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Gender Roles, Personality Traits and Expectations of Women and Men Towards Marriage
... Gender differences in term of man and woman are determinant factors to creation of expected roles which are accorded to man and woman as husband and wife, and these expectations varies from one cultural ethnic group to another. According to Ercan and Ucar (2021), marriage and expectations from marriage can be seen as a contractual obligation that is designed to gain social, cultural and financial gains, as well as a personal choice designed to strengthen the bond between two people dominated by romantic intimacy. ...
Marriage is a union that makes the creation of man and a woman reasonably enjoyable despite the fact that different culture has its influence on what marriage should be within the context a cultural belief system. Gender roles defined man's ability and woman's position especially within a patriarchal society like the Ibibio society. This qualitative research examined the changes in gender roles in Ibibio marriage practices. Gender Conflict Theory was adopted as theoretical framework. Ethnographic methodology with Fetternan's big-net approach was adopted for the study. Study participants were purposively selected to be married men and women or those who have experienced marriage within the context of Ibibio marriage practice. Snowballing technique and respondents driven technique were adopted to reach study participants. Four local government areas which include Etinan, Ibesikpo-Asutan, Ikono and Uruan, which cut across the 3 senatorial district of Akwa Ibom State, were engaged in the study. Findings of the study show that women are becoming breadwinners which were traditionally ascribed for men in Ibibio traditional marriage practice, men are participating in house chores which were ascribed for women in traditional Ibibio marriage practice, and leadership roles are being shared among married couples today against what was traditionally men dominance in Ibibio traditional marriage practice. Among others, research recommend that married couples should understand marriage as a union which anyone should be able to help when the needs arises provided there is capacity to do so.
... To Pieterse (2009), culture expects mothers to nurture their children hence they are an easy target for psychological distress posed by long-distance parenting. Moreover, Ercan and Uçar (2021) revealed that females define themselves in the context of relationships, they are susceptible to losing their self-concept and identity when they lose their relationships. In other words, when women are separated from their children, they can lose how they see and define themselves, which leads them to attract judgment from society. ...
The involvement of parents in the lives of children is of paramount importance. Parents’ responsibility of ensuring the wellbeing of children should be taken into cognisance. Of late, some parents find themselves parenting from a distance as they leave in pursuit of employment. As a result, these parents experienced different challenges. The problem is that most researchers tend to focus on challenges experienced by children and leave out those experienced by parents. Hence, this paper aimed at synthesizing existing literature on the psychological challenges of distant parenting on mothers. In doing so, the researchers used a scoping review. The documents, which were used in the study, were purposively sampled from ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. From the literature, the researchers found that parents experienced stress and guilt as a result of leaving their children behind. Some of the parents experienced loss of connection with their children due to the distance and were stigmatized in the community/societies. It can be concluded that long-distance parenting remains high with severe implications for the lives of parents. The researchers recommend a phenomenological study on the lived experiences of fathers providing care to their distant children.
... In addition, varied perceptions of maintaining a relationship may be a factor in the differentiation of relationship maintenance behaviors according to gender. Females and Males display variation in expectations of marriage roles (Ulu Ercan & Uçar, 2021). Researchers concur thatculture and gender roles affect marriage roles and impact relationship maintenance behaviors. ...
The aim of this study is to examine the behaviors of married individuals to maintain relationships according to their gender and gender role attitudes. The study group of the study consisted of 177 (52.8%) females and 158 males (%) aged between 24 and 50 (x̄=30.2), residing in İzmir, and having a relationship period of 2 to 20 years (x̄=5.9). 47.2), a total of 335 heterosexual married people. As data collection tools in the research, “Relationship Maintenance Strategies Scale”, “Gender Roles Attitude Scale” and “Personal Information Form” were used. Two-way MANOVA method was used in the analysis of the data. Findings from the two-way MANOVA analysis show that gender and gender roles have an impact on relationship maintenance behaviors. In this context, it has been determined that gender roles have a higher degree of influence than biological sex in maintaining relationships. According to the findings of the study, it was determined that female participants exhibited relationship-maintaining behaviors more frequently than male participants. In terms of gender roles attitude, It has been determined that the participants who have an egalitarian gender role attitude exhibit more frequent relationship maintenance behaviors than the participants who have traditional gender roles attitudes. As a result, gender and gender roles have a significant effect on relationship maintenance strategies.
