Self-Ear Cleaning Practices and the Associated Risks: A Systematic Review

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Naturally the ear produces soft wax from the sebaceous and ceruminous gland. This is what is referred to as earwax. This wax is important for protection of the ear by trapping dust and other foreign particles that could damage the eardrum. It also has some antibacterial properties. Jaw movements, like during chewing, moves the old earwax from inside the ear canal to the outside and finally flakes off. Build-up of this wax in the ear causes hearing loss, pain in the ear, irritation, dizziness and ringing in the ears. Self-ear cleaning refers to self-insertion of objects into the ear canal, with an attempt to remove the wax to get rid of these symptoms. It is a common practice amongst many individuals. Potentially, this rids the ear of its protective defences in addition to posing a risk of ear related injuries. This review paper aims to determine the prevalence of self-ear cleaning, the common methods used and the complications associated with this practice. METHODS: Electronic retrieval of articles for review was done from PubMed, Google and Google scholar with key-ward – self-ear cleaning, ear-wax, cerumen. Many articles were retrieved but only a few were about self-ear cleaning and only seven could be included in this review. The inclusion criteria included: article published in English language; study carried between 2005 and 2020 inclusive; article discussing materials used and complications associated with self-ear cleaning. Articles older than 15 years or published in languages other than English were excluded. RESULTS: On average the prevalence of self-ear cleaning amongst all studies was 76.6%. The commonest method used for ear cleaning was cotton buds with an average of 69.6%. Wax/dirt removal was the commonest reason for engaging in this practice. Several complications arising from this practice included perforation of eardrum, retained foreign body and otitis externa. CONCLUSION: In addition to ridding the ear of its natural protection, self-ear cleaning is associated with a risk of injury to the ear drum and retention of foreign bodies. Community education to avoid this practice is therefore of paramount importance. Trained health care providers should be consulted whenever someone has a problem related to hearing or any other symptoms.

Full text

Global Journal of Health Science; Vol. 13, No. 5; 2021
ISSN 1916-9736 E-ISSN 1916-9744
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education
44
Self-Ear Cleaning Practices and the Associated Risks: A Systematic
Review
Linda N Lukolo1, Lukanga C Kimera2 & Gentz Pilbee3
1 Department of Community & Family Medicine, Faculty oh Health Sciences, University of Namibia, Namibia
2 Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Namibia, Namibia
3 School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Namibia, Namibia
Correspondence: Linda N Lukolo, Department of Community & Family Medicine, Faculty oh Health Sciences,
University of Namibia, Namibia.
Received: October 22, 2020 Accepted: March 1, 2021 Online Published: March 30, 2021
doi:10.5539/gjhs.v13n5p44 URL: https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v13n5p44
Abstract
Background: Naturally the ear produces soft wax from the sebaceous and ceruminous gland. This is what is
referred to as earwax. This wax is important for protection of the ear by trapping dust and other foreign particles
that could damage the eardrum. It also has some antibacterial properties. Jaw movements, like during chewing,
moves the old earwax from inside the ear canal to the outside and finally flakes off. Build-up of this wax in the ear
causes hearing loss, pain in the ear, irritation, dizziness and ringing in the ears. Self-ear cleaning refers to
self-insertion of objects into the ear canal, with an attempt to remove the wax to get rid of these symptoms. It is a
common practice amongst many individuals. Potentially, this rids the ear of its protective defences in addition to
posing a risk of ear related injuries. This review paper aims to determine the prevalence of self-ear cleaning, the
common methods used and the complications associated with this practice.
Methods: Electronic retrieval of articles for review was done from PubMed, Google and Google scholar with
key-ward – self-ear cleaning, ear-wax, cerumen. Many articles were retrieved but only a few were about self-ear
cleaning and only seven could be included in this review. The inclusion criteria included: article published in
English language; study carried between 2005 and 2020 inclusive; article discussing materials used and
complications associated with self-ear cleaning. Articles older than 15 years or published in languages other than
English were excluded.
Results: On average the prevalence of self-ear cleaning amongst all studies was 76.6%. The commonest method
used for ear cleaning was cotton buds with an average of 69.6%. Wax/dirt removal was the commonest reason for
engaging in this practice. Several complications arising from this practice included perforation of eardrum,
retained foreign body and otitis externa.
