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Genetic Diversity of Odocoileus virginianus veraecrucis (Goldman & Kellog 1940) and Other’s Subspecies in Mexico: Implications for Its Genetic Conservation
Abstract
The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is a cervid with ecological importance, managed in different exploitation schemes for its economic and cultural value in Mexico; O. virginianus subspecies are distinguished based on phenotypic traits and geographic distribution, but their genetic differentiation by mitochondrial markers has not been explored. The objectives of the study were to carry out a literature review and analyse the diversity, structure and phylogenetic relationships of the D-loop region of the mtDNA of subspecies of O. virginianus in Mexico. Only 10 studies have explored the genetic diversity of 13 subspecies of O. virgnianus that provide valuable information for their conservation. The sample of 66 sequences from the D-loop region of the mtDNA shows that the haplotype and nucleotide diversity remain stable in terms of mutations, but together they do not reflect a structure that allows differentiating subspecies or detecting population subdivisions. The threats faced by O. virginianus in the wild and in captivity are constant, actions such as reducing their legal and clandestine hunting and a genetic improvement program would help conserve the genetic diversity of the species.
... On the American continent, particularly in Mexico, phylogeography has been used to study populations of wild fauna, especially endemic mammals, or those sought by hunters, or those included in some category of risk, leading to important implications for their conservation (Vázquez-Domínguez 2005;Vega et al. 2007;Vázquez-Domínguez et al. 2009;Escobedo-Morales et al. 2016). There is evidence that phylogeographic studies have had a considerable impact on species management (Vázquez-Domínguez and Vega 2002), especially in the ungulates, describing cervid lineages in order to define particular strategies of management (Serna-Lagunes et al. 2021), identifying bottlenecks and low gene flow in species of interest to hunters (Castillo-Rodríguez et al. 2020) and evidence of genetic divergence among lineages of the same species (Fuentes-Hurtado et al. 2011). In this sense, in this study we describe the phylogeographic structure of two populations of M. temama. ...
Anthropogenic threats have increasingly isolated the populations of Mazama temama (Erxleben, 1777) and limited the gene flow in this species. Knowledge of the phylogeographic structure of this species is therefore essential for its conservation. Thus, in this study, we describe the phylogeographic structure of two M. temama populations of Veracruz and Oaxaca, Mexico. We sequenced the D-Loop region of the mitochondrial DNA of 16 individuals, in order to estimate the diversity and genetic differentiation ( F ST ), Tajima’s D index, "Mismatch distribution" test; a phylogram and a haplotype network was constructed and we performed multidimensional scaling analysis to test the hypothesis of association between geographic distance and genetic diversity. The haplotypic and nucleotide diversity was high, indicating divergent populations ( F ST = 0.223), while the Tajima’s D index (-1,03300; P > 0.10) determined disequilibrium in the D-Loop region, derived from a population expansion that was evidenced in the "Mismatch distribution" test and confirmed with the haplotype network in the form of a star. Four lineages were identified in the phylogram (Veracruz n = 3, Oaxaca n = 1), evidencing geographic and reproductive isolation between the two populations. This was confirmed by the multidimensional scaling analysis, which evidenced recent evolutionary divergence between the populations analyzed, which are considered evolutionary units of conservation.
... On the American continent, particularly in Mexico, phylogeography has been used to study populations of wild fauna, especially endemic mammals, or those sought by hunters, or those included in some category of risk, leading to important implications for their conservation (Vázquez-Domínguez 2005;Vega et al. 2007;Vázquez-Domínguez et al. 2009;Escobedo-Morales et al. 2016). There is evidence that phylogeographic studies have had a considerable impact on species management (Vázquez-Domínguez and Vega 2002), especially in the ungulates, describing cervid lineages in order to define particular strategies of management (Serna-Lagunes et al. 2021), identifying bottlenecks and low gene flow in species of interest to hunters (Castillo-Rodríguez et al. 2020) and evidence of genetic divergence among lineages of the same species (Fuentes-Hurtado et al. 2011). In this sense, in this study we describe the phylogeographic structure of two populations of M. temama. ...
Citation: Serna-Lagunes R, Romero-Ramos DK, Delfín-Alfonso CA, Salazar-Ortiz J (2021) Phylogeography of the Central American red brocket, Mazama temama (Artiodactyla, Cervidae) in southeastern Mexico. Neotropical Biology and Conservation @(@): 1-@. https://doi.
Abstract
Anthropogenic threats have increasingly isolated the populations of Mazama temama (Erxleben 1777) and limited the gene flow in this species. Knowledge of the phylogeographic structure of this species is therefore essential for its conservation. Thus, in this study, we describe the phylogeographic structure of two M. temama populations of Veracruz and Oaxaca, Mexico. We sequenced the D-Loop region of the mitochondrial DNA of 16 individuals, in order to estimate the diversity and genetic differentiation (F ST), Tajima's D index, Mismatch distribution test; a phylogram and a haplotype network was constructed and we performed multidimensional scaling analysis to test the hypothesis of association between geographic distance and genetic diversity. The haplotypic and nucleotide diversity was high, indicating divergent populations (F ST = 0.223), while the Tajima's D index (-1,03300; P > 0.10) determined disequilibrium in the D-Loop region, derived from a population expansion that was evidenced in the Mismatch distribution test and confirmed with the haplotype network in the form of a star. Four lineages were identified in the phylogram (Veracruz n = 3, Oaxaca n = 1), evidencing geographic Neotropical Biology and Conservation @(@): 1-@ (2021) Ricardo Serna-Lagunes et al. 2 and reproductive isolation between the two populations. This was confirmed by the multidimensional scaling analysis, which evidenced recent evolutionary divergence between the populations analyzed, which are considered evolutionary units of conservation.
The genetic diversity and effective population size ( N e ) of a population of Odocoileus virginianus veraecrucis in captivity were characterized in the Wildlife Management Unit “El Pochote”, located in Ixtaczoquitlán, Veracruz, Mexico. Blood tissue was collected from 20 individuals of the reproductive nucleus, its genomic DNA was extracted, and genetic diversity was characterized by six microsatellites amplified by PCR and visualized in polyacrylamide gels. With four polymorphic microsatellites, 66.7% of the population’s genetic variation was explained, which was characterized by an allelic diversity that fluctuated between 9 and 28 alleles (18 average alleles), suggesting a mean allelic diversity (Shannon index = 2.6 ± 0.25), but only 12 ± 2.9 effective alleles would be fixed in the next generation. The heterozygosity observed (H o = 0.81) exceeded that expected (H e = 0.79) and these were significantly different ( P > 0.05), as a result of a low genetic structure in the population (fixation index F = -0.112 ± 0.03), due to the genetic heterogeneity that each sample contributed, since the specimens came from different geographical regions. The Ne was 625 individuals and a 1:25 male:female ratio, with which 100% of the genetic diversity observed can be maintained for 100 years. The information obtained in the study can help in the design of a reproductive management program to maintain the present genetic diversity, without risk of losses due to genetic drift and inbreeding.