... Assim, observa-se a manifestação dos papéis de gênero em vários aspectos da vida das pessoas, tais como nas relações interpessoais (e.g., atitudes frente ao casamento e abuso nos relacionamentos; Biolcati, Pupi, & Mancini., 2021;Ercan & Uçar, 2021), nos comportamentos de compra (e.g., compras online; Hummel, Vogel, & Maedche, 2021) e em dimensões de saúde mental (e.g., estresse no trabalho e saúde geral; Azhar, Dasgupta, Sinha, & Karandikar., 2020), sendo a tipificação dos comportamentos a partir do sexo um reflexo de normais sociais e culturais (Carver, Vafaei, Guerra, Freire, & Phillips, 2013). ...
This research aims to analyse to what extent and direction sexism, gender roles, human values and personality are related, evaluating how the last two variables can explain this relationship. There were 213 participants, with a mean age of 27 years (18 to 60 years; SD = 9.48), most of them female (67.6%). They responded to the Good Sex Roles Inventory, Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, Basic Values Questionnaire and Big Five Personality Factors Inventory. The results identified that only human values positively explain hostile sexism (normative and suprapersonal) and benevolent (normative). And gender roles were explained both by personality traits (femininity —agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion; masculinity —conscientiousness, neuroticism, extroversion, and openness) and by human values (femininity— interactive; masculinity— achievement). It was concluded that evaluative priorities and personality traits play an important role in understanding ambivalent sexism and gender roles today.
This study aimed to examine the relationship between parents’ gender roles and parent-child interaction with a phenomenological approach. The data collected from diverse families from different socioeconomic levels were presented using qualitative analysis. The number of participants in the study was 60 (20 children, 20 fathers, 20 mothers). In the study, families at the middle socioeconomic level work in office jobs in public and private institutions, while families at the low socioeconomic level work in farming and animal husbandry activities. The data collected using a voice recorder with the consent of the participants were analyzed through content analysis following the process of code-category and theme creation. The data collected using a voice recorder with the consent of the participants were analyzed using content analysis. The most striking result of the current study is the reflection of sexist attitudes seen in both socioecoenomic contexts in family interactions on parental interactions with children. As a result of the study, it was concluded that mothers and fathers exhibited attitudes towards gender role stereotypes in their home routines and interactions with children. This situation is more intense in families living at a low socioeconomic level and at a considerable level in other families. Children’s interaction with both parents is limited. However, as a result of gender role stereotypes (children are the mother’s job), children’s interaction with fathers is much less.
COVID-19 is a global pandemic that has had significant effects on societies, even though its effects have largely diminished. The psychological state of individuals who cannot leave their homes for long periods during the lockdown practices implemented in many countries is a special situation that needs to be examined. Women and men who stay together at home for long periods may experience conflict with other people. The extent to which this situation is related to the personality traits and gender roles of individuals is a subject of research. For this reason, this study investigates the predictive power of personality traits and gender roles on life satisfaction during the lockdown period due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The study group consists of 571 participants (Female: 327, 42.73%; Male: 244, 57.27%) selected from Türkiye and Georgia, aged between 18 and 50 (Meanage: 21.89, df: 4.09). The results show that adopting feminine and masculine gender roles in both cultures contributes to an increase in individuals' life satisfaction levels, while having neurotic personality traits causes individuals' life satisfaction levels to decrease. However, in Georgia, being extraverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and exhibiting the characteristics of feminine and masculine gender roles were seen as predictors of life satisfaction, while in Türkiye, being emotionally stable and adopting the feminine gender role were determined as variables that increased life satisfaction. The results obtained were discussed in line with the literature.