Conclusion: In addition to ridding the ear of its natural protection, self-ear cleaning is associated with a risk of
injury to the ear drum and retention of foreign bodies. Community education to avoid this practice is therefore of
paramount importance. Trained health care providers should be consulted whenever someone has a problem
related to hearing or any other symptoms.
Keywords: cerumen, cotton bud use, ear-injury, earwax, self-ear cleaning
1. Introduction
Self-ear cleaning is the practice of inserting an object into the ear canal with the aim of cleaning the internal part of
the ear. However, this practice potentially compromises the integrity of the natural cleansing mechanism of the ear,
and pose a risk to possible injuries (Khan, Thaver, & Govender, 2017). It is not uncommon for people to get rid of
wax in their ears and it is a global assumption that wax is considered dirt, despite its physiological usefulness of
protecting the ear from dust and foreign bodies. The ear has a physiological, natural cleansing mechanism, thus
the practice of inserting objects into the ear canal for cleaning it is not necessary and may be harmful. There are
risks of inflicting injury to the ear and in worse cases these complications may need urgent medical attention i.e.,
tympanoplasty or instrumental removal of retained objects. These complications may lead to life-long sequelae,
such as hearing impairment (Khan, Thaver, & Govender, 2004). Common objects inserted into the ear canal
include cotton buds, matchstick, broomsticks, tree twigs, towel tips, ball pen tips or their covers and the fingers.
Inserting these objects into the ear may disturb its normal pH, function and anatomical structure (perforation).

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There is lack of understanding the importance of consulting a trained health professional in the case of ear
problems such as itch, dizziness, loss of hearing due to wax impaction, etc. Health professionals are trained to
clean ears by safer means if medically required.
Ear wax lubricates, cleans and protects the external auditory canal. Self-ear cleaning rids the ear of this wax and
potentially leads to ear infections, trauma and perforation of the tympanic membrane as objects are inserted
blindly into the ear canal. Wax removal alters the integrity of the ear's natural physiological defences. Ignorance of
this fact leads to wrong practices with serious consequences (Oladeji, Babatunde, Babatunde, & Sogebi, 2015).
Several hospital-based studies have shown that self-ear cleaning is common in several countries including Nigeria,
Malaysia, England, and the United States. A study on “Self-Ear-Cleaning Among Educated Young Adults in
Nigeria by Olaosun (2014) showed that 90% of participants practiced self-ear-cleaning and majority of those who
did, believed that it was for ear hygiene.
According to, Afolabi, Kodiya, Bakari and Ahmad (2009), the tradition of self-ear cleaning should be discouraged
as it may be an otologic poison with unfavourable long-term effects such as otitis externa, otomycosis and
impaired hearing. The practice is also associated with some other diseases of the ear (Afolabi, Kodiya, Bakari, &
Ahmad, 2009).
2. Methods
In this review paper, we aimed at determining the prevalence of self-ear cleaning, the methods used to perform the
practice and the associated complications. We reviewed seven articles with similar objectives; self-ear cleaning
practices and the associated risk of ear injuries. Electronic retrieval of articles for review was done from PubMed,
Google and Google scholar with key-ward – self-ear cleaning, ear-wax, cerumen cotton but use. Many articles
were retrieved but only seven were about self-ear cleaning and could be included in this review. The inclusion
criteria included: article published in English language; study carried out between 2005 and 2020 inclusive; article
discussing self-ear cleaning, materials used and complications associated. Articles older than 15 years or
published in languages other than English were excluded.
3. Results
The results of our search, screening and evaluation of the studies are summarized in the table below:

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46
Tab le 1.
Author
Ye a r
Country
Study design
Population group
N= respondents
Age range
Males vs females
N=practice
self-ear
cleaning,
Male vs
female
Commonest method and
others in chronological
order
Commonest reason
and others Symptoms experienced
Complications
experienced
(need urgent medical
attention)
Amutta et al.
