. We tested a model that extended findings on general humility to include intellectual humility among religious leaders (N = 258; M age = 42.31; 43% female; 63.7% White; 91.9% Christian affiliation). We observed a positive general humility–well-being association. Contrary to expectations, we observed risk effects for religion-specific intellectual humility. Our findings also point to the possibility that these risk effects might be attenuated by the integration of high levels of general and intellectual humility.
Following intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1989), this study was guided by the question, what is the influence of sexual identity, religious identity, and their intersection on mental health vis-à-vis power and privilege? Analyses of 64,271 participants from the Collegiate Center for Mental Health 2013–2014 database indicated that individuals identifying as heterosexual reported the least amount of psychological distress, followed by individuals identifying as gay/lesbian, bisexual, questioning, and sexual minority-other. Individuals identifying as Judeo-Christian reported less psychological distress than did individuals identifying with non-dominant religions or who were religiously unaffiliated. There was no interaction effect between sexual and religious identities.
In three studies we investigated joy and its relationship to subjective well-being (SWB). We developed measures of joy based on recent conceptualizations of joy in the humanities and social sciences. In Studies 1 and 2 we developed reliable measures of state and trait joy. In Study 3 we used a two-month prospective design to investigate the relationship of joy to gratitude and SWB. We found that dispositional gratitude predicted increases in state joy over time. We also found that trait joy predicted increases in state gratitude, providing evidence for an intriguing upward spiral between joy and gratitude. Finally, we found that trait joy was associated with increases in SWB over time. Factor analyses indicated that joy loaded separately from other positive emotions. We conclude that joy is a discrete positive emotion, it can be measured reliably with self-report instruments, and that it may be an important component of well-being.
The present study investigated the relative roles of identity structure (i.e., personal identity) and identity contents (i.e., religious identity and moral identity) in predicting emerging adults’ prosocial and antisocial behaviors. The sample included 9,495 college students. A variable-centered analysis (path analysis) used personal identity, religious identity, and moral identity as predictors of prosocial and antisocial behavior and tested interactions of personal identity with religious identity and moral identity. Moral identity was the strongest predictor of both behaviors, and religious identity and moral identity both interacted with personal identity in predicting antisocial behavior. A person-centered analysis (latent profile analysis) found three classes: integrated, moral identity–focused, and religious identity–focused, with integrated being most adaptive on both outcomes.
Participants were grouped on the basis of theological beliefs about divine-human and female-male dynamics using cluster analysis. We then explored whether these subgroups might differ on (a) hierarchical social expectations, (b) commitments to social justice and intercultural competence, (c) religious exploration, (d) existential defensiveness, (e) views of psychology - theology integration, and (f) perspectives on women’s leadership. The sample consisted of graduate students (N = 227) at an Evangelical seminary in the Midwestern United States. Results yielded a four-cluster solution. Individuals scoring high on both Calvinist theological beliefs and complementarian gender role beliefs scored significantly higher on hierarchical relationship expectations and existential defensiveness, and preferred a Christian psychology view of integration and a male headship perspective of leadership, compared to those scoring low on Calvinism and complementarianism.
In contrast, individuals scoring low on both theological dimensions scored higher on Arminianism, gender egalitarianism, social justice commitment, intercultural competence commitment, religious exploration, and they preferred an integration view of psychology and theology and a “no restrictions” perspective on women’s roles. Findings highlight implications for theological training and spiritual formation.