Aim: The aim of this study was to predict the attitude of single young people to marriage based on personality traits and perfectionism. Method: The present research was descriptive-correlational in terms of applied purpose and descriptive research design. The statistical population included all single students of Isfahan universities in the academic year 2020-2021. From this community, 170 students were selected by available methods and all paticipants responded to Bratton and Rosen (1998) Attitudes Towards Marriage, the 5 Big Factors of Short Form Personality (NEO-FFI), and the Terry - Short et al. (1995) Perfectionism Questionnaires. Pearson correlation method and hierarchical regression analysis and SPSS software were used to analyze the data. Results: The results showed that among personality traits, neuroticism negatively and extroversion positively and significantly predicts the attitude to marriage. Also, negative perfectionism negatively and positive perfectionism positively and significantly predict the attitudes towards marriage. Conclusion: Based on the research findings, it can be concluded that personality traits and perfectionism are among the factors that play a role in young people's attitudes toward marriage
Women’s involvement in the labor market continues to increase, but this does not happen to women in career leadership positions. In fact, women’s career advancement continues to experience obstacles and individual power plays a role in their career advancement efforts. The purpose of this research is to identify the challenges of improving women’s careers, their personal sense of power, and their efforts in improving their careers. The approach used was qualitative with an instrumental case study design. An open-ended questionnaire was distributed to get participants who fit the criteria to be interviewed, namely women who have worked for more than 1 year, there is a career ladder in their workplace, and participants indicated experiencing a glass ceiling. The results of research on four participants showed that the challenges that are still often faced by working women are discrimination in the work environment, family environment expectations regarding women’s domestic roles, and internalization of feminine roles in individuals. Participants indicated to have different personal sense of power, ranging from low to high. Individuals with a high personal sense of power tend to dare to express their opinions and are able to make structured plans for career development. While individuals with a low personal sense of power tend to be more silent, but still show a desire to develop a career.
Knowing your mental health is an integral part of knowing your health as WHO has categorically mentioned in the definition of Health that 'no health is without mental health'
This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
The research aim was investigating the relationship between personality styles of autonomy and sociotropy, and suicidal behavior at Zahedan University of medical sciences’ medical students. This was a descriptive correlational study. The population consisted of all medical students at Zahedan University of Medical Sciences internship period 2002-2003. The number of samples was 102 patients, including 47 males and 55 females. To collect information, the personal style inventory (PSI) with 48 items. Twenty four items to assess sociotropy, 24 items to assess autonomy, and to measure suicide the suicidal subscale (MMPI) with 21 items were used. The two scales had the content validity and for the reliability used Cronbach a. So the reliability of the personality styles is 0.84 and the reliability of the suicidal subscales is 0.83. Data were analyzed using Pearson's correlation methods. The results showed that there is an inverse and significant relation between autonomic style and trends of suicide in men (P = 0.02, r = -0.43), but no association between sociotropy and suicidal tendencies were observed in men. There was no significant relationship between autonomy and sociotropy personality styles and tendency towards suicide in women.
The link between a partner's thinking about the relationship and relationship satisfaction has been shown to be stronger for women than men. The main goal of this study was to examine the extent to which one's identity (rather than biological sex) moderates that link. In a survey of 238 couples (90 unmarried and 148 married), results indicated that, for unmarried couples, a general relational identity, or the tendency to see oneself in relation to others in general, moderated the association between positive relationship thinking and satisfaction. For married couples, a couple identity, or the tendency to see oneself as part of the specific relationship, moderated this association. These results were generally the same for both men and women, indicating that one's identity may be more important than biological sex in determining concurrent associations between relationship thinking and relationship satisfaction. However, longitudinal findings suggest that long-term outcomes of positive relationship thinking may be stronger for women than men. Results are discussed in terms of the development and importance of a specific couple identity in committed relationships.
This study uses the multidimensional measures included in the 1996 Taiwan Social Change Survey to examine the effects of gender ideologies and marital role sharing on marital quality among married Taiwanese men and women as reporting spouses. The authors’ quantitative analyses indicate that (a) there is little direct relationship between gender ideologies and marital quality in this Taiwanese sample for both genders,(b) egalitarian marital power is directly and positively related to marital harmony and negatively related to marital discord, (c) the nontraditional division of domestic labor is directly and positively related to marital quality primarily through the enhancement of marital harmony, and (d) the proposed conceptual model does not vary substantially across the two genders. The authors suggest that these findings should be further validated by utilizing couples as the units of analysis.