2013
Nigeria
Prospective study
Patients and staff and students
of UDUTH
N=200
18-60 (mean
30.29) years
N= 93 males
(46k.5%)
N= 107 females
(53.5%)
N=160 (80%)
Cotton bud (N=146;
91.2%)
Feather
Broom stick
Finger
Match stick
Removal of dirt
(N=65; 40.6%)
Itchy ears
Ear wax removal
Water in ear
Ear blockage
Prevention of
infection
Not demonstrated in this study
Only 25% of those
practicing self-ear
cleaning experienced
complications
Otitis externa
Retained object in
EAC
Pain
Bleeding from EAC
Khan, Thaver
and Govender
2017
South Africa
Descriptive study
First to final year undergraduate
students in the School of Health
Sciences at UKZN
N= 206
Mean age range
20-21 years old
N= 48 males
(23.4%)
N= 158 females
(76.6%)
N= 201
(98%)
Cotton bud (65%)
Tow el
Finger
Match stick
ENT
Other
(participants chose
more than one
reason,
responses=275)
Wax removal (N=99;
32%)
Dirt
Itchiness
Soothing
Hearing difficulty
Earache
Of those who use cotton buds
(N=154; 74.7%)
Itchiness (N=85/137; 62%)
Earache (N=73/128; 57%)
Feeling of fullness in ear
(N=39/102; 38.2%)
Tinnitus
Hearing difficulty
Ear discharge
N=5 (2.4%) out of 206
participants
Perforated tympanic
membrane (N=2)
Lacerations and ear
infections (N=3)
Gadanya, et
al.
2016
Nigeria
Descriptive cross-sectional
study
Medical doctors working in
Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital
N=118
Age range: 25-55
(mean age=33.6
years)
Males N=38;
32.0%
N= 53
(44.9%)
Cotton buds was the only
method included in this
study, hence N=53 (44.4%)
Out of 53
participants:
Hygiene (N=29;
54.7%)
Ear wax removal
Wax impaction (N= 23)
Discharge from ear (N=10)
Tinnitus (N=2)
Retained product in
EAC (N=48)
Trauma to ear (N=29)

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Females N=80;
68.0%
(N=15; 228.3%)
Itchiness (N=2;
3.8%)
Others (N=7; 13.2%)
Adegbiji, et
al. 2018
Nigeria
Descriptive cross-sectional
study in the rural community,
mostly farmers, unemployed
artisans and civil servants
N=182
Age range: all age
groups
Mean age=21-30
years old
Males N=166
(46.4%)
Females N=192
(53.6%)
N= 358
(93.7%):
By self:
N=178
(49.7%)
By parents:
N=122
(34.1%)
By a friend:
N=31 (8.7%)
By spouse:
N=27 (7.5%)
Some respondents had
more than one
object/method:
Sticks were the commonest
(N= 155; 43.3%)
Finger (N= 121; 33.8%)
Cotton bud (N= 94; 26.3%)
Feather (N=45; 12.6%)
Keys (N=26; 7.3%)
Toothpick (N= 14; 3.9%)
Biro cover (N=9; 2.5%)
Paper roll (N=2; 0.8%)
Out of the 385
participants:
Dirt/earwax removal
(N=108; 30.3%)
Personal hygiene
(N=81; 22.6%)
Itching (N=56;
15.6%)
Hearing impairment
(N=39; 10.9%)
Water in ear (N=37;
10.3%)
Ear blockage (N=
19; 5.3%)
Ear discharge
(N=18; 5.0%)
Out of the 358 participants, 135
participants did not have
symptoms/complications.
Otalgia (N=223; 62.3%)
Itching (N=168; 46.9%)
Dirty ear canal (N=157; 43.9%)
Hearing loss (N=122; 34.1%)
Tinnitus (N=41; 11.5%)
Bleeding (N=23; 6.4%)
Ear discharge (N=19; 5.3%)
NOTE: some respondents had
more than 1 symptom
Retained product in
EAC (N= 128; 35.8%)
Injury in externa ear
(N=78; 21.8%)
Perforated tympanic
membrane (N=17;
4.7%)
Adoga &
Nimkur
2013
Nigeria
Cross-sectional study amongst
Health Professionals at the Jos
University Teaching Hospital
N= 141
Age range 25-59
years (mean age of
42 years)
Males N=94
Females N=47
N=129
(91.5%)
Commonest is cotton buds
(N=115; 89.1%)
Spatula
Ball-pen covers
Ball-pen tips
Match sticks
Bobby pins
Chicken
Feathers
Fingers
Reasons for self-ear
cleaning was not
explored in this
study
(n=117; 90.7% had no injuries or
symptoms experienced)
Wax impaction N=1
N=12 (9.3%)
Abrasion to EAC
N=10
Perforated tympanic
membrane N=1

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Car keys
Olaosun
2014
Nigeria
Cross-sectional study among
educated young adults in
Nigeria
N=1012
Age range not
demonstrated but
mean range is 25.3
years.
Males N=488
Females N=507
N= 929
(93.4%)
Males N=465
(91.7%)
Females
N=464
(95.1%)
Commonest object used
were cotton bud (85.1%) of
respondents. Other
methods were not
demonstrated in this study
_
_
_
Lee,
Govindaraju
& Hon
2005
Malaysia
Prospective study amongst
patients who attended
outpatient clinic at Hospital
Kuala Lumpur (random, but
excluding patients with ENT
problems) N=50
Age range 15-74
(mean age of 40.7
years)
Males N=25
Females N=25
N=18 (36%)
From the n=18: cotton buds
= 86%
Towel = 6%
Metal probe= 6%
Finger =2%
Wax= 70%
Itchy= 15%
Water=6%
Dirt=9%
_
Otitis externa N=1
(2%)

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In a prospective study done in Nigeria, amongst patients and healthy individuals (staff and students) from Usmanu
Danfodiyo University Teaching Hospital (UDUT), 19.5% (n=39) did not engage in self-ear cleaning practice while
80% (n=160) practiced self-ear cleaning (Amutta et al., 2013). The participants were in the age range of 18–60
years with mean age of 30.29 years old. There were more females than males, n=107 (53.5%) and n=93 (46.5%)
respectively. In descending order, the methods or objects used for self-ear cleaning were cotton buds (n= 146;
91.2%), biro cover/tip (n=6; 3.7%), feather (n=3; 1.9%), broom stick (n=2; 1.3%), finger (n=2; 1.3%) and match
stick (n=1; 0.6%). The reasons for performing self-ear cleaning were removal of dirt with n=65 (40.6%), itchy ears
(n=48; 30%), ear wax (n=25; 15.6%), ear blockage (n=22; 13.8%), and water in the ear (n=10, 6.2%). Out of
the160 respondents who admitted to self-ear cleaning practices, 25% (n=40) of them experienced complications.
The complications included otitis externa 10.6% (n=17), retained object in external auditory canal (EAC) 6.9%
(n=11), pain 6.3% (n=10) and bleeding from EAC 1.2% (n=2).
In another descriptive study in South Africa amongst undergraduate students in the School of Health Sciences at
the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) (Khan et al., 2017), there were a total participant of n=206 with a mean
age range of 20–21 years old. Majority of these participants were females n=158 (76.6%), compared to males n=48
(23.4%). Out of 206 participants, 98% (n=201) reported to have practiced self-ear cleaning. The methods used for
self-ear cleaning in this study included cotton buds (65%), towel (20%), fingers (5%), match sticks (2%), ENT (2%)
and others (3%). The most common reason for self-ear cleaning included removal of wax 36% (n=99), dirt 31%
(n=85), ear itchiness 20%, soothing 8%, hearing difficulty 3% and earache 2%. Only 2.4% (n=5) of the 206
respondents experienced complications that required medical attention, 2 with perforated tympanic membrane of
which one needed tympanoplasty and 3 had lacerations and ear infection.
In a descriptive cross-sectional study amongst a group of medical doctors at Aminu Kano Hospital in Nigeria by
Gadanya, Abubakar, Ahmed, and Maje (2016), out of a total of 118 participants, 44.9% (n=53) admitted to having
done self-ear cleaning before. All of them used cotton buds. The reasons given for self-ear cleaning included
keeping good hygiene 54.7% (n=29), removal of ear wax 28.3% (n=15), itchiness 3.8% (n=2) and other
reasons13.2% (n=7). In this group, complications from the practice that required urgent medical attention included
retained foreign body (n=48) and trauma to the ear (n=29).