Many issues of interest to counseling psychologists involve questions regarding how individuals change over time. Although counseling psychologists often examine average levels of change, statistical methods can also identify patterns of change over time by empirically grouping together individuals with similar patterns of change (e.g., group-based trajectory modeling and latent growth mixture modeling). The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of these methods for counseling psychologists. We discuss the conceptual frameworks and assumptions of average-level and person-centered techniques such as group-based trajectory modeling and latent growth mixture modeling. We provide a nontechnical guide for conducting these analyses using data from a study of psychotherapy outcomes in a sample of mental health center clients (N = 1,050). We discuss caveats associated with these methods, including the potential for overinterpreting
Using a longitudinal, mixed-methods design and building on Shults and Sandage’s (2006) relational spirituality model, we explored spiritual seeking, spiritual dwelling, and the dialectical process of balancing spiritual seeking and dwelling. Assessing a sample of 77 Christian emerging adults twice over a 2-year period (thirty-nine 2006 graduates and thirty-eight 2008 graduates), we quantitatively measured spiritual seeking (using the Quest Scale) and qualitatively measured spiritual dwelling (using narratives of spiritual experiences) and the dialectical-balancing process (using narratives of faith turning points and of spiritual change in recent years). Results indicate that at 4 years postgraduation, emerging adults exhibit a more well-integrated (faith-life engagement), more communally oriented, and less personally focused spirituality. This pattern is especially likely among emerging adults who exhibit high spiritual questing along with mature reflections on transformative events in their spiritual lives. The promise of using qualitative, mixed-methods, and longitudinal methodologies to explore emerging adults’ relational spirituality is discussed.
We examined religious/spiritual (RS) coping from the Survey of Experiences of Returning Veterans (SERV) Study, 630 participants who reported on their demographics, combat exposure, use of positive and negative RS coping, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and perceived posttraumatic growth (PPTG). PTSD symptoms and PPTG were inversely correlated. As hypothesized, negative RS coping was inversely associated with PPTG and positively with PTSD, while positive RS coping was related only to PPTG. Although we expected that RS coping would buffer relations between combat exposure and both PTSD and PPTG, we found only one moderator effect and it was opposite our hypothesized direction: those with high combat exposure and high positive RS coping had the highest PTSD symptomatology. These results suggest, among veterans with combat exposure, negative RS coping is associated with higher PTSD symptomatology, while positive RS coping is generally associated with higher PPTG as well as higher PTSD for those with high combat exposure.
“Relational spirituality” is a term that has been increasingly employed in psychological literature in recent years with a variety of definitions and within different theoretical orientations. In this article, we identify and review five ways relational spirituality is understood in terms of (a) cognitive appraisals of stress and coping; (b) implicit relational development; (c) couples, family, and community contexts; (d) social interconnection; and (e) a differentiation-based model of spiritual development. We conclude with a discussion of conceptual, psychometric, and applied issues related to this topic, and offer suggestions for future research.
The present study tested two models of the association between humility, differentiation-of-self (DoS), and intercultural competence among graduate trainees in the helping professions. The sample consisted of 75 graduate students from a Protestant-affiliated university in the United States. Results indicated that DoS mediated the positive association between humility and intercultural competence. Results therefore supported a definition of intercultural competence as the ability to effectively navigate interpersonal difference. Implications are considered for training in intercultural competence within couple and family therapy.
In this exploratory study, we examined moderated mediation models grounded in psychoanalytic and attachment theory regarding the correspondence between adult attachment and Divine–human relating in a sample of graduate students in the USA. Results supported the correspondence hypothesis as positive correlations between adult attachment dimensions and attachment to God dimensions were observed. An interaction effect was observed as spiritual grandiosity moderated the indirect effect between insecure adult attachment and insecure God attachment dimensions through spiritual instability. Results therefore provided support for the theoretical notion that spiritual dysregulation can function as a mechanism of the attachment correspondence that varies as a function of spiritual grandiosity. Findings are discussed in the context of advancing existing theory on implicit models of attachment correspondence and the nature of the association between spiritual insecurity and spiritual grandiosity.
