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Edited by: Hiroki Takakura, Yoshihiro Iijima,
Vanda Ignatieva, Alexander Fedorov,
Masanori Goto, Toshikazu Tanaka
—Global Warming and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Russian Federation—
(Study Guide for Environmental Education)
Permafrost and Culture
Permafrost and Culture
Global Warming and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Russian Federation
(Study Guide for Environmental Education)
Edited by: Hiroki Takakura, Yoshihiro Iijima, Vanda Ignatieva,
Alexander Fedorov, Masanori Goto, Toshikazu Tanaka
Center for Northeast Asian Studies Report 26
2021
CONTENTS
FOREWORD 3
About this book 4
I e Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North 5
Chapter 1 Global Warming and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) 6
Chapter 2 Ice Age and Permafrost 9
Chapter 3 e History of Humankind in the Arctic 12
II Permafrost and Culture 17
Chapter 4 Alases and Ecosystems 18
Chapter 5 Permafrost as a Space of Human Activity 21
Chapter 6 e Impact of the Soviet Union Dissolution on Villages 24
III Global Warming and Ice 27
Chapter 7 Warming and Permafrost 28
Chapter 8 e Impact of Environmental Changes and the Reaction of Local Residents
in East Siberia 32
Chapter 9 Greenland 37
IV Perspectives for a Sustainable Future 43
Chapter 10 e Reasons for Warming from a Global Perspective 44
Chapter 11 Political System and Sustainable Future in the Arctic 48
Chapter 12 e Arctic and Asia 51
Reference 55
3
FOREWORD
is book stems from an attempt to understand the impact of climate change on
human societies in the Arctic/North from the standpoint of the local population and
indigenous culture. Particular attention is paid to the Sakha (Yakut) people living in the
Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). In the modern Arctic, various lifestyles coexist, including:
indigenous peoples in the tundra and taiga, residents of urban settlements, people in
development zones and areas of natural resource exploitation. We believe that, to reach
a more accurate understanding of climate change and its consequences for the Arctic,
rather than study the changes occurring in nature, we should consider the changes from
the standpoint of specic societies.
e life of the Sakha people is closely connected with permafrost. Scientic data
clearly show that permafrost thawing resulting from climate change causes acute problems
on a global scale, leading to both international and national organizations sounding the
alarm. Although many published scientic papers conrm what is really happening in
local communities inhabiting permafrost zones, the general public receives insucient
information on this. While climate change is a global phenomenon, it oen manifests
itself in regional and local natural disasters, so it is extremely important to consider it
from a regional perspective. Focusing on regions and conducting a detailed study of
individual specic situations allows us to discover the interconnections and attain a more
accurate global picture of the changes that are occurring.
After the Soviet Union’s dissolution, Russian and Japanese researchers began
conducting joint research in Siberia from the standpoint of social and human sciences
as well as natural science. is book, which is intended for high school and university
students, is the result of that scientific collaboration. The book was written because
climate change aects both the future of the Arctic and the future of the entire planet. e
authors believe that a deeper understanding of the history and current state of the habitat
and culture of local communities in the Arctic/North is the key to building a sustainable
future for all humanity. We hope that this book will help you connect with the amazing
dynamism of nature and culture, and inspire you to think about the future of both the
region and the planet.
Contributors: Hiroki Takakura, Vanda Ignatieva, Yoshihiro Iijima, Aleksandr Fedorov,
Hirofumi Kato, Atsushi Nakada, Yuka Oishi, Stepan Grigoryev, Tetsuya Hiyama, Sardana
Boyakova, Masanori Goto, Yuichiro Fujioka, Toshikazu Tanaka, Shin Sugiyama, Shunwa
Honda, Hotaek Park, Fujio Onishi, Minori Takahashi, Shinichiro Tabata, Natsuhiko
Otsuka, Mathias Ulrich, Otto Habeck.
4
About this book
is book was originally published in Russian under the same title and has been
translated into English to expand the readership. The content is the result of two
international research projects, ArCS: Arctic Challenge for Sustainability (September
2015 to March 2020) and ArCS II: Arctic Challenge for Sustainability II (June 2020 to
March 2025), which were jointly supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology of Japan. e projects were coordinated by three leading research
organizations: the National Institute of Polar Research, the Japanese Agency for Marine-
Earth Science and Technology, and Hokkaido University. e projects aimed to study the
abrupt climatic changes in the Arctic and determine their impact on the environment
and society. ey also undertook the important task of developing accurate forecasts and
assessing environmental impact to help stakeholders both in Japan and abroad make
appropriate decisions regarding sustainable economic activities in the Arctic.
Research under the ArCS and ArCS II projects was conducted separately by several
groups: Tohoku University researchers combined natural science and social sciences
approaches and are engaged in elucidating permafrost zone changes and their impact on
society; researchers from Mie University, Nagoya University, Kyushu University, and the
Hokkaido Museum of Northern Peoples took part in this international study from the
Japanese side; researchers from the Institute for Humanities Research and Indigenous
Studies of the North and the Melnikov Permafrost Institute of the Siberian Branch of the
Russian Academy of Sciences, among others, represented the Russian side. is book
summarizes the research results of the Tohoku University group, but to better understand
the problems of permafrost, other research groups working within the ArCS and ArCS II
framework also collaborated.
The Origin of Permafrost and the
Human History in the North
I
6
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
Chapter 1
Global Warming and the Republic of Sakha
(Yakutia)
Climate Change Happening Near Us
What rst comes to mind when you hear someone mention climate change? Islands
in the South Pacic being slowly claimed by the sea? e thawing of the Greenland ice
sheet or glaciers at the North and South poles? In Japan, located in East Asia, typhoons
are increasingly frequent and becoming stronger each year, as are other extreme events,
including sudden local oods (called “partisan” in Japan). Although oen written and
talked about in the media, it may seem that the climate change phenomenon is far
removed from our daily lives, but it is not. For example, in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia),
climate change is already noticeably aecting the daily lives of ordinary people living in
rural areas.
You have probably heard the term “permafrost,” which refers to zones where ground
and soil have been frozen for consecutive two or more years. The Yakutia territory
accounts for the deepest and most extensive permafrost zone inhabited by humans. In
North America and Northern Europe, permafrost is located in the tundra belt, but Yakutia
permafrost coexists with light coniferous larch forests, with leaves that fall in winter.
Permafrost includes not only soil and sand, but also ice, which sometimes forms
large frozen underground deposits. Large massifs of ice, called ice wedges, can exceed
10 meters in size, so the ground conceals large pieces of ice mixed with soil, stones, and
sand. e houses inhabited by the locals—along with their schools, villages, roads, and
surrounding forests—are all erected on ground that contains ice. Climate Change directly
impacts this ice.
Permafrost awing and Landslides
Warming causes the underground ice to melt. What are the possible consequences of
this? When the ice in the soil thaws, the earth naturally sags at these locations. awing
can also cause landslides. For example, since the 1990s, Batagay, a town located in the
middle reaches of the Yana River, has experienced landslides 100 meters in depth and a
full kilometer long. Also, in the village of Churapcha, located in the Tatta River basin, a
once-at eld is now covered in mounds and depressions and houses are leaning, as you
7
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
can see in the photo below. Sagging soil indicates that ice-wedge casts previously existed
at this location. According to a scientic study, if warming continues at the same pace, by
2050 the permafrost layers containing ice will retain only about 30% of their supportive
ability compared to 1970, when they provided a solid foundation. is will result in the
destruction of buildings.
Scientists have discovered that soil failures tend to occur in certain places, such as
inhabited built-up areas, agricultural land, areas around airports, and in places where
forests were cut down during the Soviet era. It is interesting that in alases, where the
Sakha have traditionally lived, such disastrous phenomena have not been observed.