In a descriptive cross-sectional study in a rural community of Nigeria by Adegbiji, Olajide, Olubi & Aluko (2018),
the participants were mainly farmers and civil servants. The total number of respondents was 382 of whom 166
(46.4%) were males and 192 (53.6%) were females. The mean age group was 21-30 years of age. Only 47.9%
(n=178) had practiced self-ear cleaning. The objects used to clean ears included sticks 43.3% (n=155) followed by
fingers 33.8% (n=121), cotton buds 26.3% (n=94), feathers 12.6% (n=45), keys 7.3% (n=26), toothpick 3.9%
(n=14), biro cover 2.5% (n=9) and paper roll 0.8% (n=2). The reasons for self-ear cleaning in this group included
dirt/earwax removal 30.3% (n=108), personal hygiene 22.6% (n=81), itching 15.6% (n=56), hearing impairment
10.9% (n=39), water in ear 10.3% (n=37), ear blockage 5.3% (n=19) and ear discharge 5.0% (n=18).
Complications experienced by this group included retained foreign bodies in EAC 35.8% (n= 128) of which 21.8%
(n=78) received medical attention to remove foreign bodies, injury to external ear 21.8% (n=78) and perforated
tympanic membrane 4.7% (n=17).
A cross-sectional study involving 141 (94 males and 47 females) Health professionals at Jos University Teaching
Hospital in Nigeria by Adoga and Nimkur (2013), demonstrated that 91.5% (n=129) of the participants practiced
self-ear cleaning. The participants were in the age range 25-59 years with mean age of 42 years. 89.1% (n=115) of
those who practiced self-ear cleaning used cotton buds. Other methods/materials used included spatula, ball-pen
covers, ball-pen tips, matchsticks, bobby pins, chicken feathers, fingers and car keys. This study did not explore
the reasons for self-ear cleaning. Only 9.3% of those who practice self-ear leaning reported complications
including abrasion to EAC, perforated tympanic membrane and wax impaction.
In a cross-sectional study involving 1012 young educated participants (488 male and 508 females) in Nigeria by
Olaosun (2014), found that 929 (93.4%) of all participants (465 males and 464 females) practiced self-ear cleaning.
In this study the commonest object, 85.1%, used were cotton buds. This study also did not explore the reasons for
self-ear cleaning.
A prospective study involving 50 outpatients (25 males and 25 females) in Kuala Lampur, Malaysia by Lee,
Govindaraju and Hon (2005) demonstrated 36% (n=18) practiced self-ear cleaning practices. Their age range was
15-74 years with a mean range of 40.7 years. Of those who practiced self-ear cleaning, 85% used cotton buds.
Other objects used included towel (6%), metal probe (6%) and finger (2%). The reasons for self-ear cleaning
identified in this study were wax (70%), itchiness (15%), water in ear (6%), and dirt in ear (9%). Only one
respondent reported a complication of otitis externa as a result of self-ear cleaning.

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In a prospective study carried out at the Tundun-wada community and National Ear Care Centre, Kaduna by
Abdulrahmnam and colleagues, about 27% had ear discharge, 22% wax impaction and 12% had foreign bodies as
complications resulting from self-ear cleaning. In this study there was a total of 372 participants with age range
1-76 years, a mean age of 30.37 years, median age 29.00 (S.D. = 13.79) and M:F ratio of 1:1. Mothers responded
for their children except for grown up. About 47.3% of the subjects were unemployed and these were either
children or complete house wife. About 90% of the subjects interviewed practiced self-ear cleaning and over 90%
believed the ear should be cleaned to remove wax, over 50% because of itchiness or for cosmetic reasons. Cotton
bud was the commonest material used for cleaning.
4. Discussion
4.1 Prevalence of self-ear cleaning
The findings in the articles reviewed showed the prevalence of self-ear cleaning to be persistently above 90%.
Only two studies (Lee, Govindaraju & Hon, 2005 and Gadanya et al., 2016) had lower prevalence of 36% and 44.9%
respectively. It is, therefore, evident that the self-ear cleaning is a common practice. Since these studies were
conducted in different settings (educated population, health professionals, university students, rural settings), it can
be deduced that the practice of self-ear cleaning is common in all social backgrounds. The prevalence is mainly
high in those in their 2nd -3rd decades (Amutta et al., 2013; Khan, Thaver, & Govender, 2017; Gadanya et al., 2016;
Adegbiji et al., 2018; Olaosun, 2014). Only two studies (Lee, Govindaraju, & Hon, 2005; Adoga & Nimkur, 2013)
had peaks in the prevalence in the practice in the 4th decade. Regarding gender, only one study by Olaosun (2014)
analysed gender difference and found that females are more likely to perform self-ear-cleaning than males.
