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Occurrence of emerging contaminants in highly anthropogenically influenced river Yamuna in India

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Abstract

River Yamuna is one of the major lifelines of Northern India. The study quantified 16 target compounds including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and hormones in the Yamuna river. Surface water samples were collected from 13 locations spanning 575 km along the river, and from two of its tributaries, Hindon river and Hindon canal. Spatiotemporal variations in the occurrence of the target compounds at the 13 sites during summer and post-monsoon season were investigated. Caffeine, estrone, gemfibrozil, sulfamethoxazole, testosterone and trimethoprim were found in all the samples, indicating substantial usage and/or persistence in the environment. The mean concentration of the target compounds ranged from 25.5 to 2187.5 ng/L. Higher concentrations were detected during the post monsoon, compared to the summer season. The highest concentration detected was of trimethoprim (8807.6 ng/L) during summer sampling, followed by caffeine (6489.9 ng/L) and gemfibrozil (2991 ng/L), during the post-monsoon sampling. The lowest concentration detected was of estrone (10.7 ng/L), during the summer sampling. The runoff from the catchment areas is one of the contributing factors for the increased concentration of the compounds during post monsoon. During summer, the river bed goes dry, facilitating the adsorption of the compounds onto the river bed sediments. The three sampling locations Okhla barrage (ponding of water from drains traversing Delhi), confluence of Yamuna with Shahadara drain (industrial and poultry cluster, and Ghazipur dumping yard) and Agra city (industrial clusters) were the hotspots in terms of total concentration of the target compounds. The study also reported the presence of PPCPs and hormones in the finished drinking water of two DWTPs at Mathura and Agra.

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... Recent studies are focusing on pseudo-persistent qualities and the dangers these pharmaceutical residues are posing to aquatic ecosystems when released in large quantities (Hossain et al., 2018). Pharmaceutically active compounds are frequently discharged in the aquatic ecosystem because of their wide spread production and consumption round the globe (Biswas & Vellanki, 2021). Among pharmaceutically active compounds, antibiotics are the most extensively used ones and are defined as chemotherapeutic compounds or agents that suppress bacterial growth and multiplication in host (Keerthanan et al., 2021). ...
... Throughout the world, antibiotics are being utilized as growth promoters in dairy, beef, and swine industries (Zhou et al., 2020). However, in countries like India, these are becoming a cause of concern due to excessive amount of antibiotic use in such industries (Biswas & Vellanki, 2021). As per the estimates, the poultry sector uses 42.2 tons of antibiotics annually, despite of the fact that salinomycin and spiramycin are currently prohibited medications (Zhou et al., 2020). ...
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Antibiotic residues are widely recognized as major pollutants in the aquatic environment on a global scale. As a significant class of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs), antibiotics are extensively consumed worldwide. The primary sources of these residues include hospitals, municipal sewage, household disposal, and manures from animal husbandry. These residues are frequently detected in surface and drinking waters, sewage effluents, soils, sediments, and various plant species in countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, Europe, the USA, Canada, and India. Antibiotics are used medicinally in both humans and animals, with a substantial portion excreted into the environment as metabolites in feces and urine. With the advancement of sensitive and quantitative analytical techniques, antibiotics are consistently reported in environmental matrices at concentrations ranging from nanograms per liter (ng/L) to milligrams per liter (mg/L). Agricultural soils, in particular, serve as a significant reservoir for antibiotic residues due to their strong particle adsorption capacities. Plants grown in soils irrigated with PhAC-contaminated water can uptake and accumulate these pharmaceuticals in various tissues, such as roots, leaves, and fruits, raising serious concerns regarding their consumption by humans and animals. There is an increasing need for research to understand the potential human health risks associated with the accumulation of antibiotics in the food chain. The present reviews aims to shed light on the rising environmental pharmaceutical contamination concerns, their sources in the environment, and the potential health risks as well as remediation effort. To discuss the main knowledge gaps and the future research that should be prioritized to achieve the risk assessment. We examined and summarized the available data and information on the antibiotic resistance associated with antibiotic residues in the environment. As studies have indicated that vegetables can absorb, transport, and accumulate antibiotics in edible parts when irrigated with wastewater that is either inadequately treated or untreated. These residues and their metabolites can enter the food chain, with their persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity contributing to drug resistance and adverse health effects in living organisms.
... Over the past 2 decades, an exponential surge in the number of ECs discovered in natural environments has been reported (Noguera-Oviedo and Aga, 2016;Morin-Crini et al., 2022). In particular, pharmaceuticals (Valdez-Carrillo et al., 2020;Biswas and Vellanki, 2021), PPCPs (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2020;Lin et al., 2020), flame retardants (Du et al., 2019), and PFAS (Xiong et al., 2019), have been increasingly detected in the environment. A fraction of ECs is natural or transformed chemicals from synthetic materials potentially originating due to biogeochemical processes in the environment. ...
... The presence of ECs in environmental matrices, such as wastewater systems, is associated with human activities. Increasing numbers of ECs in the water bodies have often been reported in urban areas with high anthropogenic activities (Castiglioni et al., 2018;Biswas and Vellanki, 2021). Contaminants can infiltrate the environment through various routes, including wastewater discharge, agricultural runoff, waste dumping sites, industrial activities, urban runoff, and atmospheric deposition. ...
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Emerging contaminants, including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, microplastics, and per-and poly-fluoroalkyl substances, pose a major threat to both ecosystems and human health in Southeast Asia. As this region undergoes rapid industrialization and urbanization, the increasing presence of unconventional pollutants in water bodies, soil, and various organisms has become an alarming concern. This review comprehensively examines the environmental challenges posed by emerging contaminants in Southeast Asia and recent progress in toxicity testing methods. We discuss the diverse range of emerging contaminants found in Southeast Asia, shedding light on their causes and effects on ecosystems, and emphasize the need for robust toxicological testing methods. This review is a valuable resource for researchers, policymakers, and environmental practitioners working to mitigate the impacts of emerging contaminants and secure a sustainable future for Southeast Asia.
... Several other authors studied these problematic of the presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment. For their relevance the works developed by Haddaoui and Mateo-Sagasta (2021), Biswas and Vellanki (2021), Reyes et al. (2021) and Fekadu et al. (2019) will be analyzed briefly. Haddaoui and Mateo-Sagasta (2021) studied the presence of pharmaceuticals in water from the Middle East and North Africa. ...
... Almost all the treatment processes used in this region are inefficient to remove these compounds. Biswas and Vellanki (2021) analyzed the occurrence of emerging compounds, including pharmaceuticals, in the river Yamuna (Northern India). According to the authors, millions of people depend on Yamuna for their daily water needs as it crosses the highly populated and industrial parts of India before merging with the Ganges. ...
... Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are constantly detected in wastewater, sludge, surface water, and soil, and thus represent a serious threat to the environment due to their toxicity [1][2][3][4][5]. Among pharmaceuticals frequently detected are anti-inflammatories, antibiotics, antidepressants, and antihistamines, and the concentrations of unchanged or metabolized forms of these contaminants are varying from nano-to micrograms per liter [6][7][8]. ...
... A pseudo-second-order kinetic model was applied to describe the kinetic of diclofenac adsorption data. The equation of this model is as follows [52]: (2) where t-the certain time of adsorption (min), q t -the adsorbed amount of diclofenac at certain time (mg/g), q e -adsorbed amount of diclofenac under equilibrium conditions (mg/g), and k 2 -rate constant of pseudo-second-order (g/(mg·min)). The value of q e and k 2 was calculated from the slope and the intercept of plot t/q t versus t, respectively. ...
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The occurrence of pharmaceuticals, such as anti-inflammatories, antibiotics, antidepressants, antihistamines, and others in the effluents, is a very urgent problem and a big challenge for municipal wastewater treatment companies. Without special treatment, these microcontaminants are retained in discharged water and sewage sludge and this is a high threat to the environment. Cross-linked cationic starch (CLCS) adsorbents with various degrees of substitution (DS) of cationic groups were employed for the removal of diclofenac from aqueous systems. The equilibrium adsorption studies revealed that the driving force of adsorption was the electrostatic interaction between carboxylate groups of diclofenac and quaternary ammonium groups of CLCS. The sorption capacities of CLCS with DS of 0.21 (CLCS-0.21) and DS of 0.33 (CLCS-0.33) varied from 329 to 370 mg/g and from 597 to 684 mg/g, respectively. The release studies revealed that adsorbed diclofenac can be efficiently released into 0.25 mol/L NaCl solution. Adsorbent regeneration studies showed that after four regeneration cycles, the ability of CLCS-0.21 and CLCS-0.33 to remove diclofenac from the aqueous medium decreased by 6% and 3%, respectively. To conclude, CLCS-0.33 exhibited high absorption capacity and sustainability due to good recoverability properties and can be regarded as a promising microcontaminant adsorbent to be used in wastewater treatment processes.
... For example, rivers include the Yamuna, Ganga, Kaveri, Vellar, Sabarmati, Brahmaputra, and Tamirabarani Rivers. Identified compounds are phthalates, pharmaceutical compounds, triclosan, carbamazepine, and parabens (Selvarajan and Raghavan, 1980;Rauf and Ashraf, 2009;Stapleton et al., 2009;Abramović et al., 2010;Kalsoom et al., 2012;Kumar et al., 2019;Ram and Kumar, 2020;Biswas and Vellanki, 2021;Biswas et al., 2022;Bhagat et al., 2020;Dhangar and Kumar, 2020;Gogoi et al., 2018). Recently, Biswas and Vellanki (2021) have reported ECs, like pharmaceuticals and personal care products commonly found in the Yamuna River, in addition, to hormones excreted from humans and animals. ...
... Identified compounds are phthalates, pharmaceutical compounds, triclosan, carbamazepine, and parabens (Selvarajan and Raghavan, 1980;Rauf and Ashraf, 2009;Stapleton et al., 2009;Abramović et al., 2010;Kalsoom et al., 2012;Kumar et al., 2019;Ram and Kumar, 2020;Biswas and Vellanki, 2021;Biswas et al., 2022;Bhagat et al., 2020;Dhangar and Kumar, 2020;Gogoi et al., 2018). Recently, Biswas and Vellanki (2021) have reported ECs, like pharmaceuticals and personal care products commonly found in the Yamuna River, in addition, to hormones excreted from humans and animals. The Ganges basin, known for supporting the livelihood of around 400 million, is now overburdened by the waste generated from domestic, agricultural, and industrial sectors. ...
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Over the decades, there has been an increase in the number of Emerging Contaminants (ECs) in different aquatic compartments. These ECs do have a direct effect on marine organisms and indirect impacts on human health. Numerous studies regarding the ECs detection, fate, and health impacts are confined to developed nations. Indian River systems have remained the epitome of pollution due to unregulated treatment and discharge of pollutants from different sources. Therefore, this studies providing an adequate sound knowledge of identifying ECs in Indian rivers become of utmost importance. The current study focuses on the identification of ECs in the Ganges in three major cities, respectively, in three belts of Indo-Gangetic plains. Hydroxymorphinan, picrotoxinin, antibiotic quinolone, and nefopam are common drugs found at different locations in the Ganga basin. ECs and the frequency of each EC have been identified for various locations and estimated with some basic consideration. Interestingly, Ethylhexyl ester is primarily used in pesticide manufacturing and is a common problem for the middle and lower Ganga basins. Besides, personal care products, insecticides, herbicides, pesticides, and flavoring agents are major sources of ECs in the Ganga basin. The trends of concentration of various ECs from upper towards downstream were analyzed and justified with sources. Lastly, this manuscript concluded with various recommendations related to the control of unloading and releasing the effluents in the Ganga and biomonitoring the organic contaminants, along with toxic ECs.
... Spongberg et al. (2011) in river water samples of Costa Rica sampled in 2009 reported the maximum concentration of caffeine reaching up to 1.1 mg/L while other compounds like doxycycline, ibuprofen, acetaminophen had their concentrations 74 μg/L, 37 μg/L and 17 μg/L respectively. In a populous country like India, the amount of wastewater generated is way more than the capacity of WWTP's capacity designed to treat them, hence a lot of untreated waste water is discharged into surface water (Biswas and Vellanki, 2021). Kaur et al. (2012) highlights those major cities of India generate 38,354 MLD wastewater but the capacity of WWTP to treat this volume is only 11,786 MLD. ...
... Kaur et al. (2012) highlights those major cities of India generate 38,354 MLD wastewater but the capacity of WWTP to treat this volume is only 11,786 MLD. Such a scenario has been reported in Yamuna river, which is a source of drinking water to millions in Northern India was found to be contaminated with an alarming concentration of trimethoprim and caffeine as 8.807 μg/L and 6.489 μg/L respectively (Biswas and Vellanki, 2021). Ahammad et al. (2014) reported that banks of Ganges, which are used as bathing sites during pilgrimage seasons, might act as hot spot for the broader exposure and proliferation of such compounds. ...