Anfibios y reptiles son grupos de vertebrados que históricamente ha sido utilizado por comunidades rurales. En México, la multiculturalidad del país está estrechamente relacionada con la diversidad biológica con la que coexiste. El uso del Índice de Importancia Cultural (IIC) permite cuantificar el valor de las especies con diversos usos y puede ser de utilidad para enfocar estrategias de conservación, tomando en cuenta el valor cultural de las especies. El objetivo del estudio fue identificar los usos y generar un IIC de la herpetofauna, mediante un meta-análisis bibliométrico de publicaciones sobre el uso de anfibios y reptiles mexicanos. Se registraron 103 reptiles y 32 anfibios que tienen al menos un uso, el cual varió dependiendo del taxón (reptiles o anfibios, respectivamente): alimenticio (47, 10), mascota (20, 6), comercial (20, 2), ornamental (25, 1), artesanal (32, 9), mágico-religioso (32, 10), medicinal (57, 19), caza deportiva (2, 2), control de daños (48, 2), benéfico (10, 4), otros (3, 3). Rhinella marina (27.13) y Crocodylus moreletii (15.42) fueron las especies con mayor IIC. De las especies registradas, el 61 % y 31 % de reptiles y anfibios, respectivamente, están en alguna categoría de riesgo. Es necesario establecer estrategias de conservación por medio de manejo y programas educativos que promuevan alternativas de uso sustentable de los recursos, así como la conservación de espacios naturales donde las especies habitan.
Consideraciones ecológicas para el manejo del venado cola blanca en UMA extensivas en bosques tropicales Salvador Mandujano Introducción En la última década se ha promovido ampliamente la modalidad de aprovechamiento sustentable y conserva-ción de la fauna y su hábitat denominadas "Unidad de Manejo y Aprovechamiento para la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre" (UMA). Según la Ley General de Vida Silvestre el concepto actual de UMA promueve esque-mas alternativos de producción compatibles con el cui-dado del ambiente, a través del uso racional, ordenado y planificado de los recursos naturales renovables en ellas contenidos, creando oportunidades de aprovecha-miento complementarias de otras actividades produc-tivas convencionales, como la agricultura, la ganadería o la silvicultura, logrando en los propietarios y legítimos poseedores de tierras ejidales, comunales o propiedades privadas una nueva percepción en cuanto a los bene-ficios derivados de la conservación de la biodiversidad, basadas en el binomio conservación-aprovechamien-to de los recursos naturales (SEMARNAT 1997). Las UMAs pueden ser clasificadas en dos categorías: exten-sivas (manejo de poblaciones silvestres y sus hábitats) e intensivas (manejo en criaderos, zoológicos, y otros) (DGVS 2007). Según datos de la SEMARNAT hasta marzo del 2009 están registradas 9026 UMAs las cua-les suman poco más de 31 millones de hectáreas. Para que sea posible la existencia continua de las es-pecies de interés es necesario que los propios dueños instalen y operen programas que evalúen correctamen-te el estado inicial de las poblaciones y sus hábitat, que den seguimiento a sus tendencias y que utilicen técni-cas efectivas para mantener la composición natural, la integridad estructural y la funcionalidad de los ecosis-temas locales (Rojo-Curiel et al. 2007). En este senti-do, la Dirección General de Vida Silvestre (DGVS) de la SEMARNAT ha venido perfeccionando recomendacio-nes para la evaluación inicial, el seguimiento y manejo de poblaciones de especies de interés focal ubicadas dentro de las UMA y su hábitat. El énfasis se ha hecho sobre el manejo de las poblaciones de las especies que los pro-pietarios han manifestado de su interés. La aplicación de esos criterios y protocolos de trabajo ha permitido a la DGVS acumular experiencias y datos acerca de estos grupos de especies y su manejo en predios registrados como UMA. La disponibilidad de esa información, y la experiencia de científicos expertos en conservación de fauna silvestre, puede facilitar la búsqueda de mayores oportunidades de mejoramiento en los protocolos de trabajo. De especial interés resulta mejorar los criterios y protocolos para evaluar la condición y la tendencia de las poblaciones y del hábitat local, sobre todo como in-sumos indispensables para determinar la viabilidad bio-lógica y la cosecha sustentable. El venado cola blanca (Odocoileus virginianus) es una especie muy apreciada en todo el país para comple-mentar el consumo de proteína animal, para el comer
The molecular evolutionary genetics analysis (Mega) software implements many analytical methods and tools for phylogenomics and phylomedicine. Here, we report a transformation of Mega to enable cross-platform use on Microsoft Windows and Linux operating systems. Mega X does not require virtualization or emulation software and provides a uniform user experience across platforms. Mega X has additionally been upgraded to use multiple computing cores for many molecular evolutionary analyses. Mega X is available in two interfaces (graphical and command line) and can be downloaded from www.megasoftware.net free of charge.
We present version 6 of the DnaSP (DNA Sequence Polymorphism) software, a new version of the popular tool for performing exhaustive population genetic analyses on multiple sequence alignments. This major upgrade incorporates novel functionalities to analyse large datasets, such as those generated by high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies. Among other features, DnaSP 6 implements: i) modules for reading and analysing data from genomic partitioning methods, such as RADseq or hybrid enrichment approaches, ii) faster methods scalable for HTS data, and iii) summary statistics for the analysis of multi-locus population genetics data. Furthermore, DnaSP 6 includes novel modules to perform single- and multi-locus coalescent simulations under a wide range of demographic scenarios. The DnaSP 6 program, with extensive documentation, is freely available at http://www.ub.edu/dnasp.