A sample of ever-married women from the NLSY79 is analyzed to examine the effects of age at first marriage and gender ideology on the likelihood of experiencing marital disruption. The authors hypothesize that age at first marriage will have no effect on the likelihood of experiencing marital disruption for non-traditional women, but that there will be a strong negative effect for traditional women. The authors use the log-rate model for piecewise-constant rates to estimate the log odds of respondents’ hazard for experiencing a marital disruption separately for each of the three gender ideologygroups.Findingssuggest that ageat first marriage affects women’s likelihood of marital disruption contingent upon gender ideology. It is suggested that gender ideology is a lens through which women view the world and make decisions and that within each ideology category the factors that affect likelihood of divorce may differ as a result.
Although much has been written on rapidly changing work and family roles, relatively little is known about the provider side of the work—family nexus. Using data from a study of gender, work, and family among the self-employed, we examine abstract and specific attitudes as well as behavior relating to the provider role. Results show gender differences and similarities in the meaning and influence of the provider role. Women exhibit more egalitarian attitudes even in this realm associated with men, yet similar proportions of women and men are unable to realize their preferences for how much providing to do. Incongruence in providing attitudes and behavior has more consequence for men's than for women's psychological well-being. Although there appears to be less of a stall in the provider side of the work—family system than in unpaid family work, the results suggest the continued importance of the man as good provider.
Longitudinal secondary dyadic data from first time marriages were analyzed from the National Survey of Families and Households (Sweet, Bumpass, & Call, 198857.
Sweet , J. , Bumpass , L. and Call , V. 1988 . The design and content of the National Survey of Families and Households , Madison : University of Wisconsin, Center for Demography and Ecology . View all references), for the purpose of examining gender-related predictors of husbands' and wives' marital satisfaction and marital conflict over time. This study extended the line of thinking of previous research by taking a longitudinal look at predictors of marital satisfaction and marital conflict in stable marriages. Results indicate that there is some support for gender-based influences on husbands' and wives' marital satisfaction and conflict over time. Additionally, the findings from this study suggest that wives' marital and interpersonal functioning may be a greater predictor for husbands' marital satisfaction and marital conflict. Recommendations for clinicians working with couples are also presented.
In this study, we explored whether the degree of temporal instability in relationship satisfaction might add to our understanding of the well-documented association between relationship quality and depression. We hypothesized that greater relationship satisfaction instability would be associated with higher depressive symptoms, controlling for mean satisfaction levels. We conducted 12 weekly assessments of relationship satisfaction and depressive symptoms in a sample of 131 cohabiting and married women, and used intraindividual standard deviations of scores over the 12 weeks as an index of instability. Results indicated that, as hypothesized, relationship satisfaction instability predicted variance in depressive symptoms beyond that predicted by mean satisfaction; women whose weekly relationship satisfaction fluctuated more widely tended to have higher depressive symptoms. In comparison, temporal instability in depressive symptoms did not predict variance in relationship satisfaction beyond that predicted by mean depressive symptoms. Prospective analyses tentatively suggested that satisfaction instability may precede rather than follow elevated depressive symptoms. Results suggest the utility of assessing relationship satisfaction instability in future studies exploring links between marital quality and depression.