Scrupulosity, or obsessive-compulsive symptoms related to religiosity or religion, is a common presentation of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), and it is important to elucidate its phenomenology and measurement. Today, the most widespread questionnaire for the assessment of scrupulosity is the Penn Inventory of Scrupulosity (PIOS). The current study examines the psychometric properties of the PIOS in outpatient, treatment-seeking patients. Results of a confirmatory factor analysis suggested an unsatisfactory fit for previously suggested factor structures. A follow-up exploratory factor analysis suggested that a bifactor model was the most suitable solution. In addition, the scores of the PIOS and its revised subscales were found to have moderate-good concurrent validity; however, its scores discriminated poorly between patients with scrupulous obsessions and patients with OCD and other repugnant obsessions. Group differences and receiver operating characteristics (ROC) analyses both indicated that the PIOS is more suitable in discriminating scrupulous obsessions in Christian patients but not in other religious groups (i.e., Jews, nonreligious patients). Additional analyses revealed that the co-occurrence of scrupulous and other repugnant obsessions is also moderated by religious affiliation. These results raise questions in terms of grouping scrupulosity with other repugnant obsessions and suggest for the need of culturally sensitive instruments of scrupulosity. (PsycINFO Database Record
This article reports on the first empirical attempt to analyze “sacred moments” in the therapist-client relationship, and their implications for the client, the provider, and the therapeutic alliance. In the first study, 58 mental health providers from a large school of medicine completed a survey that asked them to describe an important moment in their work with a client over the past year. They then responded to questions about (a) the degree to which they attributed sacred qualities to the important moment; (b) predictors of the sacredness of these moments; and (c) consequences of these moments for the client, provider, and therapeutic alliance. More than half of providers (55.5%) indicated that their important moment in treatment was sacred. Perceptions of the sacredness of the moment were strongly correlated with greater perceived client gains, therapeutic relationship gains, provider gains, and work motivation. These findings were largely replicated in a second study of 519 clients who had been in mental health treatment during the past year. Sacred moments in treatment represent a potentially important resource that may contribute to the well-being of providers, clients, and the therapeutic relationship. More generally, these findings point to the value of attending to the spiritual dimension of the relationship between providers and clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)
We investigate the relationship between personal spirituality and positive psychology traits as potentially presented in multiple profiles, rather than monolithically across a full sample. A sample of 3966 adolescents and emerging adults (aged 18-25, mean = 20.19, SD = 2.08) and 2014 older adults (aged 26-82, mean = 38.41, SD = 11.26) completed a survey assessing daily spiritual experiences (relationship with a Higher Power and sense of a sacred world), forgiveness, gratitude, optimism, grit, and meaning. To assess the relative protective benefits of potential profiles, we also assessed the level of depressive symptoms and frequency of substance use (tobacco, marijuana, alcohol, and heavy alcohol use). Latent class analysis (LCA) was used to examine common subgroupings of study participants across report on personal spirituality and positive psychology scales in each age cohort, with potential difference between latent classes then tested in level of depressive symptoms and degree of substance use. LCA determined a four-class and a three-class best-fitting models for the younger and older cohorts, respectively. Level of personal spirituality and level of positive psychology traits were found to coincide in 83 % of adolescents and emerging adults and in 71 % of older adults, suggesting personal spirituality and positive psychology traits go hand in hand. A minority subgroup of "virtuous humanists" showed high levels of positive psychology traits but low levels of personal spirituality, across both age cohorts. Whereas level of depression was found to be inversely associated with positive psychology traits and personal spirituality, uniquely personal spirituality was protective against degree of substance use across both age cohorts. Overall interpretation of the study findings suggests that personal spirituality may be foundational to positive psychology traits in the majority of people.
The present study was conducted to contribute to our understanding of young adult identity development by deriving latent profiles from intrapersonal and interpersonal indices of identity synthesis and confusion. A sample of 9737 college-attending young adults completed measures of identity, mental health, and health risk behaviors. Four latent profiles emerged: Synthesized (high synthesis, low confusion), Diffused (moderate synthesis, high confusion), Elevated (high synthesis and confusion), and Moderate (moderate synthesis and confusion). The Synthesized profile was associated with the highest well-being and the lowest levels of internalizing, externalizing, and health risks. The Diffused and Elevated profiles were both associated with low well-being and with high internalizing, externalizing, and risky behaviors — with the Elevated profile highest on all of the negative outcomes. The Moderate profile scored intermediately on well-being, internalizing, externalizing, and health risks. These results are discussed in terms of the role of identity within a successful transition to adulthood.
Objective:
Sudden or violent death of a loved one poses unique challenges for the bereaved. Research has found such losses to be associated with higher levels of chronic psychological distress. The present study explored underlying mechanisms and risk and protective factors for both prolonged grief and posttraumatic growth, considering both human and divine attachment.
Method:
In a mixed college and community sample of 374 traumatically bereaved adults, we examined associations between adult attachment to close others, adult attachment to God, identity distress, and shattered assumptions with the outcome variables of prolonged grief and posttraumatic growth.