The white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, is poorly known in the state of Veracruz, Mexico. In this paper we report the relationships between deer population density and vegetation variables in a landscape in Tantoyuca, northern Veracruz. Pellet groups and vegetation were sampled across 40 strip transects (500 x 2 m) in five locations from April to June 2014. The relationships between deer density and vegetation variables were evaluated with hierarchical agglomerative clustering methods to group tree species per transect, as well as generalized linear models. Density (number of deers/km2) was estimated using the semi-automated process PELLET, and was compared between locations, major vegetation types, and transect clusters. Deers were present in 98 % of the transects sampled, with a mean density of 4.2 ± 2.8 deers/km2. Higher densities were estimated in secondary vegetation and pasture-cropping sites. The 40 transects were grouped into four clusters according to the abundance of tree species. In addition, deer density varied between clusters. The density of the white-tailed deer was positively correlated with understory cover and negatively correlated with basal area. Deer density in Tantoyuca is within the range reported in other regions of the state of Veracruz. The use of generalized linear models enabled to predict the density of the white-tailed deer based on some vegetation variables. The localities studied differ in plant composition and structure, and the highest deer density was located in sites with a more diverse and dense plant composition and structure. It is suggested to undertake an in-depth investigation about the effect of landscape structural complexity and connectivity on this and other wildlife species.
Odocoileus virginianus es un cérvido emblemático de los ecosistemas de México con interés económico por el sector cinegético. Sorprendentemente, existe conocimiento limitado de la diversidad genética y filogeografía de las subespecies. El objetivo del estudio fue caracterizar la diversidad y estructura genética, las relaciones filogenéticas y genealógicas de ocho subespecies de O. virginianus distribuidas en el Pacífico Mexicano, área donde son escasos los estudios de esta índole. En Unidades de Manejo para la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre (UMA), se recolectó tejido de ocho subespecies de O. virginianus, del cual se extrajo ADN y se secuenció la región D-Loop del ADNmt en 105 muestras. La relación de diversidad haplotípica y nucleotídica de las subespecies indicó recientes cuellos de botella, consistente con los valores negativos de la prueba de Tajima’s D, mientras que la prueba Mismatch distribution evidenció extinción de linajes vía deriva génica. El AMOVA indicó que el 97.1% de la diversidad genética está alojada dentro de subespecies y un 2.9% de la variación genética está dispersa entre subespecies, diferenciando genéticamente a las subespecies (FST= 0.02105, p<0.05), que fue corroborado por la disimilitud del MDS. El filograma de Máxima Parsimonia resolvió como clados monofiléticos a cada subespecie, diferenciando haplogrupos geográficos. La genealogía de genes (red de haplotipos) mostró que O. v. acapulcensis y O. v. couesi son haplotipos ancestrales que originaron haplotipos de O. v. sinaloae. No se detectó un patrón de aislamiento por distancia (Mantel test), esto por el limitado flujo génico entre subespecies. Se concluye que cada subespecie debe considerarse como Unidad Evolutiva Significativa (ESU) y como Unidad de Operativa de Conservación (OCU).
Resumen
Los lineamientos para el uso de especies de mamíferos de vida silvestre en la investigación con base en Sikes et al. (2011) se actualizaron. Dichos lineamientos cubren técnicas y regulaciones profesionales actuales que involucran el uso de mamíferos en la investigación y enseñanza; también incorporan recursos nuevos, resúmenes de procedimientos y requisitos para reportes. Se incluyen detalles acerca de captura, marcaje, manutención en cautiverio y eutanasia de mamíferos de vida silvestre. Se recomienda que los comités institucionales de uso y cuidado animal (cifras en inglés: IACUCs), las agencias reguladoras y los investigadores se adhieran a dichos lineamientos como fuente base de protocolos que involucren mamíferos de vida silvestre, ya sea investigaciones de campo o en cautiverio. Dichos lineamientos fueron preparados y aprobados por la ASM, en consulta con profesionales veterinarios experimentados en investigaciones de vida silvestre y IACUCS, de quienes cuya experiencia colectiva provee un entendimiento amplio y exhaustivo de la biología de mamíferos no-domesticados. La presente versión de los lineamientos y modificaciones posteriores están disponibles en línea en la página web de la ASM, bajo Cuidado Animal y Comité de Uso: (http://mammalogy.org/uploads/committee_files/CurrentGuidelines.pdf). Recursos adicionales relacionados con el uso de animales de vida silvestre para la investigación se encuentran disponibles en (http://www.mammalsociety.org/committees/animal-care-and-use#tab3).
The white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) is an important, sustainable-use species in Mexico; 14 subspecies are widely distributed throughout the Mexican territory. The criteria for classifying subspecies is based on morphological features throughout their geographical range; however, the complete genetic characterization of Mexican subspecies has not been established. The objective of the present work is to report the mitogenomes of 9 of the 14 white-tailed deer subspecies from Mexico and identify their unique variations. Typical vertebrate mitogenomes structures (i.e., 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, and 2 rRNA genes) were observed in the studied subspecies. The greatest numbers of polymorphisms were identified in the D-loop, ND4, ND5, CYTB/COI, ATP6, and COIII genes. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the southern and southeastern subspecies were distinct from the central and northern subspecies; the greatest genetic distances were also observed between these 2 groups. These subspecies-specific variations could be useful for designing a strategy to genetically characterize the studied subspecies.
El venado cola blanca es una de las especies de mayor importancia dentro del aprovechamiento de la fauna silvestre de México, donde se distribuyen de manera natural 14 subespecies. Actualmente, estas subespecies se han clasificado de acuerdo a sus variaciones fenotípicas que presentan a lo largo de su rango de distribución, sin embargo no se ha establecido la caracterización genética completa de las mismas. Es por esto que el objetivo del presente estudio es reportar los mitogenomas de 9 de las 14 subespecies de venado cola blanca, así como identificar las variaciones únicas de cada subespecie. En las 9 subespecies se observó la estructura típica de los mitogenomas de vertebrados (13 genes que codifican para proteínas, 22 ARNt, 2 ARNr). Los genes con mayor polimorfismo fueron D-loop, ND4, ND5, CYTB/COI, ATP6 y COIII. El análisis filogenético mostró la separación de las subespecies del sur y sureste de las subespecies del centro y norte del país, a su vez las distancias genéticas entre estos dos grupos fueron las más altas. Estas variaciones subespecie-específicas podrían ser útiles para diseñar una estrategia para caracterizar genéticamente las subespecies estudiadas.
Uso de los marcadores moleculares para el análisis de biodiversidad de los animales salvajes: una breve revisión.� Los marcadores moleculares constituyen unas herramientas indispensables para determinar la variación genética y la biodiversidad con un alto grado de precisión y reproductibilidad. Dichos marcadores se clasifican principalmente en dos tipos: marcadores mitocondriales y nucleares. Los marcadores de DNA mitocondrial, que se utilizan mucho, son en orden decreciente de secuencias conservadas ADNr 12S > ADNr 16S > citocromo b > región de control (RC); así pues, el ADNr 12S es muy estable y el RC es muy variable. Los marcadores nucleares más utilizados para las huellas genéticas incluyen al ADN polimórfico ampliado al azar (RAPD), el polimorfismo ampliado de la longitud del fragmento (AFLP) y los microsatélites. Esta corta revisión describe las aplicaciones de estos marcadores moleculares en el análisis de la biodiversidad de animales salvajes.