Article
The global production of PPCPs have increased by multiple folds promoting excessive exposure of its metabolites to humans via different aquatic systems. The higher residence time of toxic precursors of these metabolites pose direct human health risk. Among the different aquatic systems, the contamination of groundwater by PPCPs is the most concerning threat. This threat is especially critical considering the lesser oxidizing potential of the groundwater as compared to freshwater/river water. A major challenge also arises due to excessive dependency of the world's population on groundwater, which is exponentially increasing with time. This makes the identification and characterization of spatial contamination hotspots highly probabilistic as compared to other freshwater systems. The situation is more vulnerable in developing countries where there is a reported inadequacy of wastewater treatment facilities, thereby forcing the groundwater to behave as the only available sequestrating sink for all these contaminants. With increased consumption of antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals compounds, these wastes have proven capability in terms of enhancing the resistance among the biotic community of the soil systems, which ultimately can become catastrophic and carcinogenic in near future. Recent studies are supporting the aforementioned concern where compounds like diclofenac (analgesic) have attained a concentration of 1.3 mgL⁻¹ in the aquifer systems of Delhi, India. The situation is far worse for developed nations where prolonged and indiscriminate usage of antidepressants and antibiotics have life threating consequences. It has been confirmed that certain compounds like ofloxacin (antibiotics) and bis-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate are present in some of the most sensitive wells/springs of the United States and Mexico. The current trend of the situation has been demonstrated by integrating a comparative approach of the published literatures in last three years. This review provides first-hand information report for formulating a directive policy framework for tackling PPCPs issues in the groundwater system.
... Triclosan (TCS) is an antimicrobial agent extensively used in different personal care products and readily released into aquatic systems due to incomplete removal in WWTPs (Kumar et al. 2021). It is among the top ten most abundant pollutants detected from ng to µg/L in sediments, WWTPs, rivers, lakes, drinking water, and even in human urine, and breast milk (Nag et al. 2018;Sanidad et al. 2019;Singh and Suthar 2021;Biswas and Vellanki 2021). Over the years, TCS has gained attention among scientific community researchers owing to its varying range of toxicity from primary producers to higher vertebrates in aquatic ecosystems (Sahu et al. 2018;Paul et al. 2019Paul et al. , 2020Rasheed et al. 2020;Bera et al. 2020). ...
Article
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Triclosan (TCS) is a lipophilic, broad spectrum antimicrobial agent commonly used in personal care products with a projected continuous escalation in aquatic environments in the post COVID 19 era. There is rich documentation in the literature on the alteration of physiological responses in fish due to TCS exposure; however, studies on gut associated bacteria of fish are still scarce. This is the first attempt to determine changes in bacterial community structure due to exposure of TCS on Labeo rohita, a commercially essential freshwater species, using 16S V3-V4 region ribosomal RNA (rRNA) next-generation sequencing (NGS). Chronic exposure of TCS at environmentally realistic concentrations viz. 1/5th (T1: 0.129 mg/L) and 1/10th (T2: 0.065 mg/L) of LC50 for 28 days resulted in the dose dependent bioconcentration of TCS in the fish gut. Prolonged exposure to TCS leads to disruption of gut bacteria evidenced by down regulation of the host immune system. Additionally, high-throughput sequencing analysis showed alternation in the abundance and diversity of microbial communities in the gut, signifying Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia as dominant phyla. Significant changes were also observed in the relative abundance of Chloroflexi and Gammatimonadetes phyla in TCS exposed groups. The study revealed that gut microbiome can be used as a biomarker in assessing the degree of TCS toxicity in commercially important fish species.
... Increased usage of reclaimed water and organic residues (animal manure and biosolids) has elevated pharmaceutical pollution in agroecosystems (Fu et al., 2019;Mansilla et al., 2021). Recent research shows that pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are among the xenobiotic pollutants of emerging concern posing a major threat to ecological sustainability (Petrie et al., 2015;Biswas and Vellanki 2021;Renganathan et al., 2021). Xenobiotics (Greek origin, 'xenos': foreign; 'bios': life) refer majorly to synthetic hazardous compounds with their complex structure and physicochemical properties are known to persist in the environment and accumulate in food systems (Štefanac et al., 2021). ...
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Dependence on reclaimed wastewater and biosolids for agronomic use in semi-arid and arid regions is progressively increasing across the globe. The impact of contamination of treated water with residues of recalcitrant pharmaceuticals on the ecosystem is now one of the major environmental concerns. Common sunflower, Helianthus annuus (H. annuus), has been reported to remove one of the recalcitrant pharmaceuticals, carbamazepine (CBZ). However, it's potential to tolerate CBZ is not yet characterized. For this, the plant cell suspension system of H. annuus (6.67 g DWL⁻¹) was used as a model system and within 6 h of exposure to CBZ (15 ppm), 39.47 ± 6.8% was found to be removed with initial removal rate of 0.987 ± 0.17 mg L ⁻¹ h⁻¹. The adsorption equilibrium data was fitted with the Freundlich isotherm and the removal kinetics of CBZ onto plant cells of H. annuus was correlated well with Elovich kinetics. Also, no significant change in the viability and antioxidant levels (Ascorbate peroxidase and Glutathione peroxidase) was observed in the plant cells exposed to higher concentrations of CBZ (15 ppm), demonstrating high tolerance. The finding strongly indicates that in-vitro system of H. annuus holds significant promise as a robust platform for investigating the intricate mechanisms underlying its tolerance to CBZ. Graphical Abstract
... Several contaminants, encompassing HMs (Ahmed et al. 2022), and organic micropollutants (Mishra et al. 2023) cause serious risks to both aquatic ecosystem and human health (Ahamad et al. 2019). Pharmaceutical remains, which are the emerging contaminants, were detected even in the lightly inhabited upstream Himalayan areas (Biswas and Vellanki 2021). Results indicate that pollution problems affect not just heavily populated metropolitan areas but also the purer river regions. ...
Article
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The Yamuna River, a vital water source in India, poses a profound challenge concerning water purity across its entire stretch. The comprehensive review aims to thoroughly examine the river's water quality, shedding light on the sources of pollution and their consequences for both ecological systems and public health. The primary objective of this review is to examine the published research papers concerning the Yamuna River water quality stretching from Yamunotri to Prayagraj and its resulting impact on human health. This paper also comprises a wide range of pollutants mainly caused by human activity; during the strange period of COVID-19 lockdown, when all industries were closed, resulting in changes in water quality, signifies the destructive effects of human activity on the river. Studies uncover that the most contaminated areas are Nizamuddin of Delhi region and D/S of Agra in Uttar Pradesh, which includes the foremost level of faecal coliforms to be around 210000–11000000 and 450–6100000, respectively. The total coliforms were found to be between 700000–28000000 and 2200–32000000, respectively. Biochemical oxygen demands, industrial discharge, urban waste and agriculture are identified as the most responsible factors for this contamination. After the COVID-19 lockdown, all industries were open, and now, the conditions are the same as before COVID-19. The primary insight to be assembled is that the ecological balance of the Yamuna River and public health depend on the immediate requirement for effective wastewater treatment solutions. Besides offering valuable data by compiling findings from multiple studies, this review underscores the importance of implementing stringent regulations on industrial emissions, upgrading sewage treatment plants, and promoting eco-friendly farming methods to tackle pollution in the Yamuna River and also manage the rural and urban areas of the sewage pipeline plan. It stresses the importance of safeguarding the Yamuna River ecosystem's inherent socioeconomic benefits while alleviating the environmental harm caused by pervasive pollution. Essentially, the study calls for prompt and comprehensive measures to ensure the sustainable health of this crucial water resource in India.
... During lockdown period, water quality of Yamuna River showed an improvement of 37%. The values of BOD and COD showed a decline by 42.83% and 39.25%, respectively (Biswas and Vellanki, 2021). Another study showed that values of BOD declined by 30.32% during lockdown and increased by 39.5% postlockdown (Khan, 2020). ...
Article
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Yamuna River fulfils the water needs of various regions of North India. With the increasing level of pollution, the Yamuna River is declared as one of the polluted rivers in India. Numerous researches have reported the heavy metal presence in Yamuna River. Hence, we have focused our review towards analysing the heavy metals present in Yamuna River Basin and their concentration level during pre-pandemic and post-pandemic period. Delhi being the main polluter city causes the cloud formation (froth) and as a consequence a health risk among children and adults. Mathura and Agra are equally responsible in polluting the Yamuna River. Further, we have also included the role of microalgae as a promising solution for heavy metal removal. Altogether, this review will help the future researchers towards identifying potential approaches for water remediation.
... A study carried out by Biswas and Vellanki reported the presence and spatiotemporal variations of emerging contaminants, such as APIs, personal care products, and endocrine disruptors, across various sites in Yamuna River. Antibiotics present in high concentration, e.g., trimethoprim (8.80 µg L -1 ), ciprofloxacin (0.26 µg L -1 ), enrofloxacin (0.059 µg L -1 ), sulfamethoxazole (1.31 µg L -1 ) also had a high frequency of detection (>90%) [11]. An independent study conducted by Toxics Link (an environmental Non-Governmental Organization) detected the presence of ofloxacin (0.54-0.71 µg L -1 ) and ...
Article
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The relative contribution of factors responsible for the environmental exposure of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) is of interest for appropriate remedial measures. This study was carried out to evaluate the post-lockdown levels of APIs in water resources, in comparison to our previously published study from 2016. The environmental levels of 28 drugs from different classes were analyzed in surface water (Yamuna River), aquifers, and leachate samples collected from 26 locations in Delhi-NCR using the previously validated liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods. In addition, the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in coliforms isolated from targeted surface water samples was also studied. This study revealed that more than 90% of APIs, including antibiotics, decreased drastically in both surface water and aquifers compared to our previous data. Selected samples subjected to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) analysis revealed the presence of cephalosporin-resistant coliform bacteria. Tracing cephalosporins in the surface and drain water samples revealed the presence of ceftriaxone in the drain and water samples from Yamuna River. Higher levels of ceftriaxone in landfill leachate were also found, which were found to be associated with coliform resistance and indicate the un-segregated disposal of medical waste into landfills. Social restrictions enforced due to COVID-19 resulted in a drastic decrease in antimicrobials and other APIs in aquatic water resources. Increased ceftriaxone and cephalosporin resistance was seen in coliform from surface water and drain, indicating the possibility of hospital waste and treatment-related drugs entering Yamuna River. Enforcement of the regulations for the safe disposal of antibiotics at hospitals and preliminary disinfection of hospital sewage before its inflow into common drains might help minimize the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment.
... Note the two different scales for the y-axis representing the concentration in µg L -1 , while the x-axis lists the STP locations. et al., 2018; Sharma et al., 2019;Biswas and Vellanki, 2021;Singh and Suthar, 2021;Wilkinson et al., 2022). Antibiotics such as getifloxacin (0.48 µg L -1 ), cefuroxime (1.7 µg L -1 ) and sparfloxacin (2.09 µg L -1 ) were detected in the Yamuna only in winter, which again confirms the seasonal influence on antibiotic use and detection in environmental matrices (Mutiyar and Mittal, 2014). ...
Article
Full-text available
Antimicrobial resistance is a growing public health concern, increasingly recognized as a silent pandemic across the globe. Therefore, it is important to monitor all factors that could contribute to the emergence, maintenance and spread of antimicrobial resistance. Environmental antibiotic pollution is thought to be one of the contributing factors. India is one of the world’s largest consumers and producers of antibiotics. Hence, antibiotics have been detected in different environments across India, sometimes at very high concentrations due to their extensive use in humans and agriculture or due to manufacturing. We summarize the current state of knowledge on the occurrence and transport pathways of antibiotics in Indian water environments, including sewage or wastewater and treatment plants, surface waters such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs as well as groundwater and drinking water. The factors influencing the distribution of antibiotics in the water environment, such as rainfall, population density and variations in sewage treatment are discussed, followed by existing regulations and policies aimed at the mitigation of environmental antimicrobial resistance in India, which will have global benefits. Then, we recommend directions for future research, development of standardized methods for monitoring antibiotics in water, ecological risk assessment, and exploration of strategies to prevent antibiotics from entering the environment. Finally, we provide an evaluation of how scarce the data is, and how a systematic understanding of the occurrence and concentrations of antibiotics in the water environment in India could be achieved. Overall, we highlight the urgent need for sustainable solutions to monitor and mitigate the impact of antibiotics on environmental, animal, and public health.
... Most of the studies reported in Agra (Industrial clusters), studied the contaminants influenced by human activities. They detected various emerging contaminants such as caffeine, antibiotics, gemfibrozil, etc. in the Yamuna river samples (Biswas and Vellanki 2021). Similarly, the water quality analysis was done of different regions near Yamuna River in Agra at three different sites in which contamination due to waste water and domestic sewage were reported (Isaac and Siddiqui 2022). ...