Results:
Correlations indicate that religious individuals' attachment patterns in close adult relationships were partially mirrored in their relationship with God. Regression analyses indicate a curvilinear relationship between prolonged grief and posttraumatic growth. Path analyses indicate significant associations between insecure attachment strategies and prolonged grief symptoms through the mediators of identity distress and shattered assumptions. Specifically, attachment anxiety in relation to close others and God, and attachment avoidance in relation to close others, were indirectly associated with prolonged grief. Attachment avoidance in relation to God was negatively associated with prolonged grief and posttraumatic growth, but there was no evidence for mediation.
Conclusion:
Faced with the traumatic loss of a loved one, the ability and desire to effectively access relationships facilitating emotional processing and cognitive reorganization is predicated on survivors' internal working model of attachment. These results inform the assessment and treatment of individuals bereaved through sudden or violent means. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
Cronbach’s alpha (α) is a widely-used measure of reliability used to quantify the amount of random measurement error that exists in a sum score or average generated by a multi-item measurement scale. Yet methodologists have warned that α is not an optimal measure of reliability relative to its more general form, McDonald’s omega ( ω). Among other reasons, that the computation of ω is not available as an option in many popular statistics programs and requires items loadings from a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) have probably hindered more widespread adoption. After a bit of discussion of α versus ω, we illustrate the computation of ω using two structural equation modeling programs (Mplus and AMOS) and the MBESS package for R. We then describe a macro for SPSS and SAS (OMEGA) that calculates ω in two ways without relying on the estimation of loadings or error variances using CFA. We show that it produces estimates of ω that are nearly identical to when using CFA-based estimates of item loadings and error variances. We also discuss the use of the OMEGA macro for certain forms of item analysis and brief form construction based on the removal of items from a longer scale.
Researchers have increasingly called for the examination of both mental health symptoms and well-being when providing and evaluating psychotherapy, and although symptoms and well-being are typically inversely related, these appear to be distinct constructs that may require distinct intervention strategies. Positive psychology interventions, virtue-based treatments, and psychotherapies explicitly focused on promoting well-being have emerged in response to, or perhaps in concert with, the calls for attention to symptoms and well-being. Our review of the relevant and vast research pockets revealed that these treatments demonstrated relative efficacy in promoting well-being, whereas evidence for relative efficacy when reducing symptoms was largely inconclusive, particularly in psychotherapy contexts. We organized our review around the virtue-ethics notion that growth in virtuousness fosters flourishing, with flourishing consisting of more than the absence of symptoms, and specifically, that flourishing also involves increased well-being. The lack of evidence for relative efficacy among active alternative treatment conditions in promoting flourishing may suggest equal effectiveness, and yet, this also suggests that there are yet-to-be-identified moderators and mechanisms of change and/or insufficient use of research designs and/or statistical procedures that could more clearly test this major tenet of the virtue-ethics tradition. Nevertheless, we know that evidence-based problem-focused psychotherapies are effective at reducing symptoms, and our review showed that positive psychology interventions, virtue-based treatments, and psychotherapies explicitly focused on well-being promote well-being and/or virtue development. We encourage researchers and psychotherapists to continue to integrate symptom reduction and well-being promotion into psychotherapy approaches aimed at fostering client flourishing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
Religious groups differ in theology, ritual, and modes of self-governance. However, the extent to which such differences capture the variation of religious individuals remains unclear. Latent Profile Analysis offers a powerful statistical method for obtaining typologies from the response profiles of religious individuals. Here, we draw on a national sample of religiously-identified New Zealanders (N = 1484) and use LPA to obtain typologies for diversity in attitudes to religion as assessed by a combination of religious orientations, fundamentalism, and religious group narcissism/humility. The most parsimonious model recovers five types. To illustrate the importance of this descriptive typology, we evaluate the predictions of a church-sect theory against it. Consistent with church-sect theory, we find a greater density of intrinsic/exclusive types (Fundamentrinsics and X-trinsics) among informal/marginal religious groups and a greater density of extrinsic/inclusive types (Moderinsics and Disaffected) among established/mainstream churches. However, the data also reveal an unexpected feature: about 50% of religious affiliates across both marginal and mainstream Christian groups present as either Questrinsics or Moderinsics. Collectively, our findings illustrate how rigorous descriptive statistical models may combine with national-scale data to evaluate classical theories of religious change, while also raising new explanatory challenges for future evolutionary scholars of religions.