In México, as in many other places of the world, selective harvesting of the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus texanus) is based on the size and morphometry of the antlers, which may be affecting this hunting species that is the most important biological and economic species in the diversified livestock system. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of selective hunting and environmental factors as mineral supplement (indirect) and pluvial precipitation on the morphometrical characteristics of the antlers of the white-tailed deer in Northeastern México. 3259 records of antlers of animals hunted between 1999 and 2009 were evaluated. The records were obtained from the Asociación Nacional de Ganaderos Diversificados (ANGADI) fauna breeders in 367 (UMA) Management Units for Conservation of Wildlife of Coahuila (n=805), Nuevo León (n=1362) and Tamaulipas (n=1092). The dependent variables evaluated were the characteristics of the antlers described by the international measurement system of the Boone and Crockett Club modified by ANGADI, also an index (INDEX) and mass (MASS) of the same antlers. The dependent variables were analyzed with a generalized linear model with independent variables of: year, class, supplement, municipality within state and state. Means for total score of the antlers were 374.9, 432.7 and 481.3 cm (p<0.05) for young bucks, adults and > 6.5 years old. Also, a negative phenotypic trend was found for the MASS and INDEX variables of the antlers with a significant overlap between the age groups among the same variables, possibly as an effect of the selective harvesting or from the supplement.
This study analyzes the hunting of medium mammals in coffee plantations in central Veracruz, México, focusing on two areas: Huatusco and TeoceloCoatepec. The data were obtained through a guided interview, which was applied to active hunters in the study areas. The data collection was done during January to May 2006 as part of a larger project entitled BIOCAFE. We applied a total of 77 interviews that allowed us to know the mammals hunted, the methods used, how they used them, in addition to infer how many animals are extracted per year and the biomass that represented. The records showed that five species were mainly hunted in both areas: armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), opossum (Didelphis virginiana), rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus), raccoon (Procyon lotor) and gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). Of the 16 hunted species, the armadillo is the most common prey and the most used in both areas. The estimated extracted biomass per year was 194kg/hunter in the zone of TeoceloCoatepec and 174 kg/hunter in the Huatusco zone. The most common hunting methods are: by fire arm (53%), followed by the use of dogs (41%) and last, the beat (33%). The hunting pressure was greater in coffee plantations in the zone of TeoceloCoatepec for having a higher human population density. Hunting practiced in both areas is completely illegal, hence is necessary to apply actions to promote the management and conservation of species, together with community development in the study area.
The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most widely distributed and studied ungulate in the American continent. This species is found throughout Mexico, except on the peninsula of Baja California and some areas of northern Chihuahua and Sonora. In this study we compared three geographic distribution models (Kellogg 1956; Hall 1981; Villarreal 1999) of white-tailed deer subspecies on a national scale, by state and by principal vegetation types. We found that neither the number of subspecies (13 or 14 of the 38 recognised subspecies), nor the geographical limits between subspecies coincided completely between models. Furthermore, for several subspecies, marked differences in distribution area were found depending on the distribution model used. Using multivariate analyses, we found that the 14 subspecies can be separated into three groups associated with different vegetation types: the northern subspecies associated with shrub land, the Pacific subspecies associated with temperate forest and tropical dry forest, and the south-eastern subspecies associated with tropical evergreen forest, cloud forest and tropical semi-deciduous forest. We suggest the classification of the 14 subspecies into three ecoregions. The data analyzed here is relevant to the management and conservation of the white-tailed deer subspecies and/or geographical variations in Mexico; it is also important to avoid the translocation of individuals into inappropriate areas with respect to their evolution and adaptation to different ecoregions.
The Units for the Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use of Wildlife (UMAs) are instruments
of conservation and management of specific species in Mexico. UMAs represent in southeastern Mexico
an important way for deer management, but they have major problems related to the monitoring of species.
In this paper, we propose a methodology based on the use of a ‘niche centroid approach’ for estimating
ecological distances to the niche centroid in order to produce distribution maps containing information on
the potential relative abundance of species to evaluate the capability of UMAs to maintain populations of
deers. We modeled the abundance for Mazama temama, M. pandora and Odocoileus virginianus on
the state of Campeche, Mexico. Our predictions of areas with most abundance of deer coincided with
reports from literature. We identified the UMAs “Ik Balam” and “Ejido Carlos Cano Cruz” as areas with
high proportion of suitable environment, while UMAs “Betito y Lupita”, “El Huanal”, “Puh”, “Refugio
faunístico Jalotum”, “Ría Lagartos-Ría Celestun” and “Yocol Cab Balam” have not environmental
conditions adequate to maintain deer populations. Although this is a preliminary study, it can be a
starting point to establish institutional standards for the management of species.
Phylogenetic relationships among Neotropical deer genera (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) by means of DNAmt sequences and microsatellite markers. The current work shows two molecular phylogenetic analyses on Neotropical deers. In the first analysis, the mitochondrial control region (D-loop) was sequenced in six Odocoileinae species from Latin America, using the sequences of two Muntiacinae as outgroups. The results obtained were as follows: A sequence of Mazama americana showed a striking relationship with several sequences of Odocoileus in contrast to that expected, since this M. americana haplotype, from a Mexican origin, was not associated with several Bolivian Mazama sequences analyzed. This could put forward that this genera is not monophyletic. On the other hand, these Bolivian Mazama formed a clade with Pudu puda and Ozotoceros bezoarticus. Likely, an Odocoileus virginianus sequence from the Central area of Colombia showed a more strong relationship with a Northamerican O. heminonus sequence than with the other O. virginianus sequences of Colombian origin as well. This could be explained by means of various different hypotheses. The first is the existence of common ancestral haplotypes between both species. Another one is the reiterative hybridization among both Odocoileus species before the migration of O. virginianus from North America to South America. Moreover, the maximum parsimony analysis showed an intense relationship between the Muntiacinae and this Neotropical Cervidae clade. In addition, and adding credence to the relevant polyphyletism found in Mazama by means of the mitochondrial control region DNA sequences, a second analysis with 16 DNA microsatellite loci also showed a higher genetic relationship between M. americana and O. virginianus, than between the first species regard to Mazama gouazoubira. Rev. Biol. Trop. 55 (2): 723-741. Epub 2007 June, 29.