According to Adegbiji et al. (2018), however, females are generally more active in personal hygiene compared to
males.
4.2 Materials used for Self-Ear Cleaning
Several methods/materials were found to have been used for self-ear cleaning in these studies, but what came most
commonly were cotton buds. Significantly, however, a study by Adegbiji et al. (2018) carried out in the rural
community showed that sticks were more commonly used (43.3%), followed by fingers (33.8%) and cotton buds
(26.3%). It, therefore, can be deduced that the object used is dependent on the environment and the socio-economic
status of the population. Hence, sticks, feathers and fingers are more commonly used in rural areas whereas cotton
buds are commonly used in urban settings (Adegjibi et al., 2018).
4.3 Reasons for Self-Ear Cleaning
In the articles that were reviewed, there were several reasons for individuals to practice self-ear cleaning. The
commonest reason was to remove dirt/wax from the ear. Wax is wrongly perceived as dirt or debris and thus the
urge to remove it. The other reasons were itchiness, feeling of water in the ear, soothing, and ear blockage or
impaired hearing. It is evident in several studies that earwax is believed to be dirt and unhygienic due to its brown
sticky characteristic. However, Cerumen (earwax) is a normal physiologic excretion from the ceruminous and the
sebaceous glands forming part of the outer third of external auditory canal. Earwax is composed of glycopeptides,
lipids, hyaluronic acid, sialic acid, lysosomal enzymes and immunoglobulins. Earwax serves a protective function,
by maintaining an acidic environment (pH of 5.2 - 7.0) in the external auditory canal as well as lubricating the
canal. Additionally, earwax has antibacterial and antifungal properties (Oladeji, Babatunde, Babatunde, & Sogebi,
2015). According to Khan et al., (2017), self-ear cleaning practices has evidently been found to compromise the
integrity of the ear’s self-cleansing mechanism.
4.5 Complications of Self-Ear Cleaning
Some subjects from all articles reviewed have had complications resulting from self-ear cleaning. According to
Khan et al. (2017), the most frequently seen complications in the ENT departments are retained cotton bud ends as
well as match stick ends stuck in the ear. Other complications of self-ear cleaning include perforated tympanic
membrane and otitis externa. Majority of patients who get complications are from the rural setting (Adegbiji et al.,
2018). Nonetheless, most of these complications are self-limiting. In a study by Khan et al. (2017), however, 5 of
206 participants had serious complications two of whom experienced perforated tympanic membrane and one
required tympanoplasty.
5. Recommendations
Based on the literature, there is no doubt that self-ear cleaning is a common practice. It is also evident that risks
such as injuries to the inner ear and complications such as perforation of tympanic membrane and retention of
foreign bodies are real. We therefore recommend the following:

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• Health education against self-ear cleaning. It is recommended that priority be put on teaching primary
school pupils to avoid putting objects in their ears. They should as well be made aware of the possible
dangers/complications of doing so right from the young age such that the vice should not be done in
adulthood.
• For adults and the general public, health education against self-ear cleaning could form part of health
promotion package given at primary health care facilities. The community should be sensitized about the
danger and the complications that may occur because of self-ear cleaning practices. Ear, nose and throat
(ENT) department should create awareness campaign conveying basic information on the danger of
self-ear cleaning practices; people should be encouraged to develop a health seeking behaviour from
trained health personnel.
• Health professionals need to promote safe practices for the public to follow. The review has shown that
some health professionals also practice self-ear cleaning yet they know that it is harmful. This habit
should be discouraged, as it is a slow otologic poison leading to potential risks of ear injuries (Afolabi et
al., 2009).
6. Conclusion
The practice of self-ear cleaning among all ages is common. In addition to ridding the ear of its natural protection,
self-ear cleaning is associated with a risk of injury to the ear drum, retention of foreign bodies and other
complications as someone blindly inserts objects into the ear canal. Community education to avoid this practice is
therefore of paramount importance. Trained health care providers should be consulted whenever someone has a
problem related to hearing or any other symptom.
Competing Interests Statement
The authors declare that there are no competing or potential conflicts of interest.
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