The present guide provides a practical guide to conducting latent profile analysis (LPA) in the Mplus software system. This guide is intended for researchers familiar with some latent variable modeling but not LPA specifically. A general procedure for conducting LPA is provided in six steps: (a) data inspection, (b) iterative evaluation of models, (c) model fit and interpretability, (d) investigation of patterns of profiles in a retained model, (e) covariate analysis, and (f) presentation of results. A worked example is provided with syntax and results to exemplify the steps.
Body dissatisfaction is a too-common issue for young women in the US. Body dissatisfaction is a rising issue with young men too, although their average body dissatisfaction remains lower than young women’s. Religiosity has been negatively linked to body dissatisfaction for women, but the relation for men is unclear. The current study (N = 5104) built upon a previous latent profile analysis of a large, diverse sample of US. college students Multi-Site University Study of Identity and Culture (MUSIC). We examined whether body dissatisfaction scores were related to three religious classes, when depressive symptoms were controlled for, and whether gender moderated that potential relation. Body dissatisfaction scores were significantly related to religious class. Gender had a main effect although not a moderating effect: men had better body dissatisfaction than women did, and their religious class similarly affected their body dissatisfaction scores. Religiosity appears important for emerging adult men’s body dissatisfaction, like for emerging adult women.
Gender and sexual minority (GSM) individuals have been neglected in emerging adulthood research. Further research is needed to understand the seemingly contradictory religious and GSM identities of emerging adults. This study looks at the associations of identity development and identity integration with religious and GSM group activities and well‐being. Identity visibility (outness) is associated with increases in GSM group activity and well‐being. Religious group activity is also associated with increases in well‐being. Religious group activity mediates the relationship between identity integration and well‐being. Implications for practitioners working with GSM individuals dealing with issues of identity integration are discussed.
The present article reports the development and factor analyses of a new, theoretically-based measure of spiritual maturity viewed from a Judeo-Christian perspective and designed for clinical use by pastoral counselors and psychotherapists, as well as researchers. The Spiritual Assessment Inventory (SAI) is based on a model of spiritual maturity that integrates relational maturity from an object relations perspective and experiential God-awareness based on New Testament teaching and contemplative spirituality principles. A pool of items was developed to measure two hypothesized dimensions of spiritual maturity: awareness of God and quality of relationship with God. Two factor analytic construct validity studies were conducted. Based on the first study, the SAI was revised and expanded. In the second study, five factors were identified: Awareness, Instability, Grandiosity, Realistic Acceptance, and Defensiveness/Disappointment. The results of the factor analyses and correlations of the factors with the Bell Object Relations Inventory support the underlying theory and validity of the SAI and its potential usefulness for clinical assessment and research.
THE FULL TEXT IS AVAILABLE AT THE FOLLOWING WEBSITE: http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/zSdXFqHQDaWsXtrxRDs9/full ------------------------------
Background: The first studies concerning changes in moral virtues during alcohol addiction therapy were published during the last decade. However, as all of these studies applied a variable-oriented approach, it is impossible to capture differences between starting points and changes in variables of interest.
Method: In this study, we employed a person-oriented approach to identify trajectories of change in two moral virtues—forgiveness and gratitude—during alcohol addiction treatment. The sample consisted of 358 alcohol-dependent individuals who were receiving outpatient therapy. Measurements were taken (1) at the beginning of the basic treatment, (2) after its completion (5–7 weeks from baseline), and (3) about six months later. Three forgiveness scales and the Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ-6) were used to assess the patients’ moral virtues.
Results: Latent class growth analysis (LCGA) revealed four trajectories for self-forgiveness and gratitude, and three trajectories for forgiveness of others and feeling forgiven by God. For patients with a low baseline level of moral virtues, the changes varied depending on the kind of moral virtue. Patients with a relatively high initial level of moral virtues maintained that level in subsequent measurements. Significant correlates of trajectory class membership were gender, education, age, religiosity, diagnosis of coexisting psychiatric disorders, and frequency of attending Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meetings.