Total population size of the chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii), a species endemic to the Tibetan plateau, has undergone a severe decline in the past several decades. This Study investigates the genetic variation, evolutionary history, and current population relationships among the 3 main populations Of the Chiru. Samples from Xinjiang, Xizang (Tibet), and Qinghai provinces in western China were collected and mitochondrial DNA control region sequences were analyzed. Overall nucleotide diversity (pi) was 2.18% and thus indicated a relatively high genetic variation. Neutrality tests suggested a significant historical Population expansion (Fu's Fs = -28.152), consistent with a population decline and observed pattern of mismatch distribution. Analysis of molecular variance suggested high degrees of gene flow among all the sampled populations, of which the Xinjiang and Xizang populations were revealed to be the most genetically related. It was inferred that calving ground might play a significant role in the Course of gene exchange. These results shed light on the Population history and Current population status of the chiru, and have strong implications for the continued conservation of the species.
White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, is the most important game species in Venezuela. Some populations are currently threatened by overhunting and habitat loss, making it necessary for implementation of conservation programs. In this study, we employed molecular phylogenetics and population genetics principles to identify conservation units of Venezuelan populations of this species and to provide recommendations for its management. We analyzed DNA sequences-730 base pairs of the mitochondrial control region-in 26 individuals sampled from the 3 subspecies present in Venezuela. Results revealed moderate levels of genetic polymorphism. In addition, evidence of significant population structure was found. Phylogeographic analyses showed 4 lineages with the nominal subspecies O. v. gymnotis appearing to be polyphyletic. A remarkable divergence among haplotypes from Venezuela and North America was revealed in phylogenetic analyses, the former comprising a monophyletic group. The observed divergence among haplotypes from Venezuelan and North American populations was, in most cases, higher than that observed among the latter and haplotypes of O. hemionus (black-tailed deer). This result suggests that Venezuelan white-tailed deer could be considered an evolutionarily significant unit. We interpreted the results obtained within the context of climatic changes since Late Pleistocene. In addition to ecological and morphological evidence, our data suggest that O. v. margaritae and O. v. goudotii populations, the 2 subspecies considered endangered, are clearly differentiated and should be recognized as geminate evolutionary units and protected as distinct groups, even though there is no clear support for elevating these subspecies to species rank, as proposed recently.
Hunting remains the cornerstone of the North American model of wildlife conservation and management. Nevertheless, research has indicated the potential for hunting to adversely influence size of horn-like structures of some ungulates. In polygynous ungulates, mating success of males is strongly correlated with body size and size of horn-like structures; consequently, sexual selection has favored the development of large horns and antlers. Horn-like structures are biologically important and are of great cultural interest, both of which highlight the need to identify long-term trends in size of those structures, and understand the underlying mechanisms responsible for such trends. We evaluated trends in horn and antler size of trophy males (individuals exhibiting exceptionally large horns or antlers) recorded from 1900 to 2008 in Records of North American Big Game, which comprised >22,000 records among 25 trophy categories encompassing the geographic extent of species occupying North America. The long-term and broad-scale nature of those data neutralized localized effects of climate and population dynamics, making it possible to detect meaningful changes in size of horn-like structures among trophy males over the past century; however, ages of individual specimens were not available, which prevented us from evaluating age-class specific changes in size. Therefore, we used a weight-of-evidence approach based on differences among trophy categories in life-history characteristics, geographic distribution, morphological attributes, and harvest regimes to discriminate among competing hypotheses for explaining long-term trends in horn and antler size of trophy ungulates, and provide directions for future research. These hypotheses were young male age structure caused by intensive harvest of males (H1), genetic change as a result of selective male harvest (H2), a sociological effect (H3), effects of climate (H4), and habitat alteration (H5). Although the number of entries per decade has increased for most trophy categories, trends in size of horn-like structures were negative and significant for 11 of 17 antlered categories and 3 of 8 horned categories. Mean predicted declines during 1950–2008 were 1.87% and 0.68% for categories of trophy antlers and horns, respectively. Our results were not consistent with a sociological effect (H3), nutritional limitation imposed by climate (H4), or habitat alteration (H5) as potential explanations for long-term trends in size of trophies. In contrast, our results were consistent with a harvest-based explanation. Two of the 3 species that experienced the most conservative harvest regimes in North America (i.e., bighorn sheep [Ovis canadensis] and bison [Bison bison]) did not exhibit a significant, long-term trend in horn size. In addition, horn size of pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), which are capable of attaining peak horn size by 2–3 years of age, increased significantly over the past century. Both of those results provide support for the intensive-harvest hypothesis, which predicts that harvest of males has gradually shifted age structure towards younger, and thus smaller, males. The absence of a significant trend for mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), which are difficult to accurately judge size of horns in the field, provided some support for the selective-harvest hypothesis. One other prediction that followed from the selective-harvest hypothesis was not supported; horned game were not more susceptible to reductions in size. A harvest-induced reduction in age structure can increase the number of males that are harvested prior to attaining peak horn or antler size, whereas genetic change imposed by selective harvest may be less likely to occur in free-ranging populations when other factors, such as age and nutrition, can override genetic potential for size. Long-term trends in the size of trophy horn-like structures provide the incentive to evaluate the appropriateness of the current harvest paradigm, wherein harvest is focused largely on males; although the lack of information on age of specimens prevented us from rigorously differentiating among causal mechanisms. Disentangling potential mechanisms underpinning long-term trends in horn and antler size is a daunting task, but one that is worthy of additional research focused on elucidating the relative influence of nutrition and effects (both demographic and genetic) of harvest.
One of the most important phases in wildlife management is the habitat assessment. The aim of this study was to define management strategies for the white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, from the evaluation of the habitat quality in an area of 5,329.82 km2 in the central region of Veracruz, Mexico. We generated a static model of habitat quality (HSIe) taking into account the slope, altitude, aspect and protection cover as the most important variables for the species. As a result, the 29.75% of the area (1,585.85 km2), had quality conditions acceptable for the species. To know the possible application of the model, interviews and field trips were conducted in different municipalities (n = 17) to determine the presence of the species. In order to confirm this, line transects of 1 km length (n = 14) were established only in 5 municipalities where people said there were deer, as an approach to validate the model, because a high percentage of deer records (122 records in 10 transects) were found in habitats from medium (0.514 ± 0.115 SD) to high quality (0.854 ± 0.123 SD) generated by the model. Therefore, the model can be used to identify potential areas for reintroduction, conservation and sustainable use of the species in this region.