Six areas of research in developmental and personality psychology concerning sex-typed traits, attitudes, and interests are identified as elements of a common “masculinity-femininity” paradigm needing reexamination. The masculinity-femininity paradigm is defined in relationship to Money and Ehrhardt's model for gender identity differentiation and dimorphism. The six lines of research in the masculinity-femininity paradigm are then briefly critically examined: (1) the measurability of masculinity-femininity as a trait, (2) the identification model of masculinity-femininity development, (3) the effects of father absence on boys, (4) correlates of masculinity-femininity in life adjustment, (5) cross-sex identity in males, and (6) sex role identity problems in black males. The empirical and conceptual problems in each line of research are explored, and are substantial enough to suggest the need for alternate paradigms. Two alternate models for masculinity-femininity development are briefly sketched. First, masculinity-femininity development is analogized to moral development, as a phasic process ideally leading to sex role transcendence and androgyny. Second, the acquisition of masculinity-femininity is analogized to language acquisition, as a highly symbol-dependent learning process contingent upon the interaction between an innate acquisition apparatus and a corpus of observed sex role behavior. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/45567/1/11199_2004_Article_BF00288009.pdf
Aim: This study was conducted with the aim to determine point of view of final-year university students at Hacettepe University on gender roles regarding work life, social life, marriage and family life.Methods: This study is a cross-sectional study. The questionnaire was applied to a total of 448 students including 250 females and 198 males.Results: The results of the study reveal that views of students on gender roles related to work life, social life, marriage and family life exhibit statistically significant differences among the sexes for most of the statements given.Conclusions: It was identified that male students have more traditional views on gender roles related to work and marriage life. It was identified that female and male students have more egalitarian views on gender roles related to social and family life. The results of the study are important in that views on gender roles are revealed among most university students. The finding that university students still have a traditional perspective on social gender roles indicates that universities has failed to a certain degree in achieving its goal toward educating intellectual and open-minded individuals, and it reveals the need for sensitiveness in equality of gender roles besides the acquirement of professional knowledge.
Personality has consequences. Measures of personality have contemporaneous and predictive relations to a variety of important outcomes. Using the Big Five factors as heuristics for organizing the research literature, numerous consequential relations are identified. Personality dispositions are associated with happiness, physical and psychological health, spirituality, and identity at an individual level; associated with the quality of relationships with peers, family, and romantic others at an interpersonal level; and associated with occupational choice, satisfaction, and performance, as well as community involvement, criminal activity, and political ideology at a social institutional level.
This study examined the role of couple similarity in spouses' marital satisfaction and affect. The associations between spousal similarity and relationship measures were examined in a sample of 248 married couples. As hypothesized, greater similarity between partners was associated with higher levels of marital satisfaction and lower levels of negative affect. In particular, similarity on the gendered personality and values domains was more strongly associated with relationship measures, whereas similarity on the attitudes and religiosity domains showed weaker and inconsistent patterns of associations. Finally, profile-based similarity tended to be a stronger and more consistent correlate of relationship measures than difference score-based similarity. The implications of these findings for processes underlying intimate relationships are discussed.
Using meta-analysis, this study examines the effect sizes of the variables related to depression and the moderating effects of depression among marriage-based migrant women in South Korea to determine the implications for human service fields. This study identified 25 peer-reviewed articles from 2000 to 2014 published in either Korean or in English. Results showed that (i) Korean language proficiency and economic hardship had significant effect sizes relative to depression; (ii) the psychosocial characteristics (i.e., acculturative stress, social support, marital satisfaction, life satisfaction, and self-esteem) of this population had medium effect sizes relative to depression; and (iii) use of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale, residence in agricultural areas, average age, and average length of stay in Korea had significant moderating effects. Based on these results, the authors discuss social work practices and policies for this population, suggesting the priorization of marriage-based migrant women in agricultural areas who have lived in Korea for short lengths of time.
The article presents a conceptual, historical, anthropological, psychological, and sociological review of cultural perspectives on love: how culture affects our experience and expression of love. The evidence suggests that love is a universal emotion experienced by a majority of people, in various historical eras, and in all the world’s cultures, but manifests itself in different ways because culture has an impact on people’s conceptions of love and the way they feel, think, and behave in romantic relationships.
This study investigates whether parental marital status affects young adults’ attitudes toward marriage and divorce. There exists a vast amount of literature on the impact of divorce on young adults in Western cultures; however, no previous empirical studies have been conducted on the attitudes of young adults from intact and divorced families in the Gulf region or in Arab countries in the Middle East. The sample of the study consisted of 661 young adults from Kuwait University (from divorced and intact families). The findings reveal that adults whose parents divorced show fewer positive attitudes toward marriage than do those individuals from intact marriages. The study also suggests that adults whose parents were divorced carry more positive attitudes toward divorce compared with individuals from intact marriages. Furthermore, gender was found to be an important factor in shaping attitudes toward marriage and divorce. A longitudinal study is recommended to look at the changes in young adults’ attitudes toward marriage and divorce over time, which will help to identify the influence of other factors of attitudes toward marriage and divorce.