Article
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Yamuna River water in Agra city of India is contaminated with toxic pollutants, including heavy metals that cause damage to the environment and human health. At present, the direct use of river water for drinking purposes and household activities lead to the direct exposure of society to the contaminants. In this study, Yamuna River water samples were collected from three different sites in Agra city during the monsoon, summer, and winter seasons. The physico-chemical parameters were estimated along with heavy metals. In physico-chemical parameter, the values found were mostly above the permissible limits. The results water samples contain high levels of cadmium, chromium, lead, and nickel above the desirable levels in most cases. The metagenomic analysis revealed that Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Verrucomicrobia, Actinobacteria, and Planctobacteria were the most abundant phyla with a relative abundance of 61%, 9.34%, 5.23%, 4.64%, and 4.3%, respectively. The Comamonadaceae, the most abundant family consists of the genera involved in hydrogen oxidation, iron reduction, degraders of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and fermentation. The presence of Pseudomonas, Nitrosomonas sp., Thauera humireducens and Dechloromonas denitrificans (decomposition of sewage and organic matter) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa indicates the presence of heavy metal degrading bacteria in water sample. Functional prediction showed the presence of genes responsible for different metabolic pathways that could help developing new bioremediation strategies. The study concludes the status of water contamination, the presence of complex microbial community and suggests the futuristic use and their role in bioremediation.
... However, both human and animal digestive systems have limited capacity to metabolize TMP, resulting in the majority of ingested TMP being excreted into aquatic environments through feces and urine [6,7]. Even worse, traditional wastewater treatment technologies fail to effectively remove TMP, leading to a notable rise in the detection rate and concentration of TMP in rivers, lakes, and seas over the past few years [8][9][10]. The high concentration of TMP in aquatic systems presents a potential hazard to humans and ecosystems, which has prompted worries about the risks of TMP [11,12]. ...
Article
Peroxydisulfate Trimethoprim Wide pH range applicability Visible light A B S T R A C T A narrow pH-applicability range can impact the actual treatment efficiency of AOPs, so the application of a wide pH range in AOP technology has garnered significant attention. In this study, the Cl-doped g-C 3 N 4 as a visible light catalyst to activate the peroxydisulfate (PDS) process, named Vis/Cl-g-C 3 N 4 /PDS, was developed for trimethoprim (TMP) degradation in a wide pH range of 3-11. Results show that the Vis/Cl-g-C 3 N 4 /PDS process exhibited degradation efficiencies for TMP that were 1.39 times and 7.74 times higher than those of the Vis/Cl-g-C 3 N 4 process and the Vis/g-C 3 N 4 process, respectively. The Vis/Cl-g-C 3 N 4 /PDS process perfectly achieved degradation rates of over 98 % for TMP within a wide pH range of 3-11. It concluded that the high efficiency of the Vis/Cl-g-C 3 N 4 /PDS process in degrading TMP over a wide pH range was caused by the two co-existing reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation mechanism pathways: the photocatalytic activation of PDS and the light-assisted hydrolysis of PDS. Moreover, after 3 h of illumination in the Vis/Cl-g-C 3 N 4 /PDS process, a degradation range of 85.7 %-97.8 % was demonstrated in various real water matrices including of tap water, secondary sedimentation tank effluent, surface water, and aquaculture water. This study provided practical significance for the practical application of AOPs in water environmental pollution control.
... Note the two different scales for the y-axis representing the concentration in µg L -1 , while the x-axis lists the STP locations. et al., 2018; Sharma et al., 2019;Biswas and Vellanki, 2021;Singh and Suthar, 2021;Wilkinson et al., 2022). Antibiotics such as getifloxacin (0.48 µg L -1 ), cefuroxime (1.7 µg L -1 ) and sparfloxacin (2.09 µg L -1 ) were detected in the Yamuna only in winter, which again confirms the seasonal influence on antibiotic use and detection in environmental matrices (Mutiyar and Mittal, 2014). ...
Article
Full-text available
Antimicrobial resistance is a growing public health concern, increasingly recognized as a silent pandemic across the globe. Therefore, it is important to monitor all factors that could contribute to the emergence, maintenance and spread of antimicrobial resistance. Environmental antibiotic pollution is thought to be one of the contributing factors. India is one of the world’s largest consumers and producers of antibiotics. Hence, antibiotics have been detected in different environments across India, sometimes at very high concentrations due to their extensive use in humans and agriculture or due to manufacturing. We summarize the current state of knowledge on the occurrence and transport pathways of antibiotics in Indian water environments, including sewage or wastewater and treatment plants, surface waters such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs as well as groundwater and drinking water. The factors influencing the distribution of antibiotics in the water environment, such as rainfall, population density and variations in sewage treatment are discussed, followed by existing regulations and policies aimed at the mitigation of environmental antimicrobial resistance in India, which will have global benefits. Then, we recommend directions for future research, development of standardized methods for monitoring antibiotics in water, ecological risk assessment, and exploration of strategies to prevent antibiotics from entering the environment. Finally, we provide an evaluation of how scarce the data is, and how a systematic understanding of the occurrence and concentrations of antibiotics in the water environment in India could be achieved. Overall, we highlight the urgent need for sustainable solutions to monitor and mitigate the impact of antibiotics on environmental, animal, and public health.
... The environmental fate of TCS is a serious concern as it may accumulate in organisms and promote the predominance of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Occurrence studies conducted in the last decade have shown that concentrations of TCS can be found in both surface water and sediment matrices in aquatic systems (Zhao et al, 2010;Nag et al, 2018;Biswas and Vellanki, 2021). TCS tends to persist at much higher levels in sediments, as it has high pK a of 7.9 and degrades slowly under anaerobic conditions; whereas surface water concentrations are comparatively lower due to photodegradation (Lindström and sediment samples, indicating minimal interference from the matrix components (Table 6). ...
... Owing to the substantial dilution caused by seawater, assessing the levels of caffeine contamination in the ocean is challenging. The spatial distribution of caffeine in ocean was influenced by population density, point and non-point sources (del Rey et al., 2012), and various stochastic events, such as storms (del Rey et al., 2012), tidal change (Poopipattana et al., 2021), and monsoons (Biswas and Vellanki, 2021;Kumar et al., 2022). Numerous scientists are currently exploring methods for detecting caffeine concentrations in surface water (Gardinali and Zhao, 2002), sewage (Bahlmann et al., 2012;Magner et al., 2010), herbal teas (Stander et al., 2019), coffee (Perrone et al., 2008), hair (De Kesel et al., 2015), and plasma (De Kesel et al., 2014;Koller et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2020). ...
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Caffeine is an emerging contaminant in aquatic environments. The study utilized a validated method to investigate the presence and distribution of caffeine in the surface water of the Yellow and Bohai Seas, urban rivers, and the Yantai estuary area. The analytical method conforms to EPA guidelines and exhibits a limit of quanti-fication that is 200 times lower than that of prior investigations. The study revealed that the highest concentration of 1436.4 ng/L was found in convergence of ocean currents in the Yellow and Bohai Seas. The presence of larger populations and the process of urban industrialization have been observed to result in elevated levels of caffeine in offshore regions, confirming that caffeine can serve as a potential indicator of anthropogenic contamination. Fish larvae exhibited hypoactivity in response to caffeine exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations. The study revealed that caffeine pollution can have adverse effects on marine and offshore ecosystems. This emphasizes the importance of decreasing neurotoxic pollution in the aquatic environment.
... TMP posed a low risk in 44% of countries, and a medium or high risk in 56% of countries (Table 6). The RQ values were >5 for India and Kenya (Table 6) (Muriuki et al. 2020;Biswas and Vellanki 2021). It should also be noted that low-concentration antibiotics that remain in the water for a long time could not only cause acute and chronic toxic effects for aquatic organisms, but also stimulate the generation of resistance genes in pathogenic microorganisms in the water environment, and have adverse effects on the balance of aquatic ecosystems (Zhuang et al. 2021). ...
Article
Context. Trimethoprim (TMP) is a common antibacterial medication used in human and veterinary medicine, including in aquaculture. Antibiotic misuse and abuse results in the antibiotic pollution of water and has attracted increasing attention. Antibiotics are frequently detected in water bodies and pose a certain environmental risk to the aquatic system. Aims. Two marine diatoms, i.e. Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Skeletonema costatum, were tested for toxicity to better understand the ecological implications of TMP in the marine system. Methods. The routine static toxicity test method for microalgae was selected to be used. Key results. The 96-h median effective concentration (EC 50) values based on average specific growth rate (96-h ErC 50) were >1.000 and >5.000 mg L-1 for P. tricornutum and S. costatum respectively. Conclusions. P. tricornutum was more sensitive than S. costatum in its exposure to TMP, with a no observation-effect concentration (NOEC) value of 0.063 mg L-1. On the basis of the risk data, TMP poses a great risk to the aquatic system in certain countries. Implications. The results of this study provide a better understanding of the potential ecological risks of TMP in the marine environment.
... Yamuna in Delhi reports approximately 80% of the total pollution in the river "Brief on the Yamuna: WHAT AILS THE YAMUNA?" [9]. Monitoring of water quality parameters of the river over the past years has indicated high levels of heavy metals [6,40], pesticides [45,46], pharmaceuticals [7,27], and various other organic and inorganic pollutants [43,51]. The occurrence of these contaminants in the river water has been mainly attributed to industrial, municipal, and domestic sewage discharge of waste [5,55,56]. ...
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The Yamuna River, a tributary of the holy Ganga, is heavily polluted in the Delhi-NCR region, India and has been gaining attention due to the excessive foaming of the river over the past few years. This can be directly or indirectly related to the overuse of surfactants and the discharge of untreated domestic and textile wastewater into the river. To determine the surfactant load and investigate potential surfactant-degrading bacteria in the region, 96 water samples from four sites in the Okhla Barrage stretch of the river were collected and analysed. The results showed that the selected sites have surfactant concentrations more than the permissible limit (1.00 mgL⁻¹). Also, at most of the sites, the concentration crossed the desirable limit of BIS (0.2 mgL⁻¹) during the period of analysis. The concentration of anionic surfactant reported in the region was found in the range of 0.29 mgL⁻¹ and 2.83 mgL⁻¹. A total of 38 different bacteria were isolated using selective media from the same water samples, out of which 7 bacterial isolates were screened for sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) tolerance activity. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing, 2 species, namely Pseudomonas koreensis YRW-02 and Pseudomonas songnenensis YRW-05 have been identified and their degradation potential was assessed at different SDS concentrations. The results showed that our strains YRW-02 and YRW-05 degraded 78.29 and 69.24% of SDS respectively. Growth optimization was also performed at different substrate concentrations, pH, and temperature to investigate optimum degradation conditions. This study plays a significant role in assessing the surfactant load and also gives a promising background for future use in in-situ bioremediation experiments.
... Most of the studies reported in Agra (Industrial clusters), studied the contaminants in uenced by human activities. They detected various emerging contaminants such as caffeine, antibiotics, gem brozil, etc. in the Yamuna river samples (Biswas and Vellanki 2021). Similarly, the water quality analysis was done of different regions near Yamuna River in Agra at three different sites in which contamination due to waste water and domestic sewage were reported (Isaac and Siddiqui 2022). ...
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Yamuna River water in Agra city of India is heavily contaminated with toxic pollutants, including heavy metals that cause severe damage to ecological and social aspects of life. At present, the direct use of river water for drinking purposes cause severe hazards due to anthropogenic activities and environmental pollution. The quality assessments in terms of physical, chemical, and biological attributes of water samples are essential to understand their impact on humans. In the present study, Yamuna River water samples were collected from three different sites in Agra city during the monsoon, summer, and winter seasons. Various physico-chemical parameters were estimated, and the concentration of heavy metals was measured. In the case of physico-chemical parameter characterization, the values found were mostly above the permissible limits. The results suggest that the Yamuna River water samples contain high levels of cadmium, chromium, lead, and nickel above the desirable levels in most cases. The water samples were subjected to metagenomic analysis using the Illumina platform, which revealed that Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Verrucomicrobia, Actinobacteria, and Planctobacteria were the most abundant phyla with a relative abundance of 61%, 9.34%, 5.23%, 4.64%, and 4.3%, respectively. The Comamonadaceae was the most abundant family, which consists of the genera involved in hydrogen oxidation, iron reduction, degraders of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and fermentation. Functional prediction showed the presence of genes responsible for different metabolic pathways. The study concludes the status of water contamination at three different sites in Agra and suggests the futuristic use of this research in the field of bioremediation.
... The extremely symmetric structure of TMP makes it relatively stable in the environment . Therefore, TMP exists in numerous environmental compartments such as rivers, sediments, and soils (Bastos et al., 2020;Biswas & Vellanki, 2021;Eugenia Valdes et al., 2021;Ho et al., 2014;Kairigo et al., 2020;Tang et al., 2021;, with the highest concentration in estuarine water being up to 12.44 μg L −1 . The abuse of TMP has potential adverse effects on humans and ecosystems through bioconcentration, affecting plant growth and increasing the bacterial resistance (Boxall et al., 2006;Liu et al., 2009Liu et al., , 2019c. ...
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Microplastics (MPs) in the environment typically age. However, the influence of aged MPs on the adsorption of antibiotics in soil remains unknown. In this study, the adsorption behavior of trimetho-prim (TMP) on soil and soil containing aged polyamide (PA) was investigated using batch and stirred flow chamber experiments. The adsorption of TMP on the tested soil with and without PA was fast, with the k a values ranging from 50.5 to 55.6 L (mg min) −1. The adsorption of TMP on aged PA was more than 20 times larger than that on the tested soil, which resulted in an "enrichment effect." Furthermore, aged PA altered the pH of the reaction system, thereby enhancing the adsorption of TMP. Consequently, the K d values of TMP for soil, soil containing 5%, and 10% aged PA were 5.64, 12.38, and 23.65 L kg −1 , respectively. The effect of aged PA on the adsorption of TMP on soil depended on pH values. However, TMP adsorption on soil containing 10% aged PA was constantly higher (p < 0.01) than that on soil with NaCl concentrations ranging from 0 to 50 mmol L −1. These findings provide new insights into the effect of environmental MPs on the fate and transport of antibiotics in soil environments.
... L −1 ), and in lakes (0.02-174 μg. L −1 ) (Biswas and Vellanki, 2021;French et al., 2015;Korekar et al., 2020;Li et al., 2020), constituting a potential threat to aquatic systems. ...
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Caffeine (CAF) has been considered an emerging environmental contaminant and its presence indicator of anthropogenic contamination. This study evaluated the effects of environmental concentrations of CAF (0, 0.5, 1.5, and 300 μg. L −1) on the behaviour of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) after 7 days of exposure. The components of feeding, locomotion, boldness (new tank test), sociability (schooling test), and aggression (mirror test) were analysed. Growth rate and weight were investigated as complementary measures. CAF (0.5, 1.5, and 300 μg. L −1) reduced exploratory behaviour in zebrafish, increased feeding latency time (1.5, and 300 μg. L −1), and decreased growth rate and fish weight (300 μg. L −1). CAF also induced aggressive behaviour (0.5, 1.5, and 300 μg. L −1) and decreased appetence to the shoal (sociability) (0.5, and 1.5 μg. L −1). This study showed that low doses of CAF can induce behavioural effects in zebrafish that may have significant long-term impacts on vital ecological functions.
... It is known that PPCPs are not consistently removed during the conventional wastewater treatment processes and therefore are present in surface water; for example, carbamazepine, oxypurinol, metformin, and benzotriazole. Published results suggest that many PPCPs are released into rivers in concentrations of nanograms to micrograms per liter (Snyder 2008;Scheurer et al. 2009;Yu and Chu 2009;Li et al. 2010;Sharma et al. 2019;Biswas and Vellanki 2021). If surface water is used for drinking water production, PPCPs may be found during treatment processes in the final product-drinking water (Westerhoff et al. 2005;Carmona et al. 2014;Lin et al. 2016;Yang et al. 2017). ...
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The aim of this study was to compare the efficiency of pharmaceuticals and personal care products’ (PPCP) removal in the waterworks at Káraný (Czech Republic) and Dresden-Hosterwitz (Germany). Both waterworks use similar technology of drinking water production (combination of bank filtration and artificial recharge) and have similar river water quality (Jizera and Elbe river). A comparison of 2-year monitoring results shows high efficiency of removing PPCP contained in river water. However, at both waterworks, there are groups of substances for which natural treatment steps alone are not sufficient. In the case of Káraný, it is benzotriazole, sulfamethoxazole, and methylparaben; in the Dresden waterworks, it is oxypurinol, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, and lamotrigine.
... A study in Mexico has reportedly detected higher levels of gemfibrozil concentration (605 ngL -1 ) in wastewater (Adeleye et al., 2022). In India, Biswas and Vellanki (2021) reported 2991 ngL -1 of gemfibrozil in the Yamuna river, 19.8 ngL -1 was reported from the Pearl river, China (Yang et al., 2020); 4130 ngL -1 was reported from Madrid river, Spain (Valcárcel et al., 2011). Gemfibrozil has adversative consequences on reproductive parameters and can affect spermatogenesis of male organisms (Ali et al., 2022). ...
Article
The increasing population has raised the demand for pharmaceutical and personal care products to maintain a good health. Gemfibrozil (GEM), is extensively used as a lipid regulator and is frequently detected in wastewater treatment systems and poses deleterious health and ecological effects. Hence, the current study employing Bacillus sp. N2 reports the degradation of gemfibrozil via co-metabolism in 15 days. The study reported 86% degradation with GEM (20 mgL-1) using sucrose (150 mgL-1) as a co-substrate; as compared to 42% without a co-substrate. Further, time-profiling studies of metabolites revealed significant demethylation and decarboxylation reactions during degradation that leads to formation of six (M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, M6) metabolites as by-products. Based on the LC-MS analysis a potential degradation pathway for GEM by Bacillus sp. N2 was proposed. The degradation of GEM has not been reported so far and the study envisages eco-friendly approach to tackle pharmaceutical- active- compounds.
... Carbamazepine, Oxypurinol, Metformin, and Benzotriazole. Published results suggest that many PPCPs are released into rivers in nanograms to micrograms per liter concentrations [14][15][16][17][18][19]. If surface water is used for drinking water production, PPCPs may be found during water treatment processes [20][21][22][23]. ...
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The aim of the study was to compare the efficiency of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP) removal in the waterworks Káraný (Czech Republic) and Dresden-Hosterwitz (Germany). Both waterworks use a similar technology of drinking water production (combination of bank filtration and artificial recharge) and have similar river water quality (Jizera and Elbe river). A comparison of two-years monitoring results shows a high efficiency of removing PPCP contained in river water. However, at both waterworks there are groups of substances for which natural treatment steps alone are not sufficient. In the case of Káraný it is Benzotriazole, Sulfamethoxazole and Methylparaben, in the Dresden waterworks it is Oxypurinol, Sulfamethoxazole, Carbamazepine and Lamotrigine.
... ALAN has been reported to be high along the periphery of protected areas, where it can act as a connectivity-weakening barrier between protected areas, and also as an ecological trap for species exhibiting positive phototaxis (Guetté et al., 2018), which may be lured outside these protected areas thus exposing themselves to life-threatening situations including vehicle collisions, electrocution and predation by domestic dogs (Chaves et al., 2022;Nuttall et al., 2022). In addition to the threats faced by various aquatic and terrestrial species in protected areas, the riverine habitat is also threatened by contaminants such as heavy metals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, personal care products and endocrine-disrupting compounds that adversely affect the health and population dynamics of riverine organisms (Boral et al., 2020;Sah et al., 2020;Biswas and Vellanki, 2021) ...
Article
As the world embraced Artificial Light at Night (ALAN) and its numerous benefits, the transforming nocturnal environment witnessed the negative impacts of this contaminant of emerging concern, and its consequent Light Pollution, on the fitness and populations of numerous organisms. Over the decades, India's unbridled population growth and rapid urbanization have accelerated the use of ALAN yet research on light pollution, in India, as a potential biodiversity threat remains almost untapped. The present study utilized nighttime light data from the Visible and Infrared Imaging Radiation Suite Day-Night Band (VIIRS DNB) to investigate the spatio-temporal trends of ALAN across India's major river basins, emphasizing on critical riparian habitats. The study also aimed to identify the significant effects on night-time brightness in these habitats. Our findings indicated the year, riparian fauna group and presence within and near protected areas as significant determinants of light pollution in the riparian habitats of species of conservation concern. Light pollution was observed to grow in these habitats from the year 2012 to 2020. Higher radiance, in general, were observed for habitats near conurbations, airports, ports and docks, petroleum refineries, thermal power plants, and nuclear power stations. Otter and Turtle habitats had higher night-time brightness than other groups. The significant increase of ALAN within a span of eight years is concerning, particularly for the critically endangered gharial, which was observed to inhabit predominantly darker habitats. This, along with the gaps in our knowledge regarding the effects of ALAN on these species, urgently warrants a better understanding of its effects in riparian ecosystems. We have highlighted research gaps on ALAN from India's perspective and suggest that national biodiversity programs should evaluate ALAN as a potential biodiversity threat to limit its expansion in critical riparian ecosystems.
... 53 Gembrozil, a lipid regulator, presented a frequency of detection of 26%. It was found in Asia (up to 2990.4 ng L À1 in India), 74 Africa (up to 545 ng L À1 in South Africa) and Europe (429 ng L À1 in Portugal) with a low environmental risk for algae, crustaceans and shes. 75 In South America, concentrations of up to 369 ng L À1 were found. ...
Article
Over the last few decades, the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic environments has generated increasing public concern. In this review, data on the presence of PPCPs in environmental compartments from the past few years (2014-2022) are summarized by carrying out a critical survey of the partitioning among water, sediment, and aquatic organisms. From the available articles on PPCP occurrence in the environment, in Web of Science and Scopus databases, 185 articles were evaluated. Diclofenac, carbamazepine, caffeine, ibuprofen, ciprofloxacin, and sulfamethoxazole were reported to occur in 85% of the studies in at least one of the mentioned matrices. Risk assessment showed a moderate to high environmental risk for these compounds worldwide. Moreover, bioconcentration factors showed that sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim can bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms, while ciprofloxacin and triclosan present bioaccumulation potential. Regarding spatial distribution, the Asian and European continents presented most studies on the occurrence and effects of PPCPs on the environment, while Africa and Asia are the most contaminated continents. In addition, the impact of COVID-19 on environmental contamination by PPCPs is discussed.
... The occurrence of EC has been studied worldwide in surface water and groundwater (Biswas & Vellanki, 2021;Cáñez et al., 2021;Lapworth et al., 2012;Llamas-Dios et al., 2021;Luo et al., 2014;Martini et al., 2021;Rico et al., 2022;Tong et al., 2021), soils (García Valverde et al., 2021;Mohapatra et al., 2016;Murrell et al., 2021), and sediments (Caballero-Gallardo et al., 2021;Kim et al., 2021;Nishimuta et al., 2021;Omar et al., 2018). Toxicological studies of EC with terrestrial and aquatic biota indicate that these substances can cause modification in genes, endocrine disruption, abnormal physiological effects, increased incidence of cancer, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification (Du et al., 2016;Gogoi et al., 2018;Kasonga et al., 2021;Sposito et al., 2018). ...
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Ribeirão das Pedras, a 10-km-long stream from the source to mouth, is part of a predominantly urban catchment located in Campinas metropolitan area in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, and it is also surrounded by sugarcane farms. Monthly sampling of 31 selected emerging contaminants (ECs) was conducted for 1 year (October 2018 to October 2019) in five points, including the spring, agricultural, and urban areas, to assess the dynamics and impact of ECs on the stream. The ECs were quantified using LC–MS/MS analysis. Out of the 31 ECs monitored in this study, 13 were detected in the Ribeirão das Pedras catchment, which were mainly pesticides and caffeine. Eight ECs (hexazinone, malathion, desethylatrazine (DEA), desisopropylatrazine (DIA), fipronil, ametryn, 2-hidroxyatrazine, and diuron) were detected with risk quotients higher than 1, indicating some level of environmental concern. Statistical analyses showed that caffeine, hexazinone, atrazine, DEA, and DIA were the most statistically important contaminants in temporal analysis, with caffeine concentrations varying randomly. Hexazinone, atrazine, DIA, and DEA concentrations increased from November 2018 to January 2019, and atrazine, hexazinone, and DEA concentrations increased from June 2019 to September 2019. Spatial analysis indicates that the spring of Ribeirão das Pedras is the only statistically different sampling point, with lower concentrations of EC. Points 3 and 5, both located in urban areas next to the stream’s mouth, differ from each other due to the possible dilution of caffeine downstream of point 3 and domestic sewage discharge upstream of point 5. Graphical Abstract
... In recent times, there has been a ubiquitous occurrence of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in environmental matrices (water, wastewater, and sediment or sludge), which causes pernicious Science of the Total Environment 846 (2022) 157337 effects on the ecosystem (Biswas and Vellanki, 2021;Jayakumar et al., 2021). While the conventional treatment techniques are ineffective in removing these pollutants, the advanced treatment processes that can remove these emerging contaminants incur higher costs and energy (Adeleye et al., 2022;Dhangar and Kumar, 2020). ...
Article
Plants play a cardinal role in removing various pollutants through the synergistic interaction with filling materials and microbes of constructed wetlands (CWs). However, the information regarding the selection of plant species to remove pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) is not adequate. The present study attempted to select an appropriate plant species for CWs, considering their characteristics and physiological response to PhACs. In this regard, batch hydroponics studies were carried out to assess the removal, fate, and antioxidative response of carbamazepine (CBZ) in four wetland plant species (Canna indica, Colocasia esculenta, Phragmites australis, and Chrysopogon zizanioides). The specific uptake potential of CBZ (in terms of plant dry biomass) was found to be in the order: C. indica (14.48 mg/g) > P. australis (11.71 mg/g) > C. esculenta (8.67 mg/g) > C. zizanioides (6.04 mg/g). The results showed that exposure to CBZ (0–30 days) caused an accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the plant tissues, causing a decline in chlorophyll content, root activity, and increased oxidative stress. However, the selected plants could recover from the oxidative damages to a certain extent in the recuperation phase (31–60 days). C. indica exhibited relatively lesser ROS accumulation and oxidative damage during the experimental phase than other selected plants. The study also showed that plant biomass, transpiration rate, chlorophyll content, root exudates, and root activity influenced the removal of CBZ by various plants (r – 0.76 to 0.98, P < 0.05). The mass balance analysis indicated that a significant proportion of CBZ (49.2 to 72.7 %) underwent metabolism in the plant tissues. Apart from higher removal, lesser accumulation, and lower oxidation stress, multi-criteria decision analysis showed that C. indica is a potential plant species for the removal of CBZ.
Article
Triclosan (TCS), an antibacterial biocide, pervades water and sediment matrices globally, posing a threat to aquatic life. In densely populated cities like Mumbai, rivers and coastal bodies demand baseline TCS data for ecotoxicological assessment due to the excessive use of personal care products comprising TCS. This pioneering study compares spatiotemporal TCS variations and risks in freshwater and marine ecosystems employing multivariate analysis of physicochemical parameters. Over five months (January to May 2022), Mithi River exhibited higher TCS concentrations (water: 1.68 μg/L, sediment: 3.19 μg/kg) than Versova Creek (water: 0.49 μg/L, sediment: 0.69 μg/kg). Principal component analysis revealed positive correlations between TCS and physicochemical parameters. High-risk quotients (>1) underscore TCS threats in both water bodies. This study furnishes crucial baseline data, emphasizing the need for effective treatment plans for TCS in effluent waters released into the adjacent aquatic systems.
Article
Pharmaceuticals in aquatic environments pose threats to aquatic organisms because of their continuous release and potential accumulation. Monitoring methods for these contaminants are inadequate, with targeted analyses falling short in assessing water quality's impact on biota. The present study advocates for integrated strategies combining suspect and targeted chemical analyses with molecular biomarker approaches to better understand the risks posed by complex chemical mixtures to nontarget organisms. The research aimed to integrate chemical analysis and transcriptome changes in fathead minnows to prioritize contaminants, assess their effects, and apply this strategy in Wascana Creek, Canada. Analysis revealed higher pharmaceutical concentrations downstream of a wastewater‐treatment plant, with clozapine being the most abundant in fathead minnows, showing notable bioavailability from water and sediment sources. Considering the importance of bioaccumulation factor and biota–sediment accumulation factor in risk assessment, these coefficients were calculated based on field data collected during spring, summer, and fall seasons in 2021. Bioaccumulation was classified as very bioaccumulative with values >5000 L kg –1 , suggesting the ability of pharmaceuticals to accumulate in aquatic organisms. The study highlighted the intricate relationship between nutrient availability, water quality, and key pathways affected by pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and rubber components. Prioritization of these chemicals was done through suspect analysis, supported by identifying perturbed pathways (specifically signaling and cellular processes) using transcriptomic analysis in exposed fish. This strategy not only aids in environmental risk assessment but also serves as a practical model for other watersheds, streamlining risk‐assessment processes to identify environmental hazards and work toward reducing risks from contaminants of emerging concern. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;00:1–22. © 2024 SETAC
Chapter
Generally, emerging contaminants (ECs) is organic substances generated by industrial and household activities, that present in environment without controlled and monitoring by authorized, it harmful to aquatic life and human health. Pharmaceutical waste, personal care product, pesticide, and food additives are major sources of ECs. These pollutants are hazardous, low bio-degradability nature and low-level traces concentration (micro to nanogram). Due to low concentration detected in environmental, their remediation not been a major concern by authorized, however potential to accumulate being the major risk to environment in future. The complexity structure and high polarity making them challenging to eliminate, moreover discharged these pollutants into aquatic environment without sufficient treatment cause detrimental effect to living organism. Recently, scientific research has been devoted to developing novel adsorbent to mitigate hazardous contaminants. With biocompatible, biodegradable, and eco-friendly nature, alginate—based polymer has been widely reported of usage alginate composite to remove emerging contaminants. This chapter highlights the presence of emerging contaminants, their adverse effect and subsequently examine the common treatment methods. It then focus on alginate—based materials, encompassing their processes, application and proposed mechanisms for addressing emerging contaminants.
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Antimicrobials are frequently used in both humans and animals for the treatment of bacterially-generated illnesses. Antibiotic usage has increased for more than 40% from last 15 years globally per day in both human populations and farm animals leading to the large-scale discharge of antibiotic residues into wastewater. Most antibiotics end up in sewer systems, either directly from industry or healthcare systems, or indirectly from humans and animals after being partially metabolized or broken down following consumption. To prevent additional antibiotic compound pollution, which eventually impacts on the spread of antibiotic resistance, it is crucial to remove antibiotic residues from wastewater. Antibiotic accumulation and antibiotic resistance genes cannot be effectively and efficiently eliminated by conventional sewage treatment plants. Because of their high energy requirements and operating costs, many of the available technologies are not feasible. However, the biosorption method, which uses low-cost biomass as the biosorbent, is an alternative technique to potentially address these problems. An extensive literature survey focusing on developments in the field was conducted using English language electronic databases, such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Pubag, Google books, and ResearchGate, to understand the relative value of the available antibiotic removal methods. The predominant techniques for eliminating antibiotic residues from wastewater were categorized and defined by example. The approaches were contrasted, and the benefits and drawbacks were highlighted. Additionally, we included a few antibiotics whose removal from aquatic environments has been the subject of extensive research. Lastly, a few representative publications were identified that provide specific information on the removal rates attained by each technique. This review provides evidence that biosorption of antibiotic residues from biological waste using natural biosorbent materials is an affordable and effective technique for eliminating antibiotic residues from wastewater.
Article
The challenge of emerging contaminants (ECs) in global surface water bodies and particularly in low- and middle-income countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, is evident from the literature. The complexity arises from the high costs involved in EC analysis and the extensive list of ECs, which complicates the selection of essential compounds for scientific and regulatory investigations. Consequently, monitoring programs often include ECs that may have minimal significance within a region and do not pose known or suspected ecological or human health risks. This study aims to address this issue by employing a multi-risk assessment approach to identify priority ECs in the surface waters of the aforementioned countries. Through an analysis of occurrence levels and frequency data gathered from published literature, an optimized risk quotient (RQ) was derived. The findings reveal a priority list of 38 compounds that exhibit potential environmental risks and merit consideration in future water quality monitoring programs. Furthermore, the majority of antibiotics in India (12 out of 17) and Pakistan (7 out of 17) exhibit a risk quotient for antimicrobial resistance selection (RQAMR) greater than 1, highlighting the need for devising effective strategies to mitigate the escalation of antibiotic resistance in the environment.
Article
We quantified the occurrences and seasonal variations of the target Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) at four (two major municipals, and two academic institutions) WWTPs in Dehradun city, Uttarakhand, India. The results showed estrone in higher concentrations at μgL-1 levels in influent among the WWTPs, compared to triclosan (TCS) at ngL-1 levels. An astounding concentration of 123.95 μgL-1 was recorded for the estrone in the influent, which is to date the highest ever recorded, globally. Statistical data treatment was performed to test the distribution of the data (Shapiro-Wilk, Anderson-Darling, Lilliefors, and Jarque-Bera tests), and the significant difference between the mean of the wastewater sample population (ANOVA: F statistics, p values, Mann-Whitney test, Tukey's and Dunn's post hoc analysis). Statistical data treatment indicated EDCs concentration with a bi-modal distribution. The Shapiro-Wilk, Anderson-Darling, Lilliefors, and Jarque-Bera tests elucidate a non-normal distribution for the EDCs sample data. A statistically significant difference (F = 8.46; p < 0.0001) in the seasonal data for the abundance of the target EDCs at the WWTPs have been observed. Highest and significantly different mean EDCs concentrations were recorded during the monsoon, compared to the spring (p = 0.025) and summer (p = 0.0004) seasons in the influent waters. The mean influent concentrations of TCS and estrone in monsoon were 66.45 ngL-1 and 78.02 μgL-1, respectively. Maximum removals were recorded for TCS, while maximum negative removal of ∼293% was observed for estrone in the WWTPs. Particularly, the high levels of estrone in the wastewater pose a significant threat as estrone presence could be led to feminization, dysregulation of reproduction in organisms, and carcinogenesis processes in the environment. This study critically highlights the limitation of the WWTPs in the treatment, degradation, and assimilation of EDCs leading to their hyperaccumulation at WWTP effluents, thereby posing a substantial threat to nearby aquatic ecosystems, human health, and the ecological balance of the region.
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Triclosan is an antimicrobial agent that has been used in common household products and can be detected in water environment. In this study, therefore, I aimed at clarifying the effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of triclosan on the early life stage development in zebrafish. A lethal effect was observed: the lowest effect and the no effect concentrations were 70.6 and 48.4μg/L, respectively. These concentrations are very close to the environmentally detected residual concentrations. In 10.9, 19.8, 48.4, and 70.6μg/L of triclosan, the iodothyronine deiodinase 1 gene expression was found to be significantly increased when compared with that of the control group. These findings indicate that triclosan can potentially disrupt the thyroid hormone activity in zebrafish. The exposure to triclosan (at 149.2μg/L) was also found to inhibit the gene expression of insulin-like growth factor-1. My findings suggest that triclosan can exert a thyroid hormone-disrupting effect on fish.
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Long-term infiltration from river receiving reclaimed water will pose potential risk to vadose zone and groundwater because of the persistent and highly toxic contaminants. In order to predict the spatio-temporal distribution of ecological and health risk, a coupled model of HYDRUS-GMS combined risk quotient was proposed. The model can accurately predict water flow, solute transport and risk with model due to the acceptable efficiency (E:0.99), mean absolute error (MAE:0.031 m) and root-mean-square error (RMSE:0.039 m). The content of galaxolide (HHCB), a typical pharmaceutical and personal care product with hydrophobicity and refractory in reclaimed water, increased in vadose zone at an accumulative rate of 6.1 ng g-1 year-1 with infiltration time extension. The accumulation will pose ecological risk after 53 years infiltration. The potential risk will extent to groundwater once penetrate through vadose zone, and mainly diffuse along groundwater flow direction. The migration rate along horizontal direction of groundwater flow is 0.03396 m d-1, which is 9.7 and 1.1 times higher than longitudinal and vertical rates due to the variation of driving force in three directions. The migration rate of HHCB was 2.6% of groundwater flow due to hydrophobicity (LogKow = 5.9). The complete biochemical decomposition of HHCB will take approximately 0.38 year through metabolite within 182.65 m distance. The persistence was attributed to the high chronic toxicity and the low bio-availability. The major biochemical metabolism of HHCB was enzymatic hydrolysis, ring opening, decarboxylation, which was decomposed and carbonized within approximately 0.38 year after 182.65 m migration distance. This study provided a new approach to predict the spatio-temporal risk distribution due to reclaimed water reuse.
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Emerging contaminants include many synthetic or natural substances, such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products, hormones, and flame retardants that are not often controlled or monitored in the environment. The consumption or use of these substances is on an ever-rising trend, which dangerously increases their prevalence in practically all environmental matrices. These contaminants are present in low environmental concentrations and cause severe effects on human health and the biota. The present review analyzed 2012-2022 years papers via PubChem, science direct, National Center for Biotechnology Information, web of science on the legislations and policies of emerging contaminants globally. A state-of-the-art review of several studies in the literature focus on examining and evaluating the emerging contaminants and the frameworks adopted by developed and developing countries to combat the release of emerging contaminants and form footprints towards water sustainability which includes water availability, usage patterns, generation and pollution management, the health of aquatic systems, and societal vulnerability. The paper aims to provide a comprehensive view of current global policies and framework regarding evaluating and assessing the chemicals, in light of being a threat to the environment and biota. The review also highlights the future global prospects, including current governmental activities and emerging contaminant policy measures. The review concludes with suggestions and way forward to control the inventory and disposal of emerging contaminants in the environment.
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This work primarily emphases on evaluating the prevalence of organic micropollutants (OMPs) in the perennial Yamuna River (YR) that flow through the national capital of India, Delhi. Sixteen sampling campaigns (non-monsoon, n = 9; monsoon n = 7) were organized to understand the seasonal variations with special emphasis on monsoon. We have found fifty-five OMPs in the monsoon; while forty-seven were detected in non-monsoon. Fifty-seven screened and quantified OMPs in the most polluted stretch of River Yamuna included the pharmaceutically active compounds, pesticides, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, phthalates, personal care products, fatty acids, food additives, hormones, and trace organics present in hospital wastes. During monsoon months, compounds for which concentrations exceeded 50 μg/L were: adenine (64.6 μg/L), diethyl phthalate (62.9 μg/L), and octamethyltrisiloxane (56.9 μg/L); and the same for non-monsoon months was only for 1-dodecanethiol (52.3 μg/L). The average concentration of OMPs in non-monsoon months indicate PhACs>PCPs>Pesticides>Fatty acids>Hospital waste>Hormones>Pesticides>EDCs. In monsoon months due to surface runoff and high volume of untreated wastewater discharges few more OMPs concentrations were detected which mainly includes PhACs (clofibric acid, diclofenac sodium, gemfibrozil, ketoprofen), pesticides (aldrin, metribuzin, atrazine, simazine). Due to dilution effect in the monsoon months, average concentrations of 3-acetamido-5-bromobenzoic acid (PhACs) was reduced from 45.22 μg/L to 14.07 μg/L, whereas some EDCs such as 2,4- Di-tert-amylphenol, 3,5- di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, Triphenylphosphine oxide, Benzophenone were found in much higher concentrations in the monsoon months. Octamethyltrisiloxane (PCPs) was detected 50 times higher in concentration in the monsoon months. Interestingly, the concentration of about 50 % of the OMPs was more in the monsoon samples than in non-monsoon samples which is contrary to the general understanding that monsoon-induced dilution lowers the concentrations of OMPs. In RY water higher magnitude of diclofenac sodium, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and clofibric acid was found than Europe and North America rivers. Hormones such as estriol and estrone in RY water are found 70 to 100 times higher than the maximum reported concentrations in the US streams.
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The increasing occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the ecosystem is considered a global concern. These substances easily reach water and wastewater treatment systems and water bodies through the industrial, hospital, and residential effluent discharges, human and animal urine and feces, fertilizers, and disposal of medicines in common garbage or sinks. These drugs, even at low concentrations, when present in the environment, can cause changes in the endocrine, immune, and reproductive systems of living things there. In this context, this article presented an overview of where drugs such as caffeine, paracetamol, and diclofenac were found worldwide. In addition, this review set out to discuss how these drugs affect the quality of the water and all the beings around it. Therefore, this review aims to provide a deeper and more critical systematic approach to non-conventional processes such as adsorption, advanced oxidative processes, and membranes that can be employed to remove caffeine, paracetamol, and/or diclofenac from water. To this end, theoretical concepts were expounded, and scientific articles published in the literature on these advanced treatments between 2010 - 2022 were analyzed. This review will be valuable for researchers studying advanced processes to remove emerging contaminants.
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The prevalence of emerging contaminants (ECs) in wastewaters is troublesome because of their widespread and persistent nature, posing a threat to living organisms when exposed for prolonged durations. We conducted an extensive literature assessment for this study to present the overall global status of the occurrence of ECs regardless of their class by compiling relevant publications from the previous decade. The most commonly investigated category were pharmaceuticals (particularly antibiotics and anti-inflammatories/analgesics), personal care products (PCPs), and industrial chemicals (IDC). The most concentrated compounds in the global influents and effluents were Acetaminophen (500 μg/L), an analgesic, and Saccharine (379 μg/L), an artificial sweetener, reported from Canada and India, respectively. Irrespective of its prevalence, the presence of artificial sweeteners (ASWs), surfactants, etc., in wastewaters have often been overlooked. Most of the sub-classes exhibited minor to moderate elimination efficiency, with anti-diabetic drugs showing the highest among all. However, insignificant changes (artificial sweeteners, phthalates, etc.) and negative removal (anti-depressants, anti-psychotics, etc.) were also observed. Furthermore, Caffeine, Ampicillin, and Trimethoprim were reported at extremely high concentrations in India than in the rest of the world. Irgasan, Benzothiazoles, Sparfloxacin, etc., were also quite predominant in India, which has yet to be recorded in any other country. Therefore, the universally implemented conventional approaches are incapable of total elimination for all ECs. Hence, the traditional methods should be paired with the advanced techniques that have shown positive removal for certain ECs, which can be a promising solution to this problem. These findings will aid in establishing which classes and compounds demand immediate attention for further investigation and monitoring, allowing water managers to take necessary measures to reduce pollutant levels at the source and develop water protection policies.
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There is a dearth of information on the occurrence and risks of antibiotics in the urban rivers from plateau areas. This study investigated 83 antibiotics in water and sediments of an urban river and effluents of sewage treatment plants (E-STPs) in Xining, Qinghai (northeastern Tibetan Plateau). Fifty-three antibiotics were detected, and the concentrations of individual antibiotics varied in the range of undetected (ND)-552 ng/L in water, ND-164 ng/g in sediments, and ND-3821 ng/L in E-STPs. Seasonal differences of antibiotic concentrations were significant for water samples (p < 0.05) but insignificant for sediments (p > 0.05). In urban area, E-STP is the main source of antibiotics in the river, while runoff from manured cropland contributes partially to antibiotics in the river in the suburban area. The antibiotic compositions in water were different from those in sediments, but were similar to those in E-STPs. Notably, because of strong solar radiation and long sunshine hours in the plateau area, low levels of quinolones, which are sensitive to photolysis, were observed in river water. Moreover, norfloxacin and enrofloxacin, observed in urban river from other regions of China, were not detected in the Huangshui River water. The occurrence of ofloxacin, erythromycin, roxithromycin, clarithromycin, and trimethoprim in E-STPs may induce a possible risk to antibiotic resistance evolution. Trimethoprim, anhydroerythromycin, sulfamethoxazole, sulfapyridine, and clindamycin in river water could pose low to medium risks to aquatic organisms. Further investigation on the occurrence and distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in the Huangshui River is urgently needed.
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The presence of emerging contaminants (ECs) in the environment has been consistently recognized as a worldwide concern. ECs may be defined as chemicals or materials found in the environment at trace concentrations with potential, perceived, or real risk to the “One Health” trilogy (environment, human, and animal health). The main concern regarding pharmaceuticals and in particular antibiotics is the widespread dissemination of antimicrobial resistance. Nevertheless, non-antimicrobials also interact with microorganisms in both bulk phase and in biofilms. In fact, drugs not developed for antimicrobial chemotherapy can exert an antimicrobial action and, therefore, a selective pressure on microorganisms. This review aims to provide answers to questions typically ignored in epidemiological and environmental monitoring studies with a focus on water systems, particularly drinking water (DW): Do ECs exposure changes the behavior of environmental microorganisms? May non-antibiotic ECs affect tolerance to antimicrobials? Do ECs interfere with biofilm function? Are ECs-induced changes in microbial behavior of public health concern? Nowadays, the answers to these questions are still very limited. However, this study demonstrates that some ECs have significant effects in microbial behavior. The most studied ECs are pharmaceuticals, particularly antibiotics, carbamazepine and diclofenac. The pressure caused by antibiotic and other antimicrobial agents on the acquisition and spread of antibiotic resistance seems to be unquestionable. However, regarding the effects of ECs on the development and behavior of biofilms, the conclusions of different studies are still controversial. The dissimilar findings propose that standardized tests are needed for an accurate assessment on the effects of ECs in the microbiome of water systems. The variability of experimental conditions, combined with the presence of mixtures of ECs as well as the lack of information about the effects of non-pharmaceutical ECs constitute the main challenge to be overcome in order to improve ECs prioritization.
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Formation of halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) from pharmaceutically active compounds has been observed in water supply systems following wastewater chlorination. While research has been limited thus far, several studies have shown that halogenated DBPs may elicit increased toxicity compared to their parent compound. For example, the lipid-regulator gemfibrozil has been shown to form chlorogemfibrozil (Cl-gemfibrozil) and bromogemfibrozil (Br-gemfibrozil) following chlorination, which are more potent anti-androgens in male Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) compared to the parent. In the present study, we aimed to characterized the bioaccumulative ability of halogenated gemfibrozil DBPs in marine polychaetes via chronic sediment exposures and, consequently, to assess chronic and acute toxicity of halogenated gemfibrozil DBPs through sediment (in vivo) and aqueous (in vivo and in silico) toxicity evaluations. Following 28 day sediment exposures, Cl-gemfibrozil and Br-gemfibrozil bioaccumulated within Neanthes arenaceodentata, with both compounds reducing survival and growth. Biota-sediment accumulation factors determined for Cl-gemfibrozil and Br-gemfibrozil were 2.59 and 6.86, respectively. Furthermore, aqueous 96 hour toxicity tests with N. arenaceodentata indicated that gemfibrozil DBPs elicited increased toxicity compared to the parent compound. While gemfibrozil had an acute LC50 value of 469.85 ± 0.096 mg/L, Cl-gemfibrozil and Br-gemfibrozil had LC50 values of 52.31 ± 0.085 mg/L and 17.89 ± 0.0 mg/L, respectively. Although acute toxicity is relatively low, our results indicate halogenated gemfibrozil DBPs are bioaccumulative and may elicit effects in apex food web organisms prone to accumulation following life-long exposures.
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The occurrence of selected pharmaceuticals (trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, chloramphenicol, bezafibrate, ceftriaxone, and naproxen) in two west-flowing tropical rivers (Swarna and Nethravati) of southwestern India is reported for the first time. Water samples were collected during the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons from river water end members and further downstream up to their confluence with the adjacent Arabian Sea. Samples were analyzed using HPLC–MS/MS. Results revealed that there were no significant seasonal variations in concentrations of target analytes in both the rivers. Of the total number of samples analyzed (n = 24), trimethoprim was detected in 100% of the samples, whereas sulfamethoxazole (SMX), chloramphenicol (CAP), ceftriaxone (CTX), and naproxen (NPX) were detected in between 91 and 58% of the samples. Bezafibrate (BZF) was not detected in the samples. Nethravathi river showed higher concentrations of pharmaceuticals than the Swarna river which may be attributed to comparatively larger human population in the basin. Possible impacts of PPCPs on aquatic life offer further scope for study.
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The prevalence of emerging contaminants of concern in water regimes is very common these days. High anthropogenic intervention is leading to occurrence of various types of microcontaminants of concern in drinking water systems. Their removal using conventional form of treatment systems employed in water treatment plants is not widely researched upon. Their fate in the conventional as well as advanced water treatment system needs to be focused upon for efficient and safe water disposal. Some compounds may leave the system unchanged or some might transform into much more toxic byproduct. Moreover, understanding level of occurrence of these emerging contaminants in source water bodies is also quintessential for assessing their fate in treatment plant itself as well as in the final treated water. Here in this study, the occurrence and removal of various classes of emerging contaminants were investigated in a moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR)–based advanced drinking water treatment plant (ADWTP) alongside one conventional drinking water treatment plant, both of which use River Yamuna as the source of water. Non-target analysis utilizing high-performance liquid chromatography combined with time of flight (HPLC-QToF) identified more than 300 compounds. Pharmaceuticals accounted for a major fraction (58%) of the identified compounds, followed by plasticizers and insecticides. Nine parent compound and their transformation products were additionally identified using solid-phase extraction followed by analysis using gas chromatography mass spectrometry and HPLC-QToF. The degradation pathway of the parent compounds in MBBR-based ADWTP was also analyzed in depth. The efficiency of each unit process of MBBR-based drinking water treatment plant was studied in terms of removal of few emerging contaminants. Pharmaceutical compound like diclofenac supposedly was persistent, even, toward the end of the treatment train. Semi-quantitative analysis revealed ineffective removal of pyridine, hydrochlorothiazide, and diethyl phthalate in the outlet of ADWTP. ADWTP was able to remove a few emerging contaminants, but a few were recalcitrant. Likewise, it was established that although some parent compounds were degraded, much more toxic transformation products were formed and were prevalent at the end of the treatment.
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Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) have gained attention in recent years due to their continuous discharge in natural waters. Their persistence in the environment has impacted flora, fauna and human being worldwide. One of the most common PPCPs is caffeine (1, 3, 7-trimethylxanthine) which acts as a stimulant to the central nervous system in humans and is found in nature in about 60 plant species, especially in coffee, tea and cacao plants. Here we discuss the evidence with respect to caffeine occurrence, its persistence and remediation in light of increasing knowledge and the impact of caffeine on the environment. Daily intake of caffeine around the world is found to increase due to the frequent introduction of new caffeinated beverages as well as increased consumption of coffee, tea and carbonated soft drinks, which has led to increase in its concentration in water bodies including agricultural soil. The caffeine concentration in different water system, studied by various authors is also described. Diverse effects of the use of caffeine on several organisms including humans are also briefly presented. Therefore, urgent attention for the removal of caffeine and its derivatives is the need of the hour. Various methods described in literature for caffeine degradation/removal is also presented. Another widely used technique in environmental remediation is molecular imprinting (MIP); however, only few MIPs have been demonstrated for caffeine which is also discussed. Regular monitoring can be useful to control toxic effects of caffeine. Graphical abstract
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In the last few decades, pharmaceuticals, credited with saving millions of lives, have emerged as a new class of environmental contaminant. These compounds can have both chronic and acute harmful effects on natural flora and fauna. The presence of pharmaceutical contaminants in ground waters, surface waters (lakes, rivers, and streams), sea water, wastewater treatment plants (influents and effluents), soils, and sludges has been well doccumented. A range of methods including oxidation, photolysis, UV-degradation, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, and adsorption has been used for their remediation from aqueous systems. Many methods have been commercially limited by toxic sludge generation, incomplete removal, high capital and operating costs, and the need for skilled operating and maintenance personnel. Adsorption technologies are a low-cost alternative, easily used in developing countries where there is a dearth of advanced technologies, skilled personnel, and available capital, and adsorption appears to be the most broadly feasible pharmaceutical removal method. Adsorption remediation methods are easily integrated with wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Herein, we have reviewed the literature (1990-2018) illustrating the rising environmental pharmaceutical contamination concerns as well as remediation efforts emphasizing adsorption.
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The rate of degradation of enrofloxacin in broiler chicken manure has been characterised. Its degradation was investigated in manure excreted by broiler chickens in an intensively reared chicken facility; further, the degradation also followed after transfer of the excreta into the natural environment occurred. The effect of enrofloxacin and its degradation products on cucumber and tomato was also investigated. Enrofloxacin degradation was shown to take place within the rearing facility and also continuing after the manure was transferred into the environment. The rates of enrofloxacin degradation and the degree of degradation product formation in the manure heap incubated in the environment were condition specific, both variables depending on the manure sampling depth. The degradation half-lives ranged from 12.7 to 38.1 days for enrofloxacin and from 1.2 to 8.2 days for the main metabolite ciprofloxacin. Only the cucumber showed signs of toxicity when incubated with the composted manure immediately after transfer into field occurred (t = 0). No toxic effects to plants were observed when manure from the last incubation day (60th) of the field study and manure from the last incubation day of the laboratory degradation study were applied. The degradation study under field conditions showed that enrofloxacin and its degradation products degrade fast in the environment. Additionally, the toxic effects to plants decrease with the incubation time of manure containing enrofloxacin residuals.
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The spatial distribution of pharmaceuticals, personal care products (PPCPs) and other emerging contaminants (ECs) such as plasticisers, perflourinated compounds (PFCs) and illicit drug metabolites in water and bound to suspended particulate material (SPM) is not well-understood. Here, we quantify levels of thirteen selected contaminants in water (n=88) and their partition to suspended particulate material (SPM, n=16) in three previously-unstudied rivers of Greater London and Southern England during a key reproduction/spawning period. Analysis was conducted using an in-house validated method for Solid Phase Extraction followed by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass-Spectrometry. Analytes were extracted from SPM using an optimised method for ultrasonic-assisted solvent extraction. Detection frequencies of contaminants dissolved in water ranged from 3% (ethinylestradiol) to 100% (bisphenol-A). Overall mean concentrations in the aqueous-phase ranged from 14.7ng/L (benzoylecgonine) to 159ng/L (bisphenol-A). Sewage treatment works (STW) effluent was the predominant source of pharmaceuticals, while plasticisers/perfluorinated compounds may additionally enter rivers via other sources. In SPM, detection frequencies ranged from 44% (PFOA) to 94% (hydroxyacetophenone). Mean quantifiable levels of analytes bound to SPM ranged from 13.5ng/g dry SPM (0.33ng bound/L water) perfluorononanoic acid to 2830ng/g dry SPM (14.3ng bound/L water) perfluorooctanesulfonic acid. Long chain (>C7) amphipathic and acidic PFCs were found to more preferentially bind to SPM than short chain PFCs and other contaminants (Kd=34.1-75.5 vs <5 respectively). Per capita daily contributions of studied contaminants entering rivers ranged from 0.157?g/person/day of benzoylecgonine (cocaine metabolite) to 58.6?g/person/day of bisphenol-A. The large sample size of this work (n=104) enabled ANOVA followed by Tukey HSD post-hoc tests to establish significant trends in PPCP/EC spatial distribution from headwaters through downstream stretches of studied rivers. Novel findings include environmental Kd calculations, the occurrence of contaminants in river headwaters, increases in contaminant metabolite concentrations downstream of STW effluents revealing possible in-river degradation or de-conjugation, the influence of polarity and acidity in the partition of contaminants to particulate-material, among others.
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Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are a unique group of emerging environmental contaminants, due to their inherent ability to induce physiological effects in human at low doses. An increasing number of studies has confirmed the presence of various PPCPs in different environmental compartments, which raises concerns about the potential adverse effects to humans and wildlife. Therefore, this article reviews the current state-of-knowledge on PPCPs in the freshwater aquatic environment. The environmental risk posed by these contaminants is evaluated in light of the persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity criteria. Available literature on the sources, transport and degradation of PPCPs in the aquatic environment are evaluated, followed by a comprehensive review of the reported concentrations of different PPCP groups in the freshwater aquatic environment (water, sediment and biota) of the five continents. Finally, future perspectives for research on PPCPs in the freshwater aquatic environment are discussed in light of the identified research gaps in current knowledge.
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The aquatic environment has been implicated as a reservoir for antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs). In order to identify sources that are contributing to these gene reservoirs, it is crucial to assess effluents that are entering the aquatic environment. Here we describe a metagenomic assessment for two types of effluent entering a river catchment. We investigated the diversity and abundance of resistance genes, mobile genetic elements (MGEs) and pathogenic bacteria. Findings were normalised to a background sample of river source water. Our results show that effluent contributed an array of genes to the river catchment, the most abundant being tetracycline resistance genes tetC and tetW from farm effluents and the sulfonamide resistance gene sul2 from wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents. In nine separate samples taken across three years we found 53 different genes conferring resistance to 7 classes of antimicrobial. Compared to the background sample taken up river from effluent entry, the average abundance of genes was three times greater in the farm effluent and two times greater in the WWTP effluent. We conclude that effluents disperse ARGs, MGEs and pathogenic bacteria within a river catchment, thereby contributing to environmental reservoirs of ARGs.
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Final effluent samples from ten Southern California (U.S.A.) wastewater treatment facilities, employing four distinct treatment schemes, were surveyed for selected pharmaceuticals, personal care products (PPCPs), alkylphenols and 21 of their halogenated disinfection byproducts (HDBPs). Chlorinated and brominated standards and isotopically labeled internal standards were synthesized and purified in order to confirm and more accurately quantify selected disinfection byproducts of salicylic acid, bisphenol A, gemfibrozil, naproxen, diclofenac, technical 4-nonylphenol and 4-tert-octylphenol using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Concentrations of parent compounds ranged from <10 ng/L to 3830 ng/L (gemfibrozil), and chloro/bromo byproducts ranged from <4 ng/L to 370 ng/L (dibromo nonylphenol). The highest concentrations of parent compounds were measured in effluent that did not use tertiary treatment. Chlorinated and brominated byproduct concentration may be affected by influent concentration of parent compounds, hydraulic retention times and chlorine contact times. Salicylic acid was readily halogenated, as evident from the ratio of halogenated to non-halogenated species. There were no measured chlorinated byproducts of bisphenol A despite occasionally high concentrations of the parent compound. Not surprisingly, higher concentrations of most brominated species were measured in the treatment plant with the highest bromide concentrations. These results demonstrate the occurrence of novel halogenated byproducts of PPCPs that have limited toxicological data and significant uncertainty with regard to their risk to ecological systems.
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Background: Pharmaceuticals are known to contaminate tap water worldwide, but the relevant human health risks have not been assessed in China. Objectives: We monitored 32 pharmaceuticals in Chinese tap water and evaluated the life-long human health risks of exposure in order to provide information for future prioritization and risk management. Methods: We analyzed samples (n = 113) from 13 cities and compared detected concentrations with existing or newly-derived safety levels for assessing risk quotients (RQs) at different life stages, excluding the prenatal stage. Results: We detected 17 pharmaceuticals in 89% of samples, with most detectable concentrations (92%) at < 50 ng/L. Caffeine (median–maximum, nanograms per liter: 24.4–564), metronidazole (1.8–19.3), salicylic acid (16.6–41.2), clofibric acid (1.2–3.3), carbamazepine (1.3–6.7), and dimetridazole (6.9–14.7) were found in ≥ 20% of samples. Cities within the Yangtze River region and Guangzhou were regarded as contamination hot spots because of elevated levels and frequent positive detections. Of the 17 pharmaceuticals detected, 13 showed very low risk levels, but 4 (i.e., dimetridazole, thiamphenicol, sulfamethazine, and clarithromycin) were found to have at least one life-stage RQ ≥ 0.01, especially for the infant and child life stages, and should be considered of high priority for management. We propose an indicator-based monitoring framework for providing information for source identification, water treatment effectiveness, and water safety management in China. Conclusion: Chinese tap water is an additional route of human exposure to pharmaceuticals, particularly for dimetridazole, although the risk to human health is low based on current toxicity data. Pharmaceutical detection and application of the proposed monitoring framework can be used for water source protection and risk management in China and elsewhere.
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Occurrence of antibiotics was investigated in water associated with two hospitals in Ujjain district, India. Samples of hospital associated water were subjected to solid phase extraction combined with high pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), to estimate antibiotics in incoming safe water, hospital wastewater and groundwater. The incoming safe water and groundwater were free of an-tibiotics; however, metronidazole, norfloxacin, sul-phamethoxazole, ceftriaxone, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin and tinidazole were detected in the range of 1.4–236.6 μg –l in hospital effluents. Contamination of aquatic environment by antibiotic usage in hospi-tals has serious implications on public health and environment.
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The seasonal variations in the occurrence of carbamazepine, atenolol, metoprolol, sotalol, and acebutolol were studied at seven sites along River Fyris from December 2007 to December 2008. Samples were collected from the effluent of a waste water treatment plant (WWTP), at one upstream site, and five downstream sites of the WWTP. During one occasion in May 2008, water samples were collected at different locations and depths in the recipient lake. All analytes except of acebutolol were present in both the river and the lake at quantifiable amounts at all sampling occasions. Carbamazepine was found in similar concentrations (about 90 ng L(-1)) at all sampling sites and all studied depths (0.5-40 m) in the lake, indicating high environmental persistence of this compound. A clear seasonal pattern was observed for the natural attenuation of the beta-blockers in the river, with the highest attenuation occurring in summer and the lowest in winter. The loss of beta-blockers on a distance of 1320 m reached up to 75% during summer time but was insignificant during winter. The seasonal variations in the loss followed the seasonal variations in water temperature and chlorophyll a mass flow suggesting that biotransformation and adsorption are the main processes responsible for the loss of the studied pharmaceuticals in River Fyris downstream the WWTP.
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Occurrence of 15 different pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) (ibuprofen, diclofenac, ketoprofen, acetaminophen, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, amoxicillin, ofloxacin, tetracycline, metoprolol, triclosan, salicylic acid, N, N diethyl-meta-toluamide, caffeine and β-Estradiol) belongs to eight different classes in an urban stretch of River Ganges were detected for three seasons in two holy cities Rishikesh and Haridwar (India). The overall concentration of PPCPs in the River Ganges ranged between Below Detectable Limit (BDL) to 1104.84 ng/L, with higher concentrations at anthropogenically influenced lower reaches of the River Ganges at Haridwar. Acetaminophen, triclosan, N, N diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), tetracycline, and caffeine showed the highest detection frequency (>90–100%) in the river. PPCPs concentration, especially for NSAIDs (Ibuprofen, ketoprofen and acetaminophen), antibiotics (ciprofloxacin, tetracycline and ofloxacin) and metabolite (salicylic acid) was found to be higher in winter compared to summer in the Ganges, possibly due to the lower biodegradation efficiency related to lesser temperatures and inadequate sunlight. While metoprolol (beta-blockers), triclosan (antibacterial), DEET (insect repellent) and caffeine (human indicator) showed a higher load in summer, possibly due to their intense uses during this period. Results of risk quiescent (RQ) revealed higher ecological risk for algae while the moderate risk for river fish biota.
Article
The identification and quantification of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic ecosystems is critical to further studies and elucidation of their fate as well as the potential threats to aquatic ecology and human health. This study used mass balances to analyse the sources, transformation, and transport of PPCPs in rivers based on the population and consumption habits of residents, the removal level of sewage treatment, the persistence and partitioning mechanisms of PPCPs, hydrological conditions, and other natural factors. Our results suggested that in an urbanized river of Guangzhou City, China, the daily consumption of PPCPs was the main reason for the variety of species and concentrations of PPCPs. Through the determination of PPCPs in the river water samples and a central composite design (CCD) methodology, the dominant elimination mechanisms of caffeine and carbamazepine from river water were photolysis and biodegradation, but that of triclosan was sorption rather than biodegradation. The mass data of 3 PPCPs were estimated and corroborated using the measured data to evaluate the accuracy of the mass balance. Finally, caffeine, carbamazepine and triclosan discharged from the Shijing River into the Pearl River accounted for 97.81%, 99.52%, and 28.00%, respectively, of the total mass of these three compounds in the surface water of Shijing River. The results suggest that photolysis are the main process of natural attenuation for selected PPCPs in surface waters of river systems, and the transfer processes of PPCPs is mainly attributed to riverine advection. In addition, the low concentration of dissolved oxygen inhibited the degradation of PPCPs in the surface water of Shijing River.
Article
Scientists have correlated land application of animal wastes as fertilizer with the feminization of fish. Two questions were asked. 1) Under a worst case scenario when animal waste (layer and roaster litter, or farrowing swine slurry) is applied and tilled in 24 h prior to a l surface-runoff producing rainfall, will estrogenic equivalents exceed the Lowest Observable Effect Concentration (LOEC) for fish (10 ng/L)? 2) Can calcium concentrations in runoff, measured using a rapid meter-based method, be used as a sentinel of elevated estrogenic activity? In a 3-yr study wastes were surface-applied and incorporated and 24 h later, 1.5 by 3 m plots were subjected to simulated rainfall and again 1 wk. and 3 wk. later. Nutrients in runoff were also measured, and in year 1 total coliforms and E. coli. were assessed. Except for an initial preliminary test run, runoff from all plots and years never exceeded 10 ng/L E2Eq equivalent. Calcium concentrations in runoff were not related to estrogenicity, negating its use as a sentinel marker. Specific estrogens in animal waste and runoff were identified by mass spectrometry with concentrations in runoff dependant on manure source and timing of rainfall. As expected, total coliform and E. coli concentrations in runoff were increased by the application of layer litter. Concentrations of nutrients in runoff would not be expected to result in surface water concentrations higher than guidelines for protection of aquatic species. Animal wastes applied in quantities appropriate for crop nutrient requirements, tilled into the soil surface, in observance of regulations avoiding application within 24 h of a predicted rain event, should not result in estrogen levels of environmental concern.
Article
At the end of August 2019, in Warsaw, the sewage collection system of the Wastewater Treatment Plant malfunctioned. During the subsequent 12 days, over 3.6 million m³ of untreated sewage was introduced from the damaged collector directly into the Vistula River. It is one of the biggest known failures of its kind in the world so far. In this study we investigated to what extent the incident contributed to the increased discharge of anti-inflammatory drugs into the environment. The study covered the section from the point of discharge to the city of Toruń (ca. 170 km downstream). It was found that in the river waters downstream of the damaged collector, the concentrations of selected pharmaceuticals increased considerably in comparison with the waters upstream of the collector. The highest concentrations were observed for paracetamol (102.9 μg/L), ibuprofen (5.3 μg/L) and diclofenac (4.8 μg/L). We also measured to what extent and at what rate these pollutants were distributed along the river. The effects of the incident were observed in further parts of the river after 16 days. In the study we also detected elevated concentrations of ibuprofen and diclofenac in the bottom sediments collected 6 weeks after the failure. Measurements of the levels of pharmaceuticals in estuarial and marine waters in the vicinity of the mouth of the Vistula River indicate that the incident did not significantly increase the load of these pollutants in the waters of the southern Baltic Sea.
Article
The objective of this study was to evaluate the tissue distributions of antibiotics in the fish, the bioaccumulation and trophic transfer in freshwater food web in Taihu Lake, a large shallow freshwater lake. Twenty four out of 41 antibiotics were detected in the biotas of the food web; and antibiotic concentrations followed the orders: fish plasma ~ fish muscle < fish liver ~ fish bile and fish < invertebrates ~ plankton. Antibiotic concentrations in the liver of piscivores were higher than those in omnivores and planktivores. Most bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) of sulfonamides (SAs), macrolides (MLs), ionophores (IPs) and lincomycin (LIN) were less than 2000 L/kg, indicating low bioaccumulation ability of these compounds in fish. Fluoroquinolones (FQs) were frequently detected in fish liver, invertebrates and plankton with much of BAFs great than 5000 L/kg, indicating that FQs have the potential of bioaccumulation in fish. Relationship analysis between BAFs and physicochemical properties of antibiotics showed that the bioaccumulation of antibiotics in the biota was related with their adsorption ability. Generally, the antibiotics in the food web of Lake Taihu including plankton, invertebrates and fish showed trophic dilution. The normalized estimated daily intake (EDI) values are less than the acceptable daily intake (ADI) values, and then hazard quotients were much less than 1. This result suggests the consumption of fish, crab and shrimp in Lake Taihu would probably not pose direct detrimental effects on humans.
Article
The studies on occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern in drinking water treatment plants or even wastewater treatment plants in developing country like India, are very limited. Trihalomethanes (THMs) is one such contaminant of concern in drinking water treatment sector. THMs are the major disinfection byproducts (DBPs) formed during the widely used chlorination process. Their identification and removal is of utmost importance in developed as well as developing nations. This study is first of its kind to assess the removal of mixture of urban run-off driven organic matter, agricultural run-off driven organic matter, untreated sewage effluent driven organic matter and little natural organic matter (NOM) (altogether NefOM) (major DBP precursors) using advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) in the Indian region. Since, NOM vary geographically, this study will add up to applicability of generally utilized AOPs for removal of site explicit (Indian) NefOM. Trihalomethanes at a conventional water treatment plant at Mathura and a moving bed biofilm based non-conventional water treatment plant at Agra were monitored over a year, demonstrating the inability of the water treatment plants to limit formation of DBPs from Yamuna inlet water at any time of the year. Various AOPs (UV-H2O2, O3-H2O2, O3) and UV (ultraviolet) photolysis were assessed for their ability to decrease the trihalomethane forming potential (THMFP) by degrading the contaminants in the waters of Yamuna. Kinetic studies were conducted to evaluate the selected AOPs based on their ability to mineralize dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and decrease UV254 at various pH, UV intensities, and ozone and hydrogen peroxide concentrations. UV-L/H2O2 at an intensity of 47 mJ/cm2/min, pH = 7, and at hydrogen peroxide concentration of 0.5 mM provided an optimum reduction of DOC (64%) and UV254 (87%). Fractionation studies indicated that treatment by UV-L/H2O2 leads to the most significant decrease in the hydrophobic fraction of the water, while further study indicated that UV-L/H2O2 also showed maximum attenuation of THMFP.
Article
Residual pharmaceuticals have received widespread attention worldwide due to their continuous release and potential hazard to the environment. As a result of rapid development and a large population, China has become a country with high production and consumption of pharmaceuticals. This may be the main reason for the high detection frequencies and concentrations of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment in China. Rivers represent an important water resource and play an important role in the sustainable development of the Chinese economy and society. This study summarizes the occurrence of frequently detected pharmaceuticals in major rivers. A hazard score based on the occurrence, exposure potential, and environmental effects of pharmaceuticals was calculated and a prioritization approach was used to rank 166 pharmaceuticals that were detected in the aquatic environment of major rivers in China. The priority list provides a basis for selecting candidate pharmaceuticals for future site-specific monitoring in rivers.
Article
In this work, a simple method for the determination of 20 pharmaceuticals of different classes in drinking water using solid phase extraction (SPE) and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed and validated. Different sorbents, solvents and elution volumes were evaluated. The optimized conditions of the extraction step were the Strata™-X cartridge, samples without pH adjustment but with addition of 0.1% (w/v) of EDTA, eluting solvent 1% (v/ v) acetic acid in acetonitrile/methanol 1: 1 (v/v) and an elution volume of 1 mL. Recovery results were adequate ranging from 70 to 119%, with relative standard deviation (RSD) ≤ 19%. The limits of quantification and detection of the method were from 0.01 to 0.1 μg L-1 and from 0.003 to 0.03 μg L-1, respectively, considered suitable for monitoring of these compounds in drinking water. The proposed method was successfully applied in real samples. Atenolol, carbamazepine and paracetamol were found in some samples at concentrations ≤ 0.027 μg L-1.
Article
There is a lack of data on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in estuaries worldwide, with little understanding of their temporal and spatial variations globally. Ibuprofen, paracetamol, diclofenac, trimethoprim and citalopram were measured in twelve estuaries in the UK. Initially, these compounds were monitored in the Humber Estuary, where samples were taken every two months over a twelve month period in order to assess their spatial and temporal variations. Ibuprofen was found at some of the highest concentrations ever measured in an estuary globally (18–6297 ng l ⁻¹ ), with paracetamol also measured at relatively high concentrations (4–917 ng l ⁻¹ )in comparison to the other compounds. In terms of spatial distribution, a pattern was observed where the highest concentrations were found at a site at which wastewater is discharged, whilst compound concentrations were often lower upstream and downstream of this site. The downstream profile of pharmaceuticals differed temporally with concentrations highest downstream when input from wastewater effluent was highest. Eleven further estuaries were sampled around the UK in order to put the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the Humber Estuary into a wider context. Pharmaceutical concentrations in the other estuaries sampled were <210 ng l ⁻¹ but, again, ibuprofen and paracetamol were found at concentrations higher than other compounds, whereas diclofenac and citalopram were absent in many estuaries. The Humber, which is the receiving environment for the sewage effluent of approximately 20% (13.6 million people)of the population of England, was observed to have the highest overall concentration of pharmaceuticals in contrast to the other estuaries sampled, thereby representing a worst case scenario for pharmaceutical pollution.
Article
Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are an emerging environmental concern and commonly occur as a mixture of compounds. The EDC mixture can be more toxic than any single compound. The present study analyses EDCs in surface water in the case of an urban tropical river, the Langat River, using the multiresidue analytical method of solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS). The Langat River is used as a drinking water source and is treated for Malaysian drinking water supply. A total of 14 EDCs i.e. five hormones, seven pharmaceuticals, one pesticide, and one plasticizer were detected. Caffeine was observed to be highest at 19.33 ng/L, followed by bisphenol A and diclofenac at 8.24 ng/L and 6.15 ng/L, respectively. Using a conservative risk quotient (RQ) method, EDCs were estimated for having negligible risks under acute and chronic exposure (RQ < 0.002 and RQ mix < 0.003; RQ < 0.01), suggesting that there is currently an insignificant ecological risk related to these compounds in the Langat River riverine ecosystem. However, the presence of EDCs in surface water raises concerns about potential human exposure to EDCs via dietary intake i.e. food and drinking water supply. Although the ecological risks are considered negligible, these risks should not be neglected in terms of future prioritization and risk management. Improvements in water quality monitoring and risk assessment in water source protection are required to support a multibarrier approach to managing drinking water supply systems for safe water supply. The present study proposes a risk management and monitoring framework for EDCs to support the aforementioned multibarrier approach.
Article
Background: Antibiotic resistance poses an increasing threat to public health. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) promoted by antibiotics is recognized as a significant pathway to disseminate antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). However, it is unclear whether non-antibiotic, anti-microbial (NAAM) chemicals can directly promote HGT of ARGs in the environment. Objectives: We aimed to investigate whether triclosan (TCS), a widely-used NAAM chemical in personal care products, is able to stimulate the conjugative transfer of antibiotic multi-resistance genes carried by plasmid within and across bacterial genera. Methods: We established two model mating systems, to investigate intra-genera transfer and inter-genera transfer. Escherichia coli K-12 LE392 carrying IncP-α plasmid RP4 was used as the donor, and E. coli K-12 MG1655 or Pseudomonas putida KT2440 were the intra- and inter-genera recipients, respectively. The mechanisms of the HGT promoted by TCS were unveiled by detecting oxidative stress and cell membrane permeability, in combination with Nanopore sequencing, genome-wide RNA sequencing and proteomic analyses. Results: Exposure of the bacteria to environmentally relevant concentrations of TCS (from 0.02 μg/L to 20 μg/L) significantly stimulated the conjugative transfer of plasmid-encoded multi-resistance genes within and across genera. The TCS exposure promoted ROS generation and damaged bacterial membrane, and caused increased expression of the SOS response regulatory genes umuC, dinB and dinD in the donor. In addition, higher expression levels of ATP synthesis encoding genes in E. coli and P. putida were found with increased TCS dosage. Conclusions: TCS could enhance the conjugative ARGs transfer between bacteria by triggering ROS overproduction at environmentally relevant concentrations. These findings improve our awareness of the hidden risks of NAAM chemicals on the spread of antibiotic resistance.
Article
This study reports the development of a multi-residue method for determining 48 compounds of emerging concern (CEC) including three diclofenac transformation products (TP) in Slovenian wastewater (WW) and surface water (SW). For solid-phase extraction (SPE), Oasis™ Prime cartridges were favoured over Oasis HLB™. The validated method was then applied to 43 SW and 52 WW samples collected at nine locations. Ten bisphenols in WW and 14 bisphenols in SW were traced in Europe for the first time. Among all of the 48 targeted CEC, 21 were >LOQ in the influents and 20 in the effluents. One diclofenac TP was also quantified in WWs (3.04-78.1 ng L-1) for the first time. As expected, based on mass loads in the wastewater treatment plant influents, caffeine is consumed in high amounts (105,000 mg day-1 1000 inhab.-1) in Slovenia, while active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are consumed in lower amounts compared to other European countries. Removal was lower in winter in the case of four bisphenols (17-78%), one preservative (36%) and four APIs (-14-91%), but remained constant for caffeine, one API, two UV-filters and three preservatives (all >85.5%). Overall, a constructed wetland showed the lowest (0-80%) and most inconsistent removal efficiencies (SD > 40% for some CECs) of CECs including caffeine, two UV-filters, two preservatives and two APIs compared to other treatment technologies. The method was also able to quantify Bisphenol S in SW (<36.2 ng L-1). Environmental risk was assessed via risk quotients (RQs) based on WW and SW data. Two UV-filters (oxybenzone and dioxybenzone), estrone and triclosan, despite their low abundance posed a medium to high environmental risk with RQs between 0.282 (for HM-BP) and 15.5 (for E1).