This special issue of Tropical Conservation Science provides a synopsis of nine of the eleven presentations on ungulates presented at the Symposium on Ecology and Conservation of Ungulates in Mexico during the Mexican Congress of Ecology held in November 2008 in Merida, Yucatan. Of the eleven species of wild ungulates in Mexico (Bairds tapir Tapirus bairdii, pronghorn antelope Antilocapra americana, American bison Bison bison, bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis, elk Cervus canadensis, red brocket deer Mazama temama, Yucatan brown brocket Mazama pandora, mule deer Odocoileus hemionus, white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus, white-lipped peccary Tayassu pecari and collared peccary Pecari tajacu), studies which concern four of these species are presented: Baird's tapir and the white lipped peccary, which are tropical species in danger of extinction; the bighorn sheep, of high value for hunting in the north-west; and the white-tailed deer, the most studied ungulate in Mexico due to its wide distribution in the country and high hunting and cultural value. In addition, two studies of exotic species, wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus), are presented. Issues addressed in these studies are: population estimates, habitat use, evaluation of UMA (Spanish acronym for 'Wildlife Conservation, Management and Sustainable Utilization Units') and ANP (Spanish acronym for 'Natural Protected Areas') to sustain minimum viable populations, and the effect of alien species in protected areas and UMA, all of which allow an insight into ungulate conservation and management within the country.
With the objective of contributing in the definition of the sub- species of white-tailed deer in Mexico, the morphometric vari- ability of the subspecies distributed in the Northeast of Mexico was determined (Odocoileus virginianus carminis, O. v. miqui- huanensis, O.v. texanus and O. v. veraecrucis). The records of 592 animals were analyzed (579 O. v. texanus, six O. v. veraecrucis, four O. v. miquihuanensis and three O. v. carmi- nis), and 49 O. v. texanus skulls. The comparison between the historical measurements and that ones of the present study showed 98% of similarity for O. v. carminis, O. v. miqui- huanensis and O. v. veraecrucis and 96% for O. v. texanus. The orthogonal contrasts showed morphometric differences (P < 0,05) among the subspecies. In the O. v. texanus, the to- tal longitude was longer that in the other subspecies, while O. v. veraecrucis showed significant differences regarding O. v. carminis and O. v. miquihuanensis in all the variables. The highest similarity for Euclidean Distance was between the O. v. carminis and O. v. miquihuanensis males (5.1), while the smaller similarity was between the O. v. texanus males and those of the other three subspecies (19.9). The adult males of Tamaulipas significantly differed (P < 0.05) of those of Coa- huila and New León.
Phylogenetic analysis is sometimes regarded as being an intimidating, complex process that requires expertise and years of experience. In fact, it is a fairly straightforward process that can be learned quickly and applied effectively. This Protocol describes the several steps required to produce a phylogenetic tree from molecular data for novices. In the example illustrated here, the program MEGA is used to implement all those steps, thereby eliminating the need to learn several programs, and to deal with multiple file formats from one step to another (Tamura K, Peterson D, Peterson N, Stecher G, Nei M, Kumar S. 2011. MEGA5: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood, evolutionary distance, and maximum parsimony methods. Mol Biol Evol. 28:2731-2739). The first step, identification of a set of homologous sequences and downloading those sequences, is implemented by MEGA's own browser built on top of the Google Chrome toolkit. For the second step, alignment of those sequences, MEGA offers two different algorithms: ClustalW and MUSCLE. For the third step, construction of a phylogenetic tree from the aligned sequences, MEGA offers many different methods. Here we illustrate the maximum likelihood method, beginning with MEGA's Models feature, which permits selecting the most suitable substitution model. Finally, MEGA provides a powerful and flexible interface for the final step, actually drawing the tree for publication. Here a step-by-step protocol is presented in sufficient detail to allow a novice to start with a sequence of interest and to build a publication-quality tree illustrating the evolution of an appropriate set of homologs of that sequence. MEGA is available for use on PCs and Macs from www.megasoftware.net.
The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) occurs over a broad latitudinal range from South America to Canada. Thirty-eight subspecies are recognized, 14 of which occur in Mexico. Genetic studies in Latin America are lacking and the diversity and structure of white-tailed deer in Mexico are unknown. We sampled white-tailed deer from 13 sites in the range of 5 subspecies occurring in Mexico, O. v. texanus, O. v. carminis, O. v. veraecrucis, O. v. sinaloae, and O. v. yucatanensis. We estimated genetic diversity and structure based on 12 microsatellite DNA loci. Observed heterozygosity (H O) was comparable to that of white-tailed deer in the United States (H O ¼ 0.53–0.64), with the exception of O. v. yucatanensis (H O ¼ 0.41). We observed statistically significant genetic structure among all 13 sites (F ST ¼ 0.15). Analysis of molecular variance revealed that grouping sites by subspecies (F SC ¼ 0.09) or geographic region (F SC ¼ 0.13–0.14) explained a moderate portion of genetic variation. However, no higher-level group minimized differentiation among populations within the subspecies or regional groups (F ST ¼ 0.16–0.20). Pairwise genetic distances among sites were correlated with geographic distance (r 2 ¼ 0.38), but some geographically proximate sites were genetically differentiated (F ST . 0.20), especially in the Yucatan. Deer in the Yucatan were genetically differentiated from other subspecies and had comparatively lower genetic diversity, consistent with the biogeographic history of the region. Populations of white-tailed deer in Mexico are subject to a range of management challenges. Additional research is needed to understand the effect of management on the diversity and genetic structure of white-tailed deer.
We reviewed the scientific literature published from 1940 to 2002 on Latin American (Mexican and Central and South American) deer (Mammalia: Cervidae), focusing on conservation status and prediction of geographic distributions. The extant Latin American deer are the most diverse deer assemblage in the world (Cervinae: one genus, one species: Elk [Cervus elaphus]; Odocoilineae: six genera, 18 species: White-tailed deer [Odocoileus virginianus], mule deer [O, hemionus], marsh deer [Blastocerus dochotomus], pampas deer [Ozotoceros bezoarticus], huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus], taruca [Hippocamelus antisensis], greater pudu [Pudu mephistophiles], lesser pudu [Pudu pudu], and six recognized species of brocket deer [Mazama americana, M. gouazoubira, M. nana. M. bricenni, M. chunyi, and M. rufina] as well as three recently proposed species [M. pandora, M. rondoni, and M. bororo]). Within this group, three genera (Odocoileus, Hippocamelus, and Blastocerus) have been well studied, whereas the genus Mazama. P. puda, P. mephistophiles, and H. antisensis have received little attention. The marsh deer, pampas deer, taruca, huemul, lesser pudu, and two Mazama species (Mazama nana and M. bororo) are the most endangered species. They are each listed as Convention International for the Trade of Endangered Species Appendix I and are considered by the International Union for Nature Conservation to be near threatened or endangered. We updated or created distribution maps for these species. Current research predominantly centres on easily available species (e.g., white-tailed deer in Mexico) or endangered species (e.g., marsh deer in Brazil). In contrast, the ecology and conservation status of the pudu, taruca, and Mazama sp. remain largely unknown.