In this paper we examine the marital role expectations and perceptions of spouse's role expectations with respect to childcare, housework, money management, and earning income in a sample of 489 married couples. We analyze degree of agreement between spouses about expectations, accuracy of the perceptions about a partner's expectations, the differences between expectations and behaviors, and the effects of expectations and perceptions of expectations on role performance. Results indicate that: (1) marriage partners do not want to give up their own traditional gender roles even though they are willing to participate in the traditional roles of the opposite sex; (2) spouses accurately perceive their partner's expectations about half the time, and husbands are more accurate than wives; (3) spouses think they carry more responsibility for household duties than their partners think they do; (4) perceptions of partner's expectations significantly influence spouses' role performances; and (5) the husband's expectations are powerful predictors of performance, indicating that male prerogatives in marital role bargaining are still quite strong.
This article uses couple-level data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N= 2,263) to investigate factors associated with unmarried parents’ expectations about marriage and the association between their expectations and subsequent union transitions. In most couples, both partners expect to marry, and their shared expectations are the strongest predictor of marriage and separation following their child's birth. Although men's expectations are somewhat more consequential for union transitions, marriage and relationship stability are more likely when at least one parent expects to marry. Factors such as children from previous relationships, distrust, conflict, and shared activities are also associated with union transitions. Findings about how expectations and other factors relate to marriage and separation may inform new marriage promotion initiatives.
Dynamic stereotypes characterize social groups that are thought to have changed from the attributes they manifested in the past and even to continue to change in the future. According to social role theory’s assumption that the role behavior of group members shapes their stereotype, groups should have dynamic stereotypes to the extent that their typical social roles are perceived to change over time. Applied to men and women, this theory makes two predictions about perceived change: (a) perceivers should think that sex differences are eroding because of increasing similarity of the roles of men and women and (b) the female stereotype should be particularly dynamic because of greater change in the roles of women than of men. This theory was tested and confirmed in five experiments that examined perceptions of the roles and the personality, cognitive, and physical attributes of men and women of the past, present, and future.
We use longitudinal survey data from a national sample of married persons to examine how changes in gender role attitudes over an eight-year period are related to reported changes in marital quality. Structural equation models are used to estimate reciprocal relations between these variables. Our analysis indicates that when wives adopt less traditional gender role attitudes, their perceived marital quality declines. On the other hand when husbands adopt less traditional attitudes, their perceived marital quality increases. We find no evidence that changes in reported marital quality affect the gender role attitudes of either husbands or wives.
Provides a general exposition on competing theoretical and conceptual models of interpersonal commitment, with special emphasis on the commitment framework the author has developed over the past 30 yrs. This model contains 3 basic types of commitment: personal, moral, and structural. Central to this chapter is the argument that commitment is best regarded as a multidimensional construct rather than a global orientation toward relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous research has found that genetic and nonshared environmental factors influence marital quality (Spotts et al., 2004). The current study explored personality as a source for these genetic and environmental individual differences. A sample of 752 Swedish twin women and their spouses were used. Genetic and environmental influences were found for self-report measures of marital quality, but only environmental factors contributed to the variance of observational measures of marital quality. Wives' personality characteristics accounted for genetic and nonshared environmental variance in the wives' own marital satisfaction, their husbands' marital satisfaction, and the agreement between the spouses on the quality of their marriage. Genetic influences on the correlation between wives' genetically influenced personality characteristics and their husbands' marital satisfaction indicate a gene–environment correlation. Contrary to expectations, husbands' personality did not explain large portions of wives' marital satisfaction beyond that explained by wives' personality. This study emphasizes the importance of spousal personality to the well-being of marriages, and results are discussed within the context of three different theories regarding associations between personality and marital quality. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Work and family issues are becoming increasingly important for both women and men. This study examines college students' plans
and attitudes concerning work and family, gender differences in attitudes and expectations, and the effect of gender role
attitudes on future expectations. Findings indicate that a majority of men and women expect to marry, have children, and work
full-time. While men expect to work more hours at a job, there are no gender differences in ideal work hours. Women who hold
more egalitarian gender role attitudes are less definitive in their plans to marry and have children. Egalitarian men expect
to work fewer hours and are more willing to stay at home than their traditional counterparts.