Conclusions: This study highlights the clinical importance of considering differences at the baseline level and in changes of forgiveness and gratitude, as well as personal and alcohol-related correlates of trajectory group membership among people who participate in alcohol addiction therapy.
Religion and spirituality have frequently been associated with mental health and well-being. However, inconsistent results suggest that there may be mediating factors. God representations highlight individual differences in relating to the sacred, which may have implications for mental health. Attachment theory has also been related to God representations and mental health. This study examined the relationships between benevolent and authoritarian God representations, attachment to God, and mental health in a sample of graduate students. Benevolent God representations were negatively associated with mental health problems, and this effect was mediated by attachment to God. Future research directions and implications are discussed.
We compared Seligman’s PERMA model of well-being with Diener’s model of subjective well-being (SWB) to determine if the newer PERMA captured a type of well-being unique from the older SWB. Participants were 517 adults who completed self-report measures of SWB, PERMA, and VIA character strengths. Results from four analytic techniques suggest the factor underlying PERMA is capturing the same type of well-being as SWB. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded a latent correlation of r = 0.98 between SWB and PERMA. Exploratory structural equation modeling found two highly related factors (r = 0.85) that did not map onto PERMA and SWB. SWB and PERMA factors showed similar relationships with 24 character strengths (average correlation difference = 0.02). Latent profile analyses yielded subgroups of people who merely scored high, low, or mid-range on well-being indicators. Our findings suggest that while lower-order indicators SWB and PERMA have unique features, they converge onto a single well-being factor.
This study addressed the lack of research simultaneously examining multiple dimensions of religiousness when predicting rape myth acceptance, and extended prior findings of a mediating role for right-wing authoritarianism (i.e., uncritical submission to authority and aggressive attitude toward those who do not conform to social norms) in the association between religiousness and prejudice. The sample consisted of 99 undergraduate and graduate students (M age = 31.87 years, 66.7% female, 80.82% White, and 93% Christian affiliated) from a religiously affiliated university in the Midwest United States. As hypothesized, dimensions of religiousness exhibited differential associations with rape myth acceptance. Religious motivation characterized by openness and exploration (i.e., quest religiousness) was a significant negative predictor of rape myth acceptance, directly, and indirectly through right-wing authoritarianism. In contrast, rigid adherence to religious beliefs, assumed to be “right” and absolutely true (i.e., religious fundamentalism), and extrinsically motivated religiousness each exhibited a positive association with rape myth acceptance through right-wing authoritarianism. In addition, internally motivated religiousness and religious fundamentalism each moderated the nonlinear effect for quest predicting rape myth acceptance. Findings suggest that uncritical religious and secular submission to external authorities or uncommitted and nonexploring religiousness may have increased the extent to which persons adhered to rape myths, whereas religious exploration was protective. Practical implications center on the need for socioculturally relevant prevention and intervention efforts with religious identifying college students.
In the current article we propose and offer a preliminary test of an ecologically sensitive theoretical and methodological framework for understanding diverse adolescent spiritual development. The study summarizes the initial stages of development of the Measurement of Diverse Adolescent Spirituality (MDAS) that assesses three dimensions of spirituality: transcendence, fidelity, and contribution. We report our procedures and findings from an initial effort to contextualize the measure and validate the resulting scales with youth in Tijuana, Mexico. In the current study, 391 (211 females, M age = 13.78 years old) Mexican youth completed a self-report survey including the MDAS and measures of prosocial tendencies, daily spiritual experiences, and intrinsic religious motivation. Exploratory and confirmatory factor models, reliability, and structural analysis affirm the MDAS as a valid and reliable multidimensional measure of adolescent spirituality within the tested sample. Implications for further study of adolescent spiritual development and culturally valid research methods are discussed. 2016
The purpose of this study was to determine whether meaningful sets of individuals, similar to each other across multiple dimensions of spirituality, could be identified using a cluster analysis technique, and to determine if these classifications differed on health risk behaviors. Risky behaviors were assessed by measuring alcohol use, risky sexual behaviors, depression and suicidal ideation, dietary behaviors, and physical activity. The authors identified six clusters of adolescents from among the 510 participants. There were significant differences between clusters on six of the variables examined. The study indicates the significance of using multidimensional measures of religiosity and spirituality in research.