White-tailed deer in Mexico is one of the most important game species. There are 14 subspecies in the country, two of them in the central part of the State of Veracruz: Odocoileus virginianus toltecus and O. v. veraecrucis. The main objective of this study was to update the white- tailed deer distribution and potential habitat, in order to design strategies for conservation of the species. The potential habitat comprises only the 32.74 % (1,426.65 km2) of the total studied area (4,357.12 km2). Only in five municipalities of the 17 visited we obtained white-tailed deer records, in other five the habitat is present but the deer was extirpated since 50-60 years ago, mainly due of poaching and habitat transformation. Our results suggest that O. v. veraecrucis has better potential for sustainable use, while O. v. toltecus needs conservation management actions.
Key words: Distribution, white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, Veracruz, Mexico, habitat
This book brings together the latest information on tropical ungulates in different Latin American countries. These animals are not only important from the point of view of their role in different ecosystems, but also have cultural value for people. The book also discusses topics such as habitat transformation and hunting as these species are an important source of food in many places. Addressing ungulate natural communities in diverse ecosystems and countries, the book provides information on specific aspects of each of the most representative species, and highlights topics to help readers better understand these species and develop effective management and conservation strategies. The information presented also reveals the need for more knowledge and will hopefully provide the incentive for continued studies on this important group of animals. This publication serves as a reference for academic research on ungulate ecology, behavior and dynamics, as well as the basis for conservation strategies.
The white-tailed deer is the species with the greatest distribution in the American continent. This deer is considered a species with high plasticity because it lives in different types of vegetation ranging from temperate forests to dry tropical forests, arid zones and secondary vegetation. The distribution and results of genetic studies about the subspecies are presented in this chapter. According to different studies about the diet, deer selects a high number of plant species from different families, but particularly consumes a greater percentage of few shrubs and trees. Analyzing the nutritional composition of the deer diet, it is found that the amount of crude protein and acid detergent fiber were lower in the winter diet compared to that of autumn and spring, the digestibility was higher in autumn than in the other seasons. Movement of white-tailed deer could be influenced by many ecological, environmental, and behavioral variables. The animal energetic requirements depend on the basal metabolism, behavior and physiological conditions. Each animal activity represents an energy cost. We presented knowledge about home range size and activity patterns of the species. Variation in the reproductive chronology of the white-tailed deer in the region has been linked to environmental variables associated with latitude such as photoperiods and food availability. Deer population density is one of the parameters most evaluated in different regions and habitat types. The population estimation of deer is one of the central themes in Latin America, mainly in Mexico, since this allows to make a sustainable use of the species from the hunting point of view. The most important diseases that affect the health of deer are gastrointestinal parasitosis caused mainly by helminths and protozoa. Deer selects specific sites to rest, ruminate and protect their young. Therefore, these sites should offer food, water, protection against predators and thermal cover that allows deer to minimize both the absorption of heat by exposure to the sun and the loss of water by transpiration. Some studies have compared deer preferences between conserved sites and sites disturbed by human activity. In relation to habitat quality, differences in use have been found. Although the species is highly adaptable and widely distributed, we can ensure that it has populations that are exploited in a sustainable manner, but some of the subspecies may be at risk from poaching and severe transformation of their habitat.
Despite their conservation status as Vulnerable and the need for targeted management actions, very little is actually known about the genetic diversity and phylogeography of the remnant populations of the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Greece. In order to investigate these aspects we collected samples from nine locations in Greece and retrieved 80 sequences (834–836bp) for a fragment of the mtDNA control region. Analysis revealed high overall haplotype diversity, low nucleotide diversity and significant population structuring with site-specific haplotypes. In order to assign Greek roe deer haplotypes to previously identified haplogroups, we integrated our data with available roe deer sequences from across Europe. The analysis of the combined dataset showed that most of the haplotypes retrieved from Greek populations are novel, geographically confined and belong exclusively to the "Eastern" phylogeographic group. The indigenous populations of Greece are genetically distinct from other Balkan populations, which have a significant genetic component from the "Central" group. The Greek populations carry part of the ancestral gene pool of Late Pleistocene Balkan refugium, which has not contributed to the postglacial expansion of the species. The current phylogeographic pattern of roe deer in Greece seems to be the result of genetic drift due to habitat fragmentation and population decline. The genetic integrity of Greek roe deer should be maintained by avoiding uncontrolled reintroductions or translocations that could lead to admixture with allochthonous roe deer.
The white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) inhabits a wide latitudinal range in the Americas. Deer species dwelling throughout wide latitudinal ranges have developed subspecies with variations in their reproductive seasonality. In northern subspecies of white-tailed deer, such as those from Canada and the United States, the breeding season occurs from October through December. Odocoileus virginianus veraecrucis is a subspecies that inhabits eastern Mexico, and because its reproductive season has not been studied, it is believed to be similar to that from northern subspecies. The objective of the study was to determine the onset of the breeding season and the profile of fecal steroid hormone metabolites throughout the year in captive white-tailed deer subspecies veraecrucis in Mexico. Two groups of adult deer were included: 1) six does and one buck at a Wildlife Conservation Unit, and 2) five does and one buck at a zoo. From each group of deer, representative fecal samples were collected on a weekly basis for 1 yr for fecal analysis of progesterone and estradiol in the does, and testosterone in the bucks. Data on antler casting, parturitions, and velvet shedding were recorded. Progesterone was high during pregnancy and low throughout the parturition period. Estradiol fluctuated throughout the year. Testosterone was high during the rut and low after antler casting. Antlers were cast in March and velvet was shed in August at both sites. Parturitions started in February at the zoo and in April at the Wildlife Unit. In captive white-tailed deer subspecies veraecrucis the breeding season started in July, and therefore earlier than what has been reported for subspecies from northern latitudes.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was used to characterize patterns of geographic variation among white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations in the southeastern United States. Fifteen restriction enzymes were employed to survey and map 99 restriction sites in 142 deer from 18 localities in five southeastern states. Phylogenetic analysis revealed three primary groups of haplotypes: (1) southern Florida and the Florida Keys, (2) the remainder of peninsular Florida northward to South Carolina, and (3) the Florida panhandle westward to Mississippi. Geographical heterogeneity in haplotype frequencies suggests that stochastic lineage sorting or isolation by distance are not important determinates of mtDNA differentiation among deer populations. The pattern of mtDNA variation in white-tailed deer is concordant spatially with those observed in unrelated taxa suggesting the common influence of historical biogeographic events. The data (1) support previous hypotheses that relate contemporary patterns of intraspecific phylogeography in northern Florida to the physiogeographic history of the region; and (2) suggest that genetic differentiation in southern Florida may be attributable to episodes of Pleistocene dispersal. Despite potentially high vagility and human intervention, ecological and demographic characteristics of deer have effectively preserved the historical pattern of intraspecific mtDNA differentiation.
