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Internet, social media and online hate speech. Systematic review

DOI:10.1016/j.avb.2021.101608
Authors:
Sergio A. Castano-Pulgarin
Sergio A. Castano-Pulgarin
Natalia Suárez-Betancur at San Buenaventura University
Natalia Suárez-Betancur
Luz Magnolia Tilano at Universidad de San Buenaventura, Colombia, Medellín
Luz Magnolia Tilano
  • Universidad de San Buenaventura, Colombia, Medellín
Mauricio Herrera López at University of Nariño
Mauricio Herrera López
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Abstract

This systematic review aimed to explore the research papers related to how Internet and social media may, or may not, constitute an opportunity to online hate speech. 67 studies out of 2389 papers found in the searches, were eligible for analysis. We included articles that addressed online hate speech or cyberhate between 2015 and 2019. Meta-analysis could not be conducted due to the broad diversity of studies and measure units. The reviewed studies provided exploratory data about the Internet and social media as a space for online hate speech, types of cyberhate, terrorism as online hate trigger, online hate expressions and most common methods to assess online hate speech. As a general consensus on what is cyberhate, this is conceptualized as the use of violent, aggressive or offensive language, focused on a specific group of people who share a common property, which can be religion, race, gender or sex or political affiliation through the use of Internet and Social Networks, based on a power imbalance, which can be carried out repeatedly, systematically and uncontrollably, through digital media and often motivated by ideologies.
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Internet, social media and online hate speech. Systematic review
Sergio Andr´
es Casta˜
no-Pulgarín
a
,
*
, Natalia Su´
arez-Betancur
b
, Luz Magnolia Tilano Vega
c
,
Harvey Mauricio Herrera L´
opez
d
a
Psychology Department, Corporaci´
on Universitaria Minuto de Dios-UNIMINUTO, Colombia
b
Corporaci´
on para la Atenci´
on Psicosocial CORAPCO, Medellín, Colombia
c
Psychology Department, Universidad de San Buenaventura, Medellín, Colombia
d
Psychology Department, Universidad de Nari˜
no, Pasto, Colombia
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Cyberhate
Internet
Online hate speech
Social Networks
ABSTRACT
This systematic review aimed to explore the research papers related to how Internet and social media may, or
may not, constitute an opportunity to online hate speech. 67 studies out of 2389 papers found in the searches,
were eligible for analysis. We included articles that addressed online hate speech or cyberhate between 2015 and
2019. Meta-analysis could not be conducted due to the broad diversity of studies and measure units. The
reviewed studies provided exploratory data about the Internet and social media as a space for online hate speech,
types of cyberhate, terrorism as online hate trigger, online hate expressions and most common methods to assess
online hate speech. As a general consensus on what is cyberhate, this is conceptualized as the use of violent,
aggressive or offensive language, focused on a specic group of people who share a common property, which can
be religion, race, gender or sex or political afliation through the use of Internet and Social Networks, based on a
power imbalance, which can be carried out repeatedly, systematically and uncontrollably, through digital media
and often motivated by ideologies.
1. Introduction
Cyberspace offers freedom of communication and opinion expres-
sions. However, the current social media is regularly being misused to
spread violent messages, comments, and hateful speech. This has been
conceptualized as online hate speech, dened as any communication
that disparages a person or a group on the basis of characteristics such as
race, color, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, nationality, religion, or
political afliation (Zhang & Luo, 2018).
The urgency of this matter has been increasingly recognized
(Gamb¨
ack & Sikdar, 2017). In the European Union (EU), 80% of people
have encountered hate speech online and 40% have felt attacked or
threatened via Social Network Sites [SNS] (Gagliardone, Gal, Alves, &
Martinez, 2015).