This is because the alases themselves resulted from soil subsidence, which occurred
very gradually about 6,000 years ago. e melted ice veins supplemented the water in
the thermokarst depressions (uneven polygonal reliefs and depressions that form when
underground ice wedges melt; see Chapter 4), which eventually dried out because of the
dry climate and turned into the lake/meadow landscapes of the alases. is is why the
alases’ relief is stable and remains unchanged even under the current warming conditions.
Fig. 1-1: Underground soil (former
runway) aected by permafrost thaw
in the village of Churapcha
(photo by Y. Iijima, 2017).
Fig. 1-2: The village of Churapcha
(photo by H. Takakura, 2016).
8
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
Water-Related Natural Disasters
Did you know that rains have become more frequent in the Sakha Republic in recent
years? Higher precipitation levels increase the water contained in the earth, causing less
eective earth cooling, which, in turn, causes permafrost surface layers to begin thawing,
which leads to permafrost thawing.
Increased rainfall also leads to higher water levels in rivers, resulting in more
frequent spring oods caused by abrupt snowmelt and summer oods caused by sudden
heavy rainfall. Summer oods primarily have a negative impact on animal husbandry,
signicantly complicating the hay harvest. For example, although landslides do not occur
in alases, it is becoming increasingly dicult there to harvest high-quality hay in sucient
quantities. Less hay means that fewer cattle can be fed through the winter. is could lead
to a food market crisis in the Republic of Sakha.
However, abundant summer precipitation is not the only issue. Permafrost thawing
creates more groundwater, which leaches and collapses the lake shores, resulting in large-
scale oods that deteriorate agricultural land and destroy roads and other infrastructure.
us, global warming leads to increased precipitation and underground water ows,
shaking the earth on which people previously led a calm and settled life.
Fig. 1-3: Spring ood in the village located on the terrace of the Lena River
(photo by H. Takakura, Namsky District, 2010).
9
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
Chapter 2
Ice Age and Permafrost
Permafrost in Eastern Siberia
Eastern Siberia is the center of the earth’s permafrost distribution. In the Republic of
Sakha, more than 80% of the Lena River basin, as well as almost the entire territory of the
northeastern river basins (Kolyma, Indigirka, Yana, etc.), is a continuous permafrost zone
(Fig. 2-1). What is the reason behind this permafrost distribution? Permafrost formation
under human habitats is determined by various historical factors.
Based on studies of Lake Baikal’s bottom sediments, scientists have hypothesized that
permafrost in Eastern Siberia existed three million years ago. Formation of the modern
distribution of the Eastern Siberia permafrost zone, particularly in the Republic of
Sakha, began 350–300 thousand years ago during the early Pleistocene epoch, which was
characterized by periodic glacial-interglacial cycles. During glacial periods, an extensive
ice sheet formed in North America and the Scandinavian peninsula, while there were few
glacier-covered areas in Eastern Siberia, so the land was cooled directly and intensively.
is dierence predetermined the regional dierences in permafrost distribution in the
northern hemisphere; North America and Western Siberia permafrost formed only in
coastal polar regions, but the lack of an ice sheet in Eastern Siberia during the glacial
period resulted in permafrost occupying a far deeper and more extensive area.
Fig. 2-1: Permafrost landscape
distribution map in the Republic of
Sakha (Fedorov et al., 2018, http://
mpi.ysn.ru/images/mlk20182.pdf).
10
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
Formation of a ick Underground Ice Layer (Yedoma)
In the last glacial period during the latter half of the Pleistocene epoch, Eastern Siberia
experienced the Zyrjanka (60–37 thousand years ago) and Sartan (26–14 thousand years
ago) subglacial periods. During these periods, glaciers grew from the Verkhoyansk Range
and expanded to the Lena River basin valleys in the modern Zhigansky district. e
glaciers blocked the Lena River, resulting in huge glacial lakes forming in Central Yakutia.
is is why the modern permafrost under the Lena and Aldan river basins in Central
Yakutia resembles the permafrost of the tundra’s cold climate with high ice content.
As wet soil freezes, the soil volume begins to shrink and the ground surface cracks in a
polygonal pattern. During snowmelt, these cracks are lled with frozen water and sludge,
forming ice wedges. As ice wedges formed more actively, thick underground ice layers
(yedoma) were formed (Crate et al., 2017). Climatic conditions and cyclical repetition of
erosion and sediment accumulation processes during the glacial and interglacial periods
formed river terraces corresponding to each particular epoch in the Lena and Aldan river
basins. A layer of permafrost with thicker ice inclusions developed in the underground strata
of the Abalakh terrace soil, which arose 56–45 thousand years ago, and the Tyungyulyu
terrace, which arose 22–14 thousand years ago. e average size of ice wedges in the Abalakh
terrace is 60 meters deep and 10 meters wide, while in the Tyungyulyu terrace the average
size is 40 meters deep and 6–8 meters wide (Fig. 2). Underground ice gradually formed over
an extensive period of ice ages. Dierences in ice volume between the terraces resulted from
dierences in atmospheric temperature and precipitation volume in the respective areas.
Fig. 2-2: Yedoma in the
Abalakh terrace and the
Tyungyulyu terrace in
Central Yakutia
(photos by R. Desyatkin).
11
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
e Origin of Taiga
At the end of the last glacial period, the tundra steppe, also called the mammoth steppe,
spread over Eastern Siberia. Huge herds of large mammals, such as mammoths and moose,
inhabited this landscape. However, aer the last glacial period, about 10 thousand years ago
(on the boundary between the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs), climatic warming allowed
expanding human habitat to the north, and people who migrated to these locations actively
engaged in hunting these animals, resulting in substantial ecosystem changes. According to
one hypothesis (Zimov et al., 2012), human-induced changes in the ecosystem inuenced
changes in the region’s flora. Because of the resulting sharp decrease in the herbivore
population, the steppe plants were le uneaten and accumulated in the soil, forming a heat-
insulating layer, resulting in less permafrost thawing. Scientists theorize that the inuence of
permafrost environmental changes altered temperature conditions, nutrient composition,
and water content, which led to the tundra steppes being replaced by mosses and shrubs,
which in turn gave way to modern coniferous forests (taiga).
Fig. 2-3: Alas meadows (photo by Y. Iijima, Yukechi site, Megino-Kangalassky District, 2015).
12
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
Chapter 3
The History of Humankind in the Arctic
Ice Age and Humankind
e era of permafrost formation, especially the period from 500 to 300 thousand years
ago, is also the era of the rst discovered human traces in Northern Eurasia. Scientists
suggest that Homo erectus lived here. About 100 thousand years ago, Neanderthals, and
then anatomically modern people, entered Northern Eurasia from the west. In recent
years, scientists found the remains of an extinct species, the so-called Denisovan, in
Altai. Today, Northern Eurasia is an important research eld that allows us to trace the
migration of ancient people.
Prehistoric Culture of Northern Eurasia
e ancient people of Northern Eurasia’s prehistoric culture adapted to the northern
region conditions, using bone tools, fur clothes, and warm mobile dwellings (yurts).
anks to these inventions, the prehistoric people expanded their Arctic habitat within
and north of latitude 70N. irty thousand years ago, the Yana site (Yana RHS) inhabitants
actively hunted mammoths, wooly rhinos, foxes, hares, and birds.
A distinctive feature of the Northern Eurasia ancient culture was that wild animals
were both a hunting target and an important symbol of humans’ spiritual world. Animal
Fig. 3-1: Rock painting and sculptural image of a mammoth, characteristic of Northern Eurasia.