Episodes of population growth and decline leave characteristic signatures in the distribution of nucleotide (or restriction) site differences between pairs of individuals. These signatures appear in histograms showing the relative frequencies of pairs of individuals who differ by i sites, where i = 0, 1, .... In this distribution an episode of growth generates a wave that travels to the right, traversing 1 unit of the horizontal axis in each 1/2u generations, where u is the mutation rate. The smaller the initial population, the steeper will be the leading face of the wave. The larger the increase in population size, the smaller will be the distribution's vertical intercept. The implications of continued exponential growth are indistinguishable from those of a sudden burst of population growth Bottlenecks in population size also generate waves similar to those produced by a sudden expansion, but with elevated uppertail probabilities. Reductions in population size initially generate L-shaped distributions with high probability of identity, but these converge rapidly to a new equilibrium. In equilibrium populations the theoretical curves are free of waves. However, computer simulations of such populations generate empirical distributions with many peaks and little resemblance to the theory. On the other hand, agreement is better in the transient (nonequilibrium) case, where simulated empirical distributions typically exhibit waves very similar to those predicted by theory. Thus, waves in empirical distributions may be rich in information about the history of population dynamics.
We examined genetic variability and spatial heterogeneity of maternally (mtDNA) and biparentally (allozymes) inherited genes for a large, widely distributed mammal. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in 6 populations from the coastal plain in Georgia and South Carolina showed high levels of variability and spatial heterogeneity for mtDNA and allozymes. There was little sharing of mtDNA variants among samples separated by 30 to 100 km, and 12 of 13 allozyme loci showed significant differentiation among populations. Spatial genetic heterogeneity was positively correlated with geographical distance as predicted in Wright's isolation by distance model. High spatial heterogeneity is surprising considering the species' physical capacity for moving great distances. Dispersal must be limited, but more so in females because they accounted for only an estimated 13% of total dispersal. Social factors must strongly Limit dispersal in white-tailed deer and probably many other mammals.
Reconstructing phylogenetic trees from DNA sequences has become a popular exercise in many branches of biology, and here the well-known geneticist John Avise explains why. Molecular phylogenies provide a genealogical backdrop for interpreting the evolutionary histories of many other types of biological traits (anatomical, behavioral, ecological, physiological, biochemical and even geographical). Guiding readers on a natural history tour along dozens of evolutionary pathways, the author describes how creatures ranging from microbes to elephants came to possess their current phenotypes. Essential reading for college students, professional biologists and anyone interested in natural history and biodiversity, this book is packed with fascinating examples of evolutionary puzzles from across the animal kingdom; how the toucan got its enormous bill, how reptiles grow back lost limbs and why Arctic fish don't freeze.
Haplotype networks are an intuitive method for visualising relationships between individual genotypes at the population level.
Here, we present popart , an integrated software package that provides a comprehensive implementation of haplotype network methods, phylogeographic visualisation tools and standard statistical tests, together with publication‐ready figure production.
popart also provides a platform for the implementation and distribution of new network‐based methods – we describe one such new method, integer neighbour‐joining .
The software is open source and freely available for all major operating systems.
I documented natal dispersal and gene flow in 79 yearling white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in northeastern Minnesota during 1974-1988. Sixty-four percent (n = 28) of 44 males and 20% (n = 7) of 35 females dispersed from their natal home ranges when 1.0-1.5-years old. Eighty-six percent and 95%, of all yearlings including nondispersers, dispersed ≤26 and ≤38 km, respectively. Minimum gene flow was estimated to be 40 deer per generation, based on a circular subpopulation defined by a 26-km radius. Gene flow estimated from allele frequencies for five polymorphic loci averaged 15 deer per generation among five subpopulations. These values of gene flow were concomitant with significant allelefrequency heterogeneity at the subpopulation level.
This book presents the statistical methods that are useful in the study of molecular evolution and illustrates how to use them in actual data analysis. Molecular evolution has been developing at a great pace over the past decade or so, driven by the huge increase in genetic sequence data from many organisms, the improvement of high-speed microcomputers, and the development of several new methods for phylogenetic analysis. This book for graduate students and researchers, assuming a basic knowledge of evolution, molecular biology, and elementary statistics, should make it possible for many investigators to incorporate refined statistical analysis of large-scale data in their own work.
: Since 1997 the Mexican government has promoted Management Units for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wildlife (UMAs) on private and community lands as an economically attractive mean for the conservation of biodiversity. To date, compliance of UMAs with stated sustainability goals has not been evaluated. Thus, we designed multicriteria evaluation framework based on the stated objectives of the national UMA program and applied it to a sample of 6 UMAs operating in peasant communities near or in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Campeche, Mexico. Evaluation criteria covered thematic areas of environment, economy, social development, and laws and rules. We formulated 15 criteria with 29 indicators, and 133 verifiers. Data for the verifiers were based on direct observation, interviews with key actors in the peasant communities, participation in regional meetings, scrutiny of government reports, and databases. We calculated sustainability indexes by weighting, summing, and standardizing verifiers to percentage scales, and aggregating to the successive higher hierarchical levels of the evaluation framework. We found an average overall sustainability index of 45.7% for the UMAs evaluated. Scores were highest for the environment thematic area (55.2%), followed by economy (43.4%), social development (42.3%), and laws and rules (41.7%). We observed particularly low indicators for management strategies, habitat monitoring, environmental education, and knowledge of wildlife laws. We conclude that the contribution of UMAs to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity could be improved by a number of actions. These include developing wildlife management educational programs with a strong environmental legislation component, the correct enforcement of wildlife laws, and creating country-wise links among academic and governmental institutions promoting the work with regional and national wildlife experts.