Research finds that Americans who espouse theologically conservative beliefs about the Bible generally oppose same-sex marriage. Studies exploring this link, however, have been limited in that their operationalization of fundamentalist belief has been problematically conceptualized and they have potentially confounded the effect of conservative religious identity. The current study asks: (1) How do distinct beliefs about the nature and authority of the Bible influence same-sex marriage support? (2) Do these beliefs influence same-sex marriage support independently of conservative religious identity? (3) To what extent do Bible beliefs and conservative religious identity moderate one another's effects? And (4) to what extent are these factors moderated by religious tradition and frequency of Bible reading? Analyses of 2006 Portraits of American Life Study data reveal that while identifying as religiously conservative is the strongest predictor of opposition to same-sex marriage, believing in inerrancy and creationism remain strong predictors in full models. I also find moderating effects between belief in creationism, inerrancy, inspiration; religious-conservative identity; and religious tradition. Findings clarify how theological beliefs and religious identity shape support for same-sex marriage across religious traditions.
Although variable-centered analyses predominate the religiosity-health literature, they are limited in that they tend to focus on the (unique) associations between a single facet of religiosity and outcomes. Person-centered analyses allow the identification of distinct subpopulations defined by individuals' full response profiles on facets of religiosity. The present study used latent profile analysis to identify distinct subgroups defined by their scores on the Religious Life Inventory-Revised. Using the Lo–Mendell–Rubin Likelihood Ratio Test, we found that a four-class solution fits optimally in two samples of Christian college students, including questioning (high quest, low intrinsic/extrinsic), intrinsically motivated (high intrinsic), high religiosity (high on all religious orientations), and low religiosity (low on all religious orientations) groups. Across both studies, we found, that the high religiosity, low religiosity and questioning groups reported significantly lower levels of psychological well-being compared to the “Intrinsically Motivated” group. These results corroborate studies suggesting that intrinsic religiosity is a protective factor associated with good psychological well-being among religious students and that personal religious struggles (i.e., quest religiosity) are associated with poorer psychological well-being. Our results point to the utility of person-centered analyses to examine religiosity in unique ways.
Recent theoretical and empirical work by Lee Kirkpatrick and others has suggested that relationship with God can be fruitfully described as an attachment bond. However, this literature has been limited by the lack of a sound theoretical and psychometric scale that operationalizes the attachment to God construct. Toward that end, the paper presents data from three samples, two college and one community sample, describing the psychometric properties of the Attachment to God Inventory (AGI) as well as providing tests of the correspondence and compensation hypotheses. In general, the AGI subscales of Avoidance of Intimacy and Anxiety about Abandonment display good factor structure, internal consistency, and construct validity. Comparisons of the AGI with adulthood attachment measures appear to support, albeit weakly, a correspondence between working models of romantic others and God.
Latent class analysis (LCA) and latent profile analysis (LPA) are powerful techniques that enable researchers to glean insights into “hidden” psychological experiences to create typologies and profiles to provide better-informed community-based policies and practice. These analytic methods have been used in a variety of domains, such as: psychosis symptomatology in the general population (Kibowski & Williams, 2012; Murphy, Shevlin, & Adamson, 2007; Shevlin, Murphy, Dorahy, & Adamson, 2007); substance abuse (Cleveland, Collins, Lanza, Greenberg, & Feinberg, 2010; James, McField, & Montgomery, 2013), peer victimization (Nylund, Bellmore, Nishina, & Graham, 2007), and anti-social/self-defeating behavior (Rosato & Baer, 2010). LCA and LPA are versatile methods of dealing with data of interest to community-based researchers in a deep and psychologically grounded way. This chapter will address the nuances of how and when to use LCA and LPA. Case studies of LCA and LPA will also be presented to illustrate the applicability of these techniques.