13
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
motifs were widely used in cave paintings and bone artwork; various artifacts reect
animal and human motifs and may have been used in rituals and ceremonies. For
example, the cave paintings in Sikhote-Alin in the lower reaches of the Amur River basin
show no clear distinction between humans and animals (i.e., humans were not depicted as
opposed to the animal world).
e Way to the Bering Land Bridge and Migration to the New Continent
In the last ice age (from about 100 to 12 thousand years ago), on the site of the
modern Bering Strait, there was a land bridge via which humans migrated across to North
America. Genetic studies, including ancient genetic data from 24 thousand years ago
obtained from the Malta site near Lake Baikal, indicate that North American indigenous
inhabitants’ ancestors came from the vicinity of Lake Baikal in Siberia. However, the
ancient genome of the Arctic pioneers from the Yana RHS site (31 thousand years ago)
does not directly match the genome of the Malta site inhabitants. In addition, ancient
DNA samples obtained in Alaska and Chukotka indicate that other groups of people lived
in Beringia.
Approximately 11 thousand years ago, the land bridge was submerged, but the
migration of Beringia people continued. Newly obtained ancient DNA data show that
5,000 years ago, migration flowed from North America to Northern Eurasia, and
4,000 years ago the migration vector was reversed, owing from Northern Eurasia to
North America. North America and Northern Eurasia modern indigenous peoples
descended from these great journeys.
Hunting and Gathering
At the end of the ice age and the onset of warming, the steppe-tundra where
mammoths lived gave way to forests, and the Arctic Ocean coast was covered with tundra.
To survive in the new conditions, humans began to engage in a variety of subsistence
activities. For example, in the tundra region, hunters drove wild reindeer herds into a
river or a place surrounded by rocks. However, since there were few game species in the
forest region, hunting decreased and shing and gathering increased. Since game and
sh availability depended on the season and location, small groups adopted a nomadic
lifestyle in a constant pursuit of food.
14
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
Domestication and Pastoralism
Some scientists hypothesize that wild reindeer were domesticated about 3,000 years ago,
and there are several hypotheses regarding the origin and distribution of their domestication.
For example, one theory asserts that reindeer were initially kept as hunting bait for wild
animals, which subsequently led to reindeer herding. Another theory asserts that entire
deer herds were tamed aer being corralled as prey during a hunt. A third asserts that
reindeer husbandry originated under the inuence of horse breeding. Subsequently, in both
the Western Siberia and Eastern Siberia tundra regions, large-scale reindeer husbandry is
believed to have emerged from the 17th to the 19th century.
Fig. 3-3: Modern West Siberian nomadic reindeer herders
(photo by Y. Oishi, Shuryshkarsky District, Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, 2016).
Fig. 3-2: Modern East Siberian hunter
(photo by A. Nakada, Tomponsky District, 2010).
15
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
By contrast, in the Baikal region and the conuence of the Lena and Aldan rivers,
people successfully engaged in nomadic pastoralism, including sheep, cattle, and horses, as
in Mongolia and other steppe regions, alongside hunting.
Fig. 3-4: Traditional subsistence
in the Northern Regions
(provided by Hokkaido Museum of
Northern Peoples).
16
I. The Origin of Permafrost and the Human History in the North
Permafrost and Culture
II
18
II. Permafrost and Culture
Chapter 4
Alases and Ecosystems
Alas Formation
T
he current mean annual air temperature in Yakutsk is about –8°C, which is quite cold
even on a global scale. Central Yakutia has not been covered by a large-scale ice sheet for
over two million years, so thick permafrost formed here. Permafrost in this area includes
many ice wedges, and in Central Yakutia ice wedges lie about 1.5–2.5 meters below the
surface. However, ice wedges are not found everywhere. ey formed gradually from the
eects of cyclical surface layer thawing and freezing in summer and winter during the last
glacial period, from about 100–10 thousand years ago. In Central Yakutia, neighboring ice
wedges oen formed a single large underground ice mass called an ice complex or “yedoma.”
e Boons of Permafrost
e annual precipitation in Central Yakutia is only about 300 millimeters. Despite that,
its territory is covered with coniferous forests (taiga), primarily larch. e two main factors
underlying taiga’s existence here are (1) when the surface air temperature rises above 0°C
in the summer, the surface layer thaws, forming an active layer; and, (2) permafrost is
preserved under this active layer and does not absorb water or allow it to inltrate. us,
despite the small amount of precipitation, because of the active layer that forms in the
warm season and the permafrost beneath it, trees can use the soil water in the active layer.
(In lower latitudes with a similar precipitation environment, steppes form, because there
are no underground permafrost layers.) e larch trees in Central Yakutia regulate their
active layer soil water use in summer in accordance with precipitation levels. In rainy
summers, the larch tree roots uptake soil water from the middle part of the active layer,
and in dry summers, they uptake soil water from the deeper part of the active layer. us,
larch trees benet from the peculiar features of permafrost and the active layer. Moreover,
the taiga on the ground surface protects the permafrost from solar radiation, and thus
it does not thaw easily. is relationship between two elements, such as vegetation and
permafrost is called symbiosis (e.g., a symbiotic or interdependent ecosystem). In the
taiga zone with ice wedges, this symbiosis is continuously maintained if the climate is
stable. However, when part of the forest is devastated, such as aer a forest re, permafrost
will begin to thaw over time, creating swamps, lakes, and meadows. The landscape
changes during this transformation are called thermokarst, and a thermokarst landscape
characterizes the various craters, dips and alases, formed during the transformation.
19
II. Permafrost and Culture
Alas Classication
e thermokarst landscapes in Central Yakutia are divided into four groups, based on
the formation stage. Cyclical season-driven ice-wedge thawing and freezing in the surface
layer formed in treeless open areas causes a structural microtopography, where pingos
and depressions (polygonal soil) resembling a tortoise shell form on the ground surface.
is is the bullar stage. If a large forest re completely burns the trunks and crowns, solar
radiation will warm a wider ground surface, which facilitates ice-wedge melting in the
surface layers of the soil, initiating reservoir formation. is thermokarst stage is a dyede.
A newly formed bullar takes from several decades to hundreds of years to grow into a
dyede. en the lake expands and the dyede deepens by several meters compared to the
surrounding area. On average, this type of landscape forms within 1000 years of the bullar
formation and is called a tuumpu. At this stage, snow meltwater begins to ow intensively
into the thermokarst depression and rainfall accumulates, eventually lling the entire
basin with water. Aer that, a long drying process occurs, gradually turning the tuumpu
into a spacious meadow with a lake in its lowest part. is type of landscape can take
several thousand years to emerge aer the formation of the bullar and is called an alas.
ere are over 16,000 alases in Central Yakutia.
Fig. 4-1: Numerous tuumpus and alases scattered across the taiga in Central Yakutia
(photo by T. Hiyama, near the village of Tabaga, 2010).
20
II. Permafrost and Culture
Fig. 4-3: Alases generally have a hollow relief that is lower than the surrounding landscape
(photo by A. Fedorov, Ust-Aldansky District).
Fig. 4-2: Exposure of permafrost in Central Yakutia.
Underground ice complex (yedoma) is visible
(photo by T. Hiyama, Churapchinsky District)
21
II. Permafrost and Culture
Chapter 5
Permafrost as a Space of Human Activity
e Origin of the Sakha People
Although there are several scientic hypotheses, it is generally believed that the Sakha
people’s ancestors migrated from the southern Baikal region to the middle reaches of
the Lena River in the 10th to 15th centuries. eir migration paths ran along both the
Lena and Vilyuy rivers. When the Sakha people’s Turkic-speaking ancestors lived in the
Baikal region, they had a hierarchical society with a military aristocracy. is is reected
in the modern Russian Federation Republic of Sakha’s coat of arms, a gure of the ancient
horseman. e Sakha ancestors migrated to the north while maintaining their culture
of steppe cattle breeding based on nomadic grazing of cattle, horses, camels, sheep, and
goats. Since sheep, goats, and camels were not suited to the overly cold climate in the
middle reaches of the Lena basin, a combination of hunting and breeding (primarily
cattle and horses) became the Sakha’s traditional economic activity. Recent biological
research identied a genetic anity of the Sakha people in Central Asian and South
Siberian groups.
Fig. 5-1: Sakha folk festival, Yhyakh. People sing and dance around the decorated ritual wooden pillar (serge)
(photo by T. Hiyama, Elgeeii eld station, 2010).
22
II. Permafrost and Culture
Human History Signicance
Sakha migration to the middle reaches of the Lena River basin is of great importance
because it reects how humans adapted their lifestyle to environmental conditions. Before
the Sakha ancestors arrived, human adaptation in Siberia involved a complex combination
of hunting and gathering, shing, and reindeer herding, which as similar to human
lifestyle adaptations in the Arctic regions of North America. However, the Sakha, who
originated from Mongolia and Central Asia, brought to Siberia a new method of
adaptation: harvesting hay to provide winter feed for cattle. Instead of using animals
adapted to Siberian conditions, the Sakha developed a lifestyle based on animals brought
from southern regions. Moreover, the Sakha used traditional irrigation technology and
articially created meadows for harvesting hay.
Alases and Culture
How did the Sakha manage to develop cattle and horse breeding under Arctic
conditions? It resulted from a series of accidents in the ecosystem history of Eastern
Siberia, where a forest ecosystem predominates. Most of the Sakha ancestors who
migrated to the middle reaches of the Lena River chose life in the alases scattered among
the taiga forests, which contained lakes and pastures, providing a living space with sh
and grass for grazing. ere is even an expression for this in the Sakha language, “Alaas
ogoto,” meaning “a native of an alas.”
Fig. 5-2: Hay harvesting (photo by A. Nakada, Churapchinsky District, 2017).
23
II. Permafrost and Culture
ese alases developed from thermokarst processes. e ice complex that supported
the land surface melted, causing ground subsidence, and the resulting thermokarst
process formed alases, where the remnants of unevaporated water formed lakes and
meadows. e Sakha traditionally sought to discover the full value of nature as formed by
permafrost and to preserve the culture adapted to this nature.
Fig. 5-3: Net shing on a lake in an alas (photo by A. Nakada, Churapchinsky District, 2017).
Fig. 5-4: A free-range herd of horses in winter (photo by Y. Fujioka, Churapchinsky District, 2018).
24
II. Permafrost and Culture
Chapter 6
The Impact of the Soviet Union Dissolution
on Villages
Anthropogenic Environmental Changes
Environmental changes are not only caused by natural factors, but are frequently
associated with changes in human society. Changes in the Republic of Sakha’s natural
environment driven by climate change that occurred over the last 30 years coincided
with the turbulent years associated with Soviet Union dissolution. Reviewing the Soviet
era provides insights on changes in the relationship between humans and nature that
occurred in connection with changes in human society.
State Farms of the Soviet Era
In the Soviet era, the main agricultural enterprises and farms were state-owned
and managed. After the socialist revolution, repeated fragmentation and unification
led villages to organize collective farms (later merged into state farms). In parallel with
cultivating wheat and fodder crops, the state farms also conducted intensive animal
husbandry to breed cattle, horses, reindeer, etc. Soon aer the Soviet Union dissolution,
state farms were also dissolved, and state farm property (land, livestock, agricultural
machinery, etc.) was divided among former state farm workers. Subsequently, some of
these workers established new agricultural enterprises and cooperative associations, while
others became independent farmers. e collapse of the state farm system profoundly
changed the system of agriculture, causing many challenges.
e Distance between Alases and Villages
Before collectivization, the Sakha lived as dispersed individual families on vast
tracts of land, seasonally moving between summer pastures and winter dwellings. When
agriculture was collectivized, beginning in the 1930s, a policy of enlarging settlements
was implemented, where people who had previously lived separately in meadow lands
were gathered in a single location and had to adopt a new way of public life. As a result,
many villages were built, but these were oen very far from the ancestral meadows. In
the Soviet era, this distance was not much of a burden, because the state farm command
system made it possible to send workers to workplaces and remote meadows and to
25
II. Permafrost and Culture
allocate tractors and other equipment. Aer the Soviet state dissolution, the driving force
of the state farm system ceased functioning, and movement between villages and pastures
became dicult for local residents.
Hay Harvesting
Today, villagers with livestock harvest hay for winter on their own. In the Soviet era, all
young people who graduated from school, regardless of where they worked, would be sent
to state farms for a period to help harvest hay. ey even held competitions on the volume
of the hay harvested. Today, young people increasingly migrate to cities, moving away from
agriculture, resulting in a critical shortage of agricultural labor. In addition, agriculture
fragmentation also poses other problems. No one wants to use the remote meadows
because transporting hay over long distances involves high fuel costs. Consequently, many
meadows are being abandoned and vast areas of agricultural land are declining.
Deforestation
Shortages of wood for fuel and building material are also becoming more acute. In
the Republic of Sakha’s rural areas, where most people heat their houses with wood and
the average air temperature does not rise above zero for six or more months, it is vital
to stockpile large amounts of rewood. Since it is now eectively impossible to rely on
organized collective work, which once allowed rewood delivery from remote forests,
nearby forests around the villages are being felled in a mostly uncoordinated manner.
Fig. 6-1: Harvesting hay in the
1960s, Gorny District (photo
provided by the editorial sta of
the newspaper “Ule Kuuhe”).
26
II. Permafrost and Culture
Fig. 6-2: Firewood stockpiled for the winter (photo by M. Goto, Churapchinsky District, 2018).
Global Warming and Ice
III
28
III. Global Warming and Ice
Chapter 7
Warming and Permafrost
Warming in Recent Years
In recent years, permafrost in Eastern Siberia has been heavily aected by climate
change in the Arctic. e Arctic experienced a period of warming in the middle of the
20th century (1935–1945), which localized in Eastern Siberia with the temperature rise
manifesting only in the tundra zone along the coast of the Arctic Ocean. However, since
the 1990s, there has been a clear tendency toward warming in wider territories. In the
2000s, warming was observed in all of Eastern Siberia, with increased mean annual
air temperature that increased the thawing index in the summer season and inversely
decreased the freezing index in the winter season (Fedorov et al., 2014a). e warming
has induced changes in the permafrost environment; the permafrost upper layers are
starting to thaw more intensively in summer and do not freeze as much in winter.
Fig. 7-1: Warming by region in Eastern Siberia (Fedorov et al., 2014a):
(a) changes in the mean annual air temperature; (b) changes in thawing index.
29
III. Global Warming and Ice
Humidication Eects
In Eastern Siberia, another aspect of climate change—increasing humidity—has been
observed in addition to warming. Between 2004 and 2008, the levels of snow falling in
winter and rainfall in summer signicantly exceeded the long-term average, leading to an
excessively moist environment on the ground surface and within the active layer. is wet
environment decreased the volume of harvested hay, which negatively aected livestock
production (Takakura 2016). It also aected the hydro-thermal state in the underground,
where the soil within the active layer was lled with excess water driving remarkable
changes in the heat and moisture balance. For example, the active layer thawed deeper
in summer, and the soil within the active layer retained the high moisture state over
subsequent years. In the larch forests (taiga) near Yakutsk, the active layer thickness was
previously less than 1.2 meters, but increased to two meters or more in 2009 following the
increased soil moisture (Iijima et al., 2012). A 1.5 to 2 meter increase in the active layer
thickness was manifested along valleys with smooth slopes and on the plains, where the
concaved relief reproduced the water accumulation, corresponding to the distribution
of underlying permafrost. In this topography, the soil moisture accumulates in the lower
part of the active layer.
Permafrost Degradation
When the active layer thickness deepens enough to reach the underground ice mass
(yedoma), the underground ice begins to melt, resulting in ground surface subsidence
(thermokarst). In the basin between the Lena and Aldan rivers in Central Yakutia,
the depth of the underground ice complex is two meters or more. In places where the
taiga (larch forest) is healthy, vegetation and soil organic matter restrain the inuence
of thermal changes and active layer depth remains stable at 1.0–1.5 meters. e layer
in between the active layer and the underground ice complex is called “shielding layer.”
is layer buers the eect and prevents thermokarst development. If forest degradation
Fig. 7-2: Larch forest that died out because of waterlogging in the vicinity of Yakutsk.
30
III. Global Warming and Ice
occurs as a result of economic activity or wildre, the ground temperature and active
layer thickness both increase. Eventually the thawed layer reaches the underground ice
complex, destroying the shielding layer and allowing thermokarst to develop. Then,
meltwater from the underground ice and runo from surrounding water accumulate to
form a thermokarst lake.
ermokarst Lake Growth
Thermokarst lakes newly formed from warming over the past several decades
predictably increase in size, regardless of the degree of moisture or dryness in each
particular period. For example, in one thermokarst lake in Central Yakutia, the surface
area increased by 16 times and the volume by 104 times between 1993 and 2008, with
an estimated one-third of the water coming from melting underground ice (Fedorov et
al., 2014b). During the wet climate period between 2005 and 2008, there were forests
where the depth of the active layer increased because of water accumulation, leading to
thermokarst development. Such cases should be a focus of attention, since they indicate
permafrost degradation resulting from a combination of natural factors (increased
warming and humidity) even in the absence of human disturbances. In the alases, certain
changes also occur that cause unfrozen layers on permafrost (taliks) to develop, but do
not lead to signicant changes in the relief. As mentioned previously, the alases were
formed from gradual permafrost thawing over 6,000 years and are a symbol of permafrost
and human symbiosis.
Fig. 7-3: Landforms and landscape changes from thermokarst development (Crate et al., 2017).
31
III. Global Warming and Ice
Fig. 7-4: The process of permafrost thawing and the growth of lakes (Fedorov et al., 2014b).
32
III. Global Warming and Ice
Chapter 8
The Impact of Environmental Changes
and the Reaction of Local Residents
in East Siberia
Questionnaire
What do the Sakha people think about the environmental changes in their place of
residence? What problems do residents face because of environmental changes? In this
section, we discuss the results of a questionnaire and interviews (Fig. 8-1) conducted
with residents in the village of Khayakhsyt (located about 120 km east of Yakutsk) in the
permafrost development zone (see Chapter 4).
Personal Experience and Reection on Environmental Changes
More than 70% of respondents experienced house and building subsidence and house
oor deformation (Fig. 8-2). In addition, about 20% of respondents mentioned ooding
of a dwelling site. ese responses reect direct personal experience associated with
changes in the environment.
It should also be noted that many people experienced the negative impact of
environmental changes in their economic life, especially regarding livestock and feed
Fig. 8-1: Questionnaire (photo by Y. Fujioka, Churapchinsky District, 2018).
33
III. Global Warming and Ice
resources. For example, about 90% of respondents experienced the negative impact of
unpredictable winter temperatures on their horses and more than 80% experienced
hayeld ooding and other eects. Respondents also indicated that ravines have developed
in the area from the eects of precipitation and meltwater from frozen soil thawing.
e results of this sociological study show that many villagers directly experienced the
negative impact of the environmental changes, including ooding and deformation of
residential buildings, and deterioration of livestock-keeping conditions.
Challenges Faced by Locals
What challenges do the locals face? eir responses to this question are shown in
Fig. 8-3. Most respondents reported household economic problems, such as the rising
price of food and commodities. e second most frequently mentioned challenge was
environmental change in their settlement. In addition, various problems related to
Fig. 8-3: Challenges faced by locals
Fig. 8-2: Personal experience with environmental changes.
34
III. Global Warming and Ice
everyday life were cited, such as social welfare and pensions, health problems, etc.
It was also clear that respondents were paying close attention to problems related to
environmental changes.
e results showed that Yakutia’s rural residents experience dierent impacts from
environment changes, and many of them see these changes as important problems that
aect their residences.
Measures to Counter the Impact of Environmental Changes
In response to environmental changes, Sakha has implemented various independent
(e.g., involving individual residents) and collective measures with the support of local
communities and authorities, such as leveling the ground surface where thermokarsts
developed; constructing embankments under residential buildings to prevent leaning;
cultivating crop varieties best suited to the ongoing climate change conditions, etc.
Fig. 8-4: Residential building with an embankment at the base
(photo by Y. Fujioka, Churapchinsky District, 2016).
35
III. Global Warming and Ice
Changes in Livestock Population by Type of Livestock
e number of farmers in the region switching from cattle to horse breeding has
increased in recent years. Fig. 8-3 shows livestock species population change dynamics
in the Republic of Sakha as a whole, indicating that the cattle population is decreasing
while the horse population is increasing. We believe that this is driven by both social and
economic factors, such as changes in livestock market prices and husbandry practices, and
the inuence of environmental changes, as local residents indicated in their questionnaire
responses.
e water from the frequent rains and thawing of permafrost ows into low-lying
areas, decreasing meadow plots and making it more dicult to provide winter food for
cows. In winter, cows stay in barns because of the cold, so they have to be supplied with a
large amount of feed by hand, and horses can feed outside in winter, so it is preferable to
breed horses, not cows.
Climate change, called global warming by some, manifests itself on both a planetary
and local scale. As in the Sakha Republic in Siberia, people who live in rural areas
continue their daily lives while facing complex interactions between cultural factors
related to their traditional herding-based lifestyle and changing environmental factors.
is readiness to confront new problems reects both the historical culture that allowed
the Sakha to adapt to Siberia’s cold environment by developing cattle breeding, and the
people’s strong spirit. Global warming is an acute global problem, but local people have
Fig. 8-5: The dynamics of change in livestock population by type of livestock.
36
III. Global Warming and Ice
the potential to counteract the challenges of environmental change they face in everyday
life. However, to harness and expand this potential to the maximum possible extent, it is
necessary to understand the specic situations and concerns in each individual region,
and to signicantly contribute to the eorts of communities and local authorities, national
governments, researchers, foreign investors, and humankind in general.
Fig. 8-6: Phenomena associated with the permafrost thawing (compiled by M. Goto)
37
III. Global Warming and Ice
Chapter 9
Greenland
Changes Occurring in the Ice Sheet, Glaciers, and Ice Caps
So far, we have discussed the impact of global warming through the Republic of Sakha
example. Now let us look at what is happening in Greenland, located in the Western
Hemisphere Arctic.
Eighty percent of Greenland’s territory is covered in glaciers with an average thickness
of 1,700 meters. is huge mass of ice is called the Greenland ice sheet (glaciers that cover
the land on the scale of a continent). In addition, the coastal areas have glaciers that are
separated from the ice sheet and ice caps (domed glaciers covering hills and mountain
peaks). e ice sheet, glaciers, and ice caps (hereaer, collectively referred to as “glaciers”)
formed from snow accumulation; therefore, they dier signicantly, both qualitatively and
in appearance, from the permafrost in the Republic of Sakha. Greenlandic glaciers account
for 10% of all ice on the planet. In recent years, the glaciers have been melting, with the
volume of ice lost in the 10 years between 2000 and 2010 corresponding to a six millimeter
sea level rise. Greenlandic glacier melting is a signicant factor in global sea level change.
ere are two main reasons for glaciers’ decreased area and volume: (1) under the
inuence of rising Arctic air temperatures, snow and ice are melting more intensively
(Fig. 9-1) and glacier surfaces are darkening, which further facilitates melting; (2) glaciers
are owing into the sea at an accelerated rate, carrying a large volume of icebergs into the
sea (Fig. 9-2). e factors driving these phenomena have not yet been fully elucidated.
e volume of ice lost from glaciers melting and iceberg loss is greater than the volume of
ice accumulated on land from snowfall. erefore, Greenland is losing ice.
Indigenous Society
Siberia and Greenland are located on the opposite sides of the planet. Although both
Greenland, the largest island worldwide, and Siberia are located in the Arctic there are
large dierences between the two regions; Siberia is a vast continental land area, while
80% of Greenland is covered by an ice sheet that is several thousand meters thick. With a
population of 56,600 people (2018) Greenland has one of the lowest population densities
worldwide. More than 80% of the population is concentrated in the southwestern portion
of the country, with 30% of the total population living in the capital, Nuuk.
38
III. Global Warming and Ice
Fig. 9-1: Meltwater ows over the darkened ice.
Qaanaaq ice cap near the village of Qaanaaq
(77°N, 69°W) (photo by S. Sugiyama, Greenland).
Fig. 9-2: Icebergs carried to the sea from Bowdoin
Glacier in the Qaanaaq area
(photo by S. Sugiyama, Greenland).
Fig. 9-3: Meltwater with sediment owing from
a glacier into the ocean. Northwest Greenland
(photo by S. Sugiyama, Greenland).
Fig. 9-4: A bridge destroyed by a ooding river
owing from a glacier near the village of Qaanaaq
(photo by S. Sugiyama, Greenland).
39
III. Global Warming and Ice
Most Greenland inhabitants speak the Greenlandic language’s standard dialect,
Kalaallisut. Residents of the northern, western, and eastern regions speak their own
local dialects, maintaining their regional identity. However, Kalaallisut is the ocial
and common language, and is the dialect of the southwestern region, where most of the
population lives and political and economic life are concentrated.
e History of Economic Activities
e ancestors of Greenland’s indigenous population are also the ancestors of Canada’s,
Alaska’s, and Chukotka’s modern Inuit (Eskimos). ese ancestors traveled from Northeast
Asia 4,600 years ago and settled on small coastal areas not covered by the ice sheet. eir
food sources included land animals, such as musk ox, caribou (wild reindeer), and tundra
partridges; migratory birds (geese and ducks); marine mammals (seals, walruses, and
polar bears); and sh (halibut, Arctic char).
Over the course of several thousand years, people adapted to changes in their habitat
by changing their residence locations, lifestyle, and food prey in accordance with the
conditions driven by cyclical warming and cooling. Until the 20th century, the only
domestic animals in Greenland were dogs. Although wild reindeer lived in Greenland,
unlike the Siberian people, the Greenlanders never bred them.
Approximately 1,000 years ago, the Scandinavians (Vikings) migrated to Greenland
from Northern Europe via Iceland, settling in Southern Greenland for several centuries
(until 1450). e Scandinavians named the island “Greenland,” meaning “green country.”
Fig. 9-5: Qassiarsuk,
the recreated site of
the Scandinavians
(Vikings) (61°8’60’’N)
(photo by S. Honda, 2013).
40
III. Global Warming and Ice
At the time, the island had a relatively warm climate, and in summer it was covered with
lush green knee-high grass.
In the 1720s, a Lutheran missionary named Hans Egede came to Greenland from
the Dano-Norwegian kingdom, paving the way for Danish colonization. e Danish
government built schools in every village, used Greenlandic language textbooks, and
generally pursued a relatively mild colonial policy aimed at “managing rather than
reigning.” In 1953, Greenland became an integral part of Denmark; in 1978 its autonomy
was recognized in relation to internal management issues (home-rule); and in 2009 the
island obtained extended autonomy (self-rule).
Modernization and Warming
Hunting, shing, and gathering economic activities have remained virtually unchanged
since ancient times, but their mechanization is continually developing. In many places,
dog sleds gave way to snowmobiles, and kayaks were replaced by aluminum boats with
an outboard motor. At the onset of the 20th century, sheep husbandry was introduced in
Greenland’s southern region, and the island is now completely self-sucient in mutton
production. Local potato production provides 10% of domestic needs, but the country
is almost fully dependent on imports for most fruits and vegetables. It may seem that
global warming would have a benecial eect on sheep breeding and crop cultivation, but
precipitation has been signicantly reduced for several decades, causing water shortages
for pastures and vegetable elds.
Fig. 9-6: Supermarket in the
town of Tasiusaq
(photo by S. Honda, 2012).
41
III. Global Warming and Ice
For all food products except seal and whale meat, which Greenland fully provides for
itself, the island depends on imports from Denmark and other countries. In many towns,
there are large supermarkets selling a rich assortment of imported groceries.
Greenland’s economic base is supported by lump-sum subsidies allocated by the
Danish government without any spending goal restrictions, and by shing and tourism
income. In addition to concerns about shrinking sea ice and ood damage, there is a
growing concern among the local population that further ice sheet melting from increased
warming will lead to increased rare metals mineral mining and sea oil eld development.
Conversely, some inhabitants express hope that such changes would bolster economic
independence and maybe even complete Greenland’s independence.
Deglaciation
Greenland’s glacier changes are especially noticeable in coastal areas, where the
air temperature is higher and glaciers are in direct contact with the sea. If the coastal
glaciers melt, this will have a huge impact on both the land and marine environments.
Environmental changes in coastal areas also raise serious concerns regarding Greenland
residents’ lives.
Let us consider the impact of glacial meltwater on the marine environment. Increased
glacier meltwater discharge increases the ow of fresh water and sediment into the ocean
(Fig. 9-3), which changes seawater properties and aects the marine ecosystem. Such
environmental changes could be critical to the local population, since seafood, such as
northern shrimp and halibut, are important economic resources. Marine environment
changes will also aect traditional whaling and marine mammal hunting. Additionally,
in recent years, glacier melting has caused river overows, resulting in increased ooding
(Fig. 9-4), another manifestation of environmental change. ese oods are caused by
both accelerated glacier and ice sheet melting and more frequent heavy rain events in the
Arctic. Rivers are a water source necessary for human life, so changes in the river ow and
water quality are critical.
Glacier changes also cause global environmental changes. As previously mentioned,
ice thawing in Greenland is an important underlying factor in the rising sea level.
Furthermore, the volume of fresh water entering the ocean from glaciers aects ocean
circulation, which plays a major role in heat transfer on the earth’s surface. Over
several tens of thousands of years, huge volumes of fresh water from Greenland have
repeatedly owed into the ocean, causing changes in ocean circulation leading to global
climate change.
42
III. Global Warming and Ice
Fig. 9-7: Village in Greenland (Tasiilaq, 65°36’48’’N) (photo by S. Honda, 2015).
Fig. 9-8: Fishing boats in the port of Nuuk (photo by S. Honda, 2003).
Perspectives for a
Sustainable Future
IV
44
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
Chapter 10
The Reasons for Warming
from a Global Perspective
So, what are the mechanisms underlying global warming? How does it change the
environmental interrelations between the Arctic and other parts of the earth? And what
measures are the international community taking in connection with climate change in
the Arctic?
Greenhouse Gases and Human Activities
Solar radiation warms the ground surface through the atmosphere, aer which the
infrared radiation emitted by the surface is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere, warming the lower atmosphere and the ground surface (Fig. 10-1). is is
how the mean annual air temperature of about 15°C was established on this planet. It is
believed that if there were no atmospheric greenhouse gases, such as water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, etc., the mean annual air temperature on the planet would be about
-18°C. Global warming, one of the current great worldwide concerns, is an increase in
surface air temperature resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. An Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report stated
that the global concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which was 280 ppm in
the pre-industrial era (1750), exceeded 400 ppm in 2013 as a result of increased human
activity. Several types of greenhouse gases contribute to global warming; carbon dioxide
accounts for 76.7%, methane for 14.3%, nitrous oxide for 7.9%, and chlorouorocarbons
(CFCs, HCFCs; chemicals that deplete the ozone layer) for 1.1%. us, the main cause of
Fig. 10-1: The mechanism of global warming caused by greenhouse gases
(compiled by Hotaek Park)
45
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
global warming is carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels
(i.e., oil and coal).
Warming in Recent Years
e IPCC’s (2013) h report stated that over 132 years, from 1880 to 2012, the
global mean surface air temperature increased by 0.85°C (Fig. 10-2). It also reported
that increases in surface air temperature over the past 50 years most likely resulted from
anthropogenic factors rather than natural variations. As shown in Fig. 10-2, the greatest
temperature increase is observed around the Arctic region, where the temperature
increases at a rate more than twice the average global rate. The report emphasized
that warming in the Arctic region is inuenced by decreased Arctic Ocean sea ice and
advection of warmer atmosphere from the lower latitudes.
Impact on the Arctic
Permafrost (the soil layer that is frozen year round) is widespread in the terrestrial
sub-Arctic regions. In recent years, drastic warming in permafrost zone soil temperatures
have increased the active layer (the surface soil layer with a temperature of 0°C or higher)
thickness.
Permafrost contains a large amount of ice and organic carbon. According to some
reports, the organic carbon content is more than two times higher in permafrost than
in the atmosphere (750 PgC). Warming also drives active thermokarst processes in the
permafrost zone; when underground ice thaws, the ground surface depresses, and water
Fig. 10-2: Carbon dioxide concentrations, which continue to
increase from human activities (above), and the signicant
Arctic temperature increase in 2010–2017 compared to the
average for 1951–1980 (below)
(NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS), USA).
46
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
accumulates in the resulting depression landscapes, forming lakes and swamps. At the
same time, organic carbon contained in the permafrost layer decomposes under the
inuence of microorganisms, leading to increased atmospheric emissions of methane and
carbon dioxide (Fig. 10-3). ese emissions contribute to an increased concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, thereby accelerating warming.
e Answer Lies in Permafrost
The IPCC’s (2013) fifth report predicted that, even with a maximum reduction
in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in the future, by 2100 the global mean
surface air temperature will increase by 0.3–1.7°C, and under the worst-case scenario,
the temperature will increase by as much as 4.8°C. Of particular concern is the warming
feedback, since an increase in surface air temperature contributes to permafrost thawing,
causing an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, that in turn accelerates increased global
mean surface air temperature. According to the latest simulation data, by 2100 permafrost
zone emissions will reach about 250 PgC for carbon dioxide and about 5 Pg for methane
(Fig. 10-4). As a warming factor, methane is about 30 times more potent than carbon
dioxide, so the methane value (5 Pg) corresponds to the carbon dioxide of 150 PgC.
However, the current model does not consider many complex Arctic processes that result
from permafrost thaw, such as lake and swamp formation. erefore, it is very likely
that the inuence of permafrost on global warming will signicantly exceed all existing
forecasts.
Fig. 10-3: Thermokarst development by permafrost degradation and greenhouse gas emissions
(compiled by G. Iwahana).
47
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
Fig. 10-4: Comparison of projected future carbon dioxide emissions in the permafrost zone from warming
(Schaefer et al., 2014).
48
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
Chapter 11
Political Systems and Sustainable Future
in the Arctic
Indigenous People and International Organizations
State governments and interstate cooperation play important roles in solving the
problems associated with climate change in the Arctic, but international organizations
formed by public groups, organizations, and state governments also play critical roles.
The IPCC is studying the situation on a global scale, and the Arctic Council—an
intergovernmental forum established in 1996 that includes Canada, Denmark, Finland,
Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, the United States, and organizations representing the
Arctic’s indigenous people—actively engages in Arctic aairs.
Conventionally, decision-making in the international community was believed to be
best conducted via international agreements and treaties ratied by states. However, it
is becoming clear that states do not have sucient ability to solve international issues.
To maintain a sustainable management mechanism, it is necessary to move away from
relying on decisions made by states acting in their own interests, and begin including a
larger circle of people and groups in the decision-making process to increase management
eectiveness. e Arctic Council endows various memberships, including “permanent
participants,” which could increase participation by organizations representing the Arctic’s
indigenous people, such as the Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North
(RAIPON). Founded in 1990, RAIPON unites 35 ethnic and regional organizations of
indigenous small-numbered people from all regions in North Siberia and the Far East of
Russia. Its scope includes 40 indigenous populations comprising more than 270 thousand
people living in vast areas from Murmansk to Kamchatka, accounting for more than 60%
of the entire Russian territory. is means that the Russian Arctic indigenous people
participate in an international organization’s decision-making process on an equal footing
with state governments.
Why was that right granted specically to indigenous peoples? It stems from the legacy
of the past; the Arctic’s indigenous people were main actors in Arctic human history until
they were confronted with state governance. e Arctic’s modern history is characterized
by colonialism, which involved a governance/subordination dynamic between the state
and indigenous peoples. In recent years, there has been increasing support for recognizing
indigenous people’s rights, reconstructing the worldview of indigenous peoples, and
reconciling by building equal relations between the state and indigenous peoples.
49
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
Greenland Autonomy Organization
In Russia, despite various restrictions, the federal system provides a mechanism for
participating in political decision-making from a regional and national standpoint. e
Republic of Sakha is an example. But what about Greenland, which is an autonomous
territory of Denmark?
In 1979, Greenland, owned by Denmark, was the rst among the Arctic territories
inhabited by indigenous people to receive the right of self-government. is allowed
Greenland a high degree of autonomy, an elected representative body, called “landsting,”
comprising 31 deputies, and an executive body (a land board) comprising several elected
ministers. A characteristic feature of Greenland’s domestic political decision-making is a
system that incorporates the indigenous population’s traditional knowledge in political
decisions.
Scientic Knowledge and Traditional Knowledge
In political decisions on issues related to indigenous people’s culture and life (e.g.,
marine and land mammals, sh, etc.), the authorities consider traditional knowledge,
which regards humankind as an integral part of nature, alongside scientic knowledge,
Fig. 11-1: RAIPON conference (photo by S. Koresawa, Moscow, 2018).
50
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
which tends to objectify the environment and consider it outside of the human-nature
relationship. All decision-makers proceed from the same premise that the combination of
and interaction between these two approaches facilitates more reasonable decisions.
For a long time, scientific knowledge was the primary source of important
information driving management decisions. However, we do not currently have sucient
knowledge about the environment. In fact, practical difficulties sometimes arise
during implementation of decisions arrived at through ordinary scientic monitoring.
Conversely, indigenous hunters, who are in direct contact with the environment year
around, observe and perceive it holistically, intuitively, and even spiritually, based on their
experience, which facilitates a deeper understanding. Previously there was no channel
for including their knowledge in the political decision-making process. e more current
integrated use of both approaches aims to develop optimal solutions for adapting to the
harsh natural conditions of the Arctic.
Traditional knowledge is expected to make a particularly eective contribution to
animal conservation by establishing hunting periods, locations, and quotas, and resolving
issues regarding animal treatment, hunting methods, reduced killing time, minimizing
losses, etc. is way of thinking and the mechanisms adopted by Greenland have been
evaluated as “the most advanced indigenous resource management system in the world.”
However, there has also been criticism claiming that this system is merely a formality
implemented for show; that hunters’ opinions based on traditional knowledge are not
actually considered at all; and environmental management is arbitrarily conducted by
scientists only. Clearly, this mechanism still needs to prove its eectiveness and viability.
Fig. 11-2: The roles of scientic and traditional knowledge in political decision-making in Greenland
(compiled by M. Takahashi).
51
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
Chapter 12
The Arctic and Asia
Energy Resources and Asia
So far, we have discussed the impacts of global warming on the Arctic’s nature and
society. But the changing Arctic, in turn, inuences many world regions in various ways.
erefore, we will discuss some current aspects related to Asia.
Nearly all oil and natural gas consumed by Japan is imported from abroad, with
approximately 87% of Japanese oil imports coming from the Middle East and about 6%
coming from Russia. In addition, Japan is entirely reliant on imported liqueed natural
gas (LNG), 9% of which comes from Russia.
In recent years, because of climatic Arctic Ocean changes, the sea ice area has
decreased, simplifying delivery of machinery and equipment to the Arctic to facilitate
producing and developing resources, and simplifying oil and LNG exports. Consequently,
oil and natural gas production in the Arctic is developing at an unprecedented pace.
Construction of New Pipelines and LNG Plants
Being a great oil and gas power, Russia has been laying gas and oil pipelines for
European export from Siberia—the main location of their oil and gas production.
Around the mid-2000s, Russia began actively increasing exports to Asia. For example,
an oil pipeline connecting the Siberian elds with a port near Vladivostok is now used to
export oil to China, Japan, Korea, and other countries. Currently more than a quarter of
Russian oil exports go to East Asia, meaning that part of the oil produced in the Republic
of Sakha’s Talakan eld is also consumed in Japan. A new plan is also being developed to
implement natural gas exports to China from Siberia, particularly from the Chayanda gas
eld in the Republic of Sakha.
In 2009, for the rst time in Russia, an LNG plant was built on Sakhalin Island, with
most of the LNG produced there exported to Japan. At the end of 2017, a second plant was
built on the Yamal Peninsula. When the ice thaws in summer, the LNG produced there is
exported to Asia along the Northern Sea Route; in the winter the LNG is exported to
Europe. It appears that Russia is striving to establish a leading position among the world’s
major LNG exporters.
52
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
Northern Sea Route
e Arctic Ocean’s sea ice extent continues to decline. Consequently, in recent years
coastal waters along the Russian Arctic coast are ice free for a certain period in summer.
is has increased Russian Arctic coastal waters’ navigable period, while the navigational
risk related to sea ice is decreasing. is provides new opportunities for the Northern
Sea Route, which passes through the Arctic Ocean along the Russian coast and connects
the Atlantic and Pacic Oceans. e Northern Sea Route functions as both a maritime
transport artery for Russia’s coastal regions and a global maritime transport route between
Europe and Asia.
For example, transporting LNG from the Yamal Peninsula is expected to involve over
160 round-trip voyages per year (15 specialized gas tankers will operate between Yamal,
Europe, and Asia). By facilitating Russian LNG production in the Arctic, the Northern Sea
Route will become an important new transport corridor for energy resources. Currently,
the Northern Sea Route is also being used for sea freight transport between Europe and
Asia and tourist cruises in the Arctic Ocean. Using the Northern Sea Route for shipping
between European and Asian ports reduces the distance by 30–40% compared to the
usual route through the Suez Canal. However, safe navigation of the Northern Sea Route
requires specialized cargo ships that can navigate in ice infested waters, and when the sea
ice is severe, Russian nuclear icebreaker support, provided on a paid basis, will be required.
Fig. 12-1: Gas tanker carrying LNG from Sakhalin (photo by S. Tabata, 2011).
53
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
Exchange between Siberia and Asia
Increased numbers of cargo vessels passing through the Northern Sea Route will
facilitate its use as an important logistic route linking regions along the Arctic Ocean
coast, as well as the large river basins that ow into it. Connecting the Lena, Yenisei, and
other rivers, which are still used as river transport routes to the inland regions, with the
Northern Sea Route will link the internal water transport routes with the external regions.
However, this will require improved infrastructure, such as upgraded ports and related
facilities, and planning, such as identifying goods with prospective market value and
sucient demand. Despite these challenges, it is clear that new windows of opportunity
are opening.
ere are still many uncertainties and unresolved problems surrounding Arctic Ocean
mining and development. Creating solutions will require new research and development,
discussions, cooperation, exible thinking, and innovative technologies, along with a
willingness to accept the challenge. It is clear that future relations between Siberia and
Asia will be built using a new format. We believe, rst and foremost, that we must connect
this process with creating a sustainable, peaceful, and rich future for the entire world.
Fig. 12-2: Navigation routes for cargo
ships across the Northern Sea Route
in 2015 (Otsuka et al., 2019).
54
IV. Perspectives for a Sustainable Future
Fig. 12-3: Port on the
Lena River in Yakutsk and
a cargo ship (photo by
N. Otsuka, 2004).
55
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Literature for further research
Chapter 1 Global Warming and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
Hiyama, T. and H. Takakura (eds.). (2017) Global warming and human-nature dimension in Northern
Eurasia. Singapore: Springer.
Chapter 2 Ice Age and Permafrost
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Chapter 4 Alases and Ecosystems
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M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, and P.M. Midgley (eds.). Cambridge, New
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Chapter 11 Political System and Sustainable Future in the Arctic
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fr ontie r. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge.
60
List of authors
List of authors
Boyakova, Sardana: Institute of Humanities and Indigenous Studies of the North, SB RAS (Russia); chap 6.
Fedorov, Aleksandr: Melnikov Permafrost Institute, SB RAS (Russia); editor, chap 1, 7.
Fujioka, Yuichiro: Kyushu University (Japan); chap 8.
Goto, Masanori: Hokkaido University (Japan); editor, chap 6.
Grigor’ev, Stepan: Institute of Humanities and Indigenous Studies of the North, SB RAS (Russia); chap 4.
Habeck, Otto: University of Hamburg (Germany); chap 6.
Hiyama, Tetsuya: Nagoya University (Japan); chap 4, 5, 10.
Honda, Syunwa: University of Air (Japan); chap 9.
Ignatyeva, Vanda: Institute of Humanities and Indigenous Studies of the North, SB RAS (Russia);
editor, chap 1, 8.
Iijima, Yoshihiro: Mie University (Japan); editor, chap 2, 7.
Kato, Hirofumi: Hokkaido University (Japan); chap 3.
Nakada, Atsushi: Hokkaido Museum of Northern Peoples (Japan); chap 3.
Neustroeva, Natal’ya; Illustrator.
Oishi, Yuka: Kobe University (Japan); chap 3.
Onishi, Fujio: Hokkaido University (Japan); chap 11.
Otsuka, Natsuhiko: Hokkaido University (Japan); chap 12.
Park, Hotaek: Japan Agency Maritime-Earth Science and Technology; chap 10.
Sugiyama, Shin: Hokkaido University (Japan); chap 9.
Tabata, Shinichiro: Hokkaido University (Japan); chap 12.
Takahashi, Minori: Hokkaido University (Japan); chap 11.
Takakura, Hiroki: Tohoku University (Japan); editor, chap 1, 4, 5.
Tanaka, Toshikazu: Ryukoku University (Japan); editor, chap 8.
Ulrich, Mathias: University of Leipzig (Germany); chap 7.
CNEAS Report 26
Permafrost and Culture: Global Warming and Sakha Republic (Yakutia), Russian Federation;
永久凍土と文化—地球温暖化とロシア連邦サハ共和国(ヤクーチア)
Edited by Hiroki Takakura, Yoshiro Iijima, Vanda Ignatyeva,
Aleksandr Fedorov, Masanori Goto, Toshikazu Tanaka;
高倉浩樹、飯島慈裕、ヴァンダ・イグナティエヴァ、アレクサンドル・フョードロフ、後藤正憲、田中利和編
Supported by Arctic Challenge for Sustainability II
funded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)
(文部科学省環境技術等研究開発推進事業費補助金事業北極域研究加速プロジェクト)
https://www.nipr.ac.jp/arcs2/e/
Publisher: Center for Northeast Asian Studies, Tohoku University
Sendai, Aobaku, Kawauchi 41, 980-8576, Japan
Date of Publication: 1 March 2021
DTP: JC Partners Inc.
Iwate Pref., Shiwa-cho, Hirasawa, Tsutsumigashira 55, 028-3308, Japan
Printed in Japan
Shirayuri Co., Ltd.
Iwate Pref., Morioka-shi, Mitake 6-1-50, 020-0122, Japan
ISBN: 978-4-908203-22-0
—Global Warming and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Russian Federation—
(Study Guide for Environmental Education)
Permafrost and Culture
Center for Northeast Asian Studies
Tohoku University
ISBN: 978-4-908203-22-0