Sixty-three samples providing single-sex means on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory [BSRI; S. L. Bem (1974) “The Measurement of Psychological
Androgyny,”Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 42, pp. 155–162] and 40 reporting similar data on the Personal Attributes Questionnaire [PAQ; J. T. Spence and R. L.
Helmreich (1978)Masculinity and Feminity, Austin University of Texas Press] for American undergraduates were located and analyzed. Women’s scores on the BSRI-M and
PAQ-M (masculine) scales have increased steadily over time (r’s = .74 and .43, respectively). Women’s BSRI-F and PAQ-F (feminine) scale scores do not correlate with year. Men’s BSRI-M
scores show a weaker positive relationship with year of administration (r = .47). The effect size for sex differences on the BSRI-M has also changed over time, showing a significant decrease over
the twenty-year period. The results suggest that cultural change and environment may affect individual personalities; these
changes in BSRI and PAQ means demonstrate women’s increased endorsement of masculine-stereotyped traits and men’s continued
nonendorsement of feminine-steretyped traits.
Sociotropy and autonomy are two personality dimensions that relate to an individual's vulnerability to depression. Independent and interdependent self-construals are two distinctive cognitive formulations of the self derived from cross-cultural research. Both of these sets of constructs reflect self and other orientations. The purpose of the present study was to empirically examine the various factors that emerge when these two constructs are integrated. 652 participants responded to the Personal Style Inventory [Robins, C. J., Ladd, J., Welkowitz, J., Blaney, P. H., Diaz, R. & Kutcher, G. (1991). The Personal Style Inventory: Preliminary validation studies of new measures of sociotropy and autonomy. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 16, 277–300.], the Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale [Clark, D. A. & Beck, A. T. (1991). Personality factors in dysphoria: A psychometric refinement of Beck's Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 13, 369–388.] and the Self-Construal Scale [Singelis, T. M. (1994). The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 580–591.]. Four factors emerged from a factor analysis conducted on the items of the three scales measuring sociotropy-autonomy and independent and interdependent self-construal. These four factors are discussed in the context of vulnerability to depression.
Beck (1983) proposed that two personality dimensions––sociotropy and automony––confer vulnerability to the onset of depressive episodes. Although gender differences are posited, with women more likely to manifest sociotropic personality traits than men, and men more likely to display autonomous personality traits than women (Beck, 1983), there has been virtually no specific attention directed to gender differences in these personality traits and their relation to depression. In this study, the personality profiles of sociotropic and autonomous men and women, measured by the Revised Personal Style Inventory (PSI-II, Robins et al., 1994) were compared by using the domains and facets of the five-factor model of personality (FFM; Costa & McCrae, 1992) in a sample of patients with major depression (118 men, 202 women). A gender difference emerged from the pattern of correlations between PSI-II sociotropy and autonomy and the domains and facets of the Five-Factor Model of personality (FFM), suggesting that sociotropy and autonomy can signify different things for depressed men and women.
Although gender beliefs play an important role in shaping adolescents’ mental health and risk behavior, little is known about the development of such beliefs or the role that parents play in gender socialization. Qualitative accounts suggest that parental messages are varied and often inconsistent, but no instruments exist that allow for a systematic examination of message content or the nature of such inconsistencies. Further, little is known about the impact of receiving conflicting socialization on gender conflict – internalizing conflicting gender expectations.
Accordingly, the aim of the current work was to develop ways to quantitatively assess gender socialization and gender conflict and to test for connections to mental health and risk behavior among adolescents. The first study used a sample of 272 undergraduates to validate a Gender Socialization Scale that measured eight socialization discourses such as being nice, being tough, and traditional gender roles. A sample of 291 undergraduates was used to develop a Gender Conflict Scale that measured participants’ perceptions of conflicting gender role expectations. The second study used the same sample to expand the Gender Socialization Scale to include discourses pertaining to gendered expectations in sexual situations, such as abstinence and the sexual double standard. Results from this study showed that receiving some types of conflicting messages was linked with increased gender conflict, which, in turn, was associated with depression, anxiety, body dissatisfaction and a greater number of sexual partners. Finally, using a sample of 259 high school students, results from the third study linked receiving conflicting socialization with increased gender conflict for younger adolescents. Associations between socialization, gender conflict, gender attitudes, and outcomes were then simultaneously modeled using SEM. Socialization messages about gender predicted adolescents’ own gender beliefs, but neither construct was related to outcomes. Abstinence communication, however, was associated with less sexual risk and substance use, whereas communication endorsing the sexual double standard was related to more risk. Receiving messages regarding the sexual double standard was also associated with increased gender conflict, which was related to anxiety, depression, and body dissatisfaction. However, receiving messages promoting egalitarian gender roles was associated with a decrease in gender conflict.