In a series of three studies we constructed the Differentiation of Self Inventory—Short Form (DSI-SF) and established initial evidence of reliability and validity. In study 1, we used Item Response Theory to reduce the number of items on the Differentiation of Self Inventory—Revised (Skowron and Schmitt in J Marital Fam Ther 29(2):209–222, 2003. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2003.tb01201.x). DSI-SF scale items were chosen based on full length scale item content and item characteristic curves. Study 2 provided evidence for criterion, construct, and structural validity of the DSI-SF. Specifically, scores on the DSI-SF were positively related to self-esteem and negatively related to symptoms of depression, state anxiety, trait anxiety, and perceived stress. Evidence of convergent validity was found in a positive relationship between the subscales of the DSI-SF and the Level of Differentiation of Self Scale (Haber in The measurement of nursing outcomes, 2nd edn. Springer, New York, pp 320–331, 2003). The DSI-SF subscales and full scale were also shown to retain most of the reliability of the full length scales. In the third study, preliminary estimates of 4-week test–retest reliability ranged from 0.72 (Fusion with Others subscale) to 0.85 (DSI-SF Full Scale). These results support the DSI-SF in college student samples.
Prior person-centered research has consistently identified a subgroup of highly religious participants that uses significantly less alcohol when compared to the other subgroups. The construct of religious motivation is absent from existing examinations of the nuanced combinations of religiousness dimensions within persons, and alcohol expectancy valuations have yet to be included as outcome variables. Variable-centered approaches have found religious motivation and alcohol expectancy valuations to play a protective role against individuals’ hazardous alcohol use. The current study examined latent religiousness profiles and hazardous alcohol use in a large, multisite sample of ethnically diverse college students. The sample consisted of 7412 college students aged 18–25 (M age = 19.77, SD age = 1.61; 75 % female; 61 % European American). Three latent profiles were derived from measures of religious involvement, salience, and religious motivations: Quest-Intrinsic Religiousness (highest levels of salience, involvement, and quest and intrinsic motivations; lowest level of extrinsic motivation), Moderate Religiousness (intermediate levels of salience, involvement, and motivations) and Extrinsic Religiousness (lowest levels of salience, involvement, and quest and intrinsic motivations; highest level of extrinsic motivation). The Quest-Intrinsic Religiousness profile scored significantly lower on hazardous alcohol use, positive expectancy outcomes, positive expectancy valuations, and negative expectancy valuations, and significantly higher on negative expectancy outcomes, compared to the other two profiles. The Extrinsic and Moderate
Religiousness profiles did not differ significantly on positive expectancy outcomes, negative expectancy outcomes, negative expectancy valuations, or hazardous alcohol use. The results advance existing research by demonstrating that the protective influence of religiousness on college students’ hazardous alcohol use may involve high levels on both quest and intrinsic religious motivation.
The purpose of this study was to (a) use mixture modeling to identify different groups of emerging adults based on differences in beliefs/attitudes, attributes, and behaviors and (b) examine whether these classes were differentially related to the criteria deemed important for adulthood, levels of identity development (exploration and commitment), and the quality of the parent-child relationship. Participants consisted of 487 undergraduate students (281 women, 206 men, mean age of 20.07 years) in the United States. Results of cross-sectional mixture modeling identified three classes of emerging adults including an externalizing group (high levels of drinking, drug use, sexual partners, pornography use, and video game use), a poorly adjusted group (high levels of depression, anxiety, drinking, drug use, sexual partners, and low levels of self-worth), and a well-adjusted group (high levels of internal regulation of values, religious faith, and low levels of depression, anxiety, drinking, drug use, and violent video game usage). © 2013 Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood and SAGE Publications.
We draw on eight different lab and field samples to delineate the effects of expressed humility on several important organizational outcomes, including performance, satisfaction, learning goal orientation, engagement, and turnover. We first review several literatures to define the construct of expressed humility, discuss its implications in social interactions, and distinguish expressed humility from related constructs. Using five different samples, Study 1 develops and validates an observer-report measure of expressed humility. Study 2 examines the strength of expressed humility predictions of individual performance and contextual performance (i.e., quality of team member contribution) relative to conscientiousness, global self-efficacy, and general mental ability. This study also reveals that with regard to individual performance, expressed humility may compensate for lower general mental ability. Study 3 reports insights from a large field sample that examines the relationship between leader-expressed humility and employee retention as mediated by job satisfaction and employee engagement as mediated by team learning orientation. We conclude with recommendations for future research.