Among its main consequences we found harm against social groups
by creating an environment of prejudice and intolerance, fostering
discrimination and hostility, and in severe cases facilitating violent acts
(Gagliardone et al., 2015); impoliteness, pejorative terms, vulgarity, or
sarcasm (Papacharissi, 2004); incivility, that includes behaviors that
threaten democracy, deny people their personal freedoms, or stereotype
social groups (Papacharissi, 2004); and off line hate speech expressed as
direct aggressions (Anderson, Brossard, Scheufele, Xenos, & Ladwig,
2014; Coe, Kenski, & Rains, 2014), against political ideologies, religious
groups or ethnic minorities. For example, racial- and ethnic-centered
rumors can lead to ethnic violence and offended individuals might be
threatened because of their group identities (Bhavnani, Findley, &
Kuklinski, 2009).
A concept that can explain online hate speech is social deviance. This
term encompasses all behaviors, from minor norm-violating to law-
breaking acts against others, and considers online hate as an act of
deviant communication as it violates shared cultural standards, rules, or
norms of social interaction in social group contexts (Henry, 2009).
Among the norm violating behaviors we can identify: defamation
(Coe et al., 2014), call for violence (Hanzelka & Schmidt, 2017),
agitation by provoking statements debating political or social issues
displaying discriminatory views (Bhavnani et al., 2009), rumors and
conspiracy (Sunstein & Vermeule, 2009).
These issues make the investigation of online hate speech an
important area of research. In fact, there are many theoretical gaps on
the explanation of this behavior and there are not enough empirical data
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: scastanopul@uniminuto.edu.co (S.A. Casta˜
no-Pulgarín).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Aggression and Violent Behavior
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aggviobeh
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2021.101608
Received 14 July 2020; Received in revised form 26 January 2021; Accepted 23 March 2021
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Article
  • Aug 2019
In 2017 the Australian Government undertook a national survey to determine public support for the legalisation of same‐sex marriage. This raised concerns the ‘plebiscitary' act may create harms to two groups: LGBTI people and those religious people with strong attachment to heteronormative marriage. Justifying the process, the Government advanced the possibility of civil dialogue generative of understanding. While instances of hate speech in public spaces were reported, this paper examines comparatively private speech during the period. Based on an analysis of posts to relevant Facebook pages, this analysis found opponents to same‐sex marriage were more highly mobilised online, and considerable differences in the character of online debate for and against the proposed changes. Importantly, while uncivil and ‘hate' speech were part of online conversations, the overall quantum of this uncivil discourse was lower than many feared. Additionally, the process did not generate considerable democratic dialogue around policy alternatives and rationales, particularly among ‘Yes' campaign supporters who were more homogenous in their acceptance of dominant campaign framing of the issue than their opponents. Significantly for ongoing public debates about public values like educational access and freedom of expression, opponents to change focused their arguments against same‐sex marriage around a subset of unrelated issues: free speech, religious freedoms, and diversity in public schools.
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The Moderation of Online Disinhibition and Sex on the Relationship Between Online Hate Victimization and Perpetration
Article
  • Feb 2019
Online hatred based on attributes, such as origin, race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation, has become a rising public concern across the world. Past research on aggressive behavior suggests strong associations between victimization and perpetration and that toxic online disinhibition and sex might influence this relationship. However, no study investigated both the associations between online hate victimization and perpetration, and the potential moderation effects of toxic online disinhibition and sex on this relationship. To this end, the present study was conducted. The sample consists of 1,480 German 7th to 10th graders from Germany. Results revealed positive associations between online hate victimization and perpetration. Further, the results support the idea that toxic online disinhibition and sex, by way of moderator effects, affect the relationship between online hate victimization and perpetration. Victims of online hate reported more online hate perpetration when they reported higher levels of online disinhibition and less frequent online hate perpetration when they reported lower levels of toxic online disinhibition. Additionally, the relationship between online hate victimization and perpetration was significantly greater among boys than girls. Taken together, our results extend previous findings to online hate involvement among adolescents and substantiates the importance to conduct more research on online hate. In addition, our findings highlight the need for prevention and intervention programs that help adolescents deal with the emerging issue of online hate.
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