To explore the magnitude of overlap between sociotropy and autonomy with sex-role orientation, relations of Beck's Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale with 6 measures of sex-role orientation were examined using a convenience sample of 153 undergraduate students. The sample included 95 women and 58 men whose mean age was 20.4 yr. A principal axis factor analysis yielded two dear factors, one masculine and one feminine. Sociotropy related strongly to the feminine factor, and Autonomy related strongly to the masculine factor. The mean score for women was significantly higher than that for men on Sociotropy, but the mean difference on Autonomy was not statistically significant. These findings suggest there may be some definitional overlap between vulnerability to depression and sex-role orientation.
One hundred and nine couples completed questionnaire measures of psychological symptoms, personality, and marital adjustment. They were divided into groups of short, intermediate, and long marriage duration. Psychological symptoms and marital adjustment remained fairly stable over time, although wives scored significantly worse than husbands on most measures in the intermediate duration group. In the short marriages, half the variance in marital satisfaction was predicted by the partner's marital questionnaire score, but when this variable was eliminated from the regression equation, psychological symptoms (phobic anxiety in wives and depression in husbands) were the main predictors of marital satisfaction. In the intermediate group, hostility levels were the main predictors of marital satisfaction. In the long marriages, marital satisfaction was predicted mainly by personality factors (assertiveness in husbands and personal flexibility in wives) and by levels of generalized anxiety. The findings suggest that couples who constructively resolve difficulties in expressing hostility within marriage are more likely to remain married than those who fail to do so.
Gender roles perceptions and psychological well-being of university students. Unpublished master's thesis
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Arıcı, F. (2011). Gender roles perceptions and psychological well-being of university students.
Unpublished master's thesis. Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.
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Balık, T. (2017). Investigation of the relationship between stress management style and psychological
symptoms of adults with sociotropic and autonomic personality traits. Unpublished master's
thesis. Işık University,İstanbul, Turkey.
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Psychologist, 50(3), 164-168. doi:10.1037/0003
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Doğan, H. (2010). The relationship between sociotrophic-autonomic personality traits of married couples
and the conflicts in their marriages. Unpublished master's thesis. Çukurova University, Adana,
Turkey.
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Karairmak, Ö., & Siviş-Çetinkaya, R. (2011). The effects of self-esteem and locus of control on resilience:
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consequences with emphasis on student marriages in universities. Journal of Culture of the
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Yetişkin örneklem için bir benlik saygısı ölçeğinin güvenirlik ve geçerlik çalışması
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Korkmaz, M. (1996). Yetişkin örneklem için bir benlik saygısı ölçeğinin güvenirlik ve geçerlik
çalışması. Unpublished Master's Thesis. Ege University, Institute of Social Sciences, İzmir,
Turkey.
The moderating role of gender and gender role attitudes on the link between spousal support and marital quality
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Mickelson, K. D., Claffey, S. T., & Williams, S. L. (2006). The moderating role of gender and gender role
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Optimizing assurance: The risk regulation system in relationships
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A revision requirement in Turkish divorve law. Public and Private International Law Bulletin
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Bilişsel davranışçı terapilerde değerlendirme: Sık kullanılan ölçekler. Türk Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları
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Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları. İstanbul, Turkey.
Using multivariate statistics
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Conceptualizing gender in marriage: The case of marital care
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The case for marriage: Why married people are happier, healthier, and better off financially
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Romantic relationship experiences in emerging adulthood
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Uçar, S. (2017). Romantic relationship experiences in emerging adulthood. Unpublished doctoral thesis.
İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey.