Phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Ocimum gratissimum (L.) extracts and essential oil -A critical review

Abstract

The plant Ocimum gratissimum is well-known from the ancient Indian medicine system. O. gratissimum has wide variety of therapeutic applications. Folk medicine says that it can help with headaches, fevers, diarrhoea, pneumonia, and other ailments. O. gratissimum contains several bioactive constituents widely used as food additives, food colorants, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and fragrances. This review discusses up to this point data on the phytochemical composition, pharmacological studies of Ocimum gratissimum extracts and oil from numerous locations worldwide. Pertinent data of O. gratissimum was earned from numerous electronic scientific databases, and additional information was obtained from books, thesis and different relevant websites. The yield of the O. gratissimum essential oil (OGEO) varied between 0.12% and 1.66% on a dry basis,
depending on the variety, plant parts and extraction methods used. OGEO was predominantly accumulated phenylpropenes, (55.7%-57.3%) followed by sesquiterpenes (27.5% - 38.1%), and monoterpenes (4.0%-16.1%). Eugenol, germacrene-D, β-ocimene, 1,8-cineole, β-selinene, caryophyllene, γ-murolene, p-cymene, thymol, γ-terpinene, α�thujene and β-myrcene are major constituents of OGEO from various origins. These compounds are chief bioactive
substances responsible for pharmacological activities such as
antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory,
gastrointestinal, insecticidal, and larvicidal activities.

Full text

J. Curr. Opin. Crop Sci., 2021; Volume 2(1): 138-148
138
REVIEW ARTICLE
Phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Ocimum gratissimum (L.)
extracts and essential oil - A critical review
Kaliyaperumal Ashokkumar1*, Arjun Pandian2, Muthusamy Murugan1, M. K. Dhanya1, and
Sampathrajan Vellaikumar3
1Cardamom Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University, Pampadumpara, Idukki, Kerala, India.
2Department of Plant Biotechnology, PRIST Deemed University, Vallam, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.
3Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai, India.
Edited by: ABSTRACT
Dr. Haixia Zhang, Ph.D.,
Health Sciences, University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
Reviewed by:
Dr. S. Ramesh, Ph.D.,
Cardiovascular and Mitochondrial Related
Disease Research Center, Hualien Tzu Chi
Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical
Foundation, Hualien 970, Taiwan.
Dr. M. Saradadevi, Ph.D.,
Department of Biochemistry,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India.
Article history:
Received: February 18, 2021
Accepted: March 22, 2021
Published: March 25, 2021
Citation:
Ashokkumar, K., Pandian, A., Murugan, M.,
Dhanya, M. K., & Vellaikumar, S. (2021).
Phytochemistry and pharmacological
properties of Ocimum gratissimum (L.)
extracts and essential oil - A critical review.
Journal of Current Opinion in Crop Science,
2(1), 138-148.
https://doi.org/10.62773/jcocs.v2i1.47
The plant Ocimum gratissimum is well-known from the
ancient Indian medicine system. O. gratissimum has wide
variety of therapeutic applications. Folk medicine says that it
can help with headaches, fevers, diarrhoea, pneumonia, and
other ailments. O. gratissimum contains several bioactive
constituents widely used as food additives, food colorants,
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and fragrances. This review
discusses up to this point data on the phytochemical
composition, pharmacological studies of O.
gratissimum extracts and oil from numerous locations
worldwide. Pertinent data of O. gratissimum was earned from
numerous electronic scientific databases, and additional
information was obtained from books, thesis and different
relevant websites. The yield of the O. gratissimum essential oil
(OGEO) varied between 0.12% and 1.66% on a dry basis,
depending on the variety, plant parts and extraction methods
used. OGEO was predominantly accumulated
phenylpropenes, (55.7%-57.3%) followed by sesquiterpenes
(27.5% - 38.1%), and monoterpenes (4.0%-16.1%). Eugenol,
germacrene-D, β-ocimene, 1,8-cineole, β-selinene,
caryophyllene, γ-murolene, p-cymene, thymol, γ-terpinene, α-
thujene and β-myrcene are major constituents of OGEO from
various origins. These compounds are chief bioactive
substances responsible for pharmacological activities such as
antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory,
gastrointestinal, insecticidal, and larvicidal activities.
Keywords: Ocimum gratissimum; Essential oil; Eugenol; β-
ocimine; Phytochemistry; Biological activities
*Corresponding author email address: biotech.ashok@gmail.com (K. Ashokkumar)

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INTRODUCTION
In India, Ocimum gratissimum (L.) is known as Ram
tulsi and belongs to the Lamiaceae family. It is a native
of Asia, with most of its distribution and cultivation
taking place in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Nigeria, and
West Africa (Nadkarni, 1999). Cough, cold, stomach
pain, anxiety, headache, and bronchitis are treated
with this plant's leaves in teas and infusions (Rabelo
et al., 2003; Matasyoh et al., 2007). In several
countries, O. gratissimum has been widely used in
traditional medicine. Also, it is used for medical,
condiment, and culinary purposes worldwide. The
plant is used to treat epilepsy, high fever, and
diarrhoea in Nigeria's coastal areas (Effraim et al.,
2003). Decoctions of the leaves are used to treat
mental illness in the Savannah areas (Akinmoladun et
al., 2007). It's also used to treat fungal infections and
fever, colds, and catarrh in Nigeria (Ijeh et al.,
2005). O. gratissimum roots decoction is used as a
sedative for children in the Brazilian tropical forest
(Istiana et al., 2006). In India, O. gratissimum plant has
been used to treat Sunstroke, headache, influenza, as
a diaphoretic, antipyretic, and for its anti-
inflammatory function (Gupta et al., 2002).
Essential oils are extracted from plants using
hydrodistillation, steam distillation, microwave,
ultrasound-assisted, and supercritical fluid methods
(Azwanida, 2015; Ashokkumar et al. 2020a;
Ashokkumar et al., 2020b). The hydrodistillation
process is the most widely used by researchers
worldwide, owing to the lower cost of the Clevenger
apparatus and the use of water as a solvent
(Ashokkumar et al., 2020c). The yield of essential oil
from O. gratissimum varies between 0.21 and 0.70 per
cent (Dubey et al., 2000; Matasyoh et al., 2007; Joshi,
2013; Ashokkumar et al., 2020d). Several studies on
the OGEO have been conducted worldwide (Matasyoh
et al., 2007; Joshi, 2013; Matasyoh et al., 2007; Padalia
and Verma, 2011). Phynelypropene (eugenol &
methyl eugenol), sesquiterpenes (germacrene D &
caryophyllene, γ- muurolene), monoterpenes (γ-
ocimene), and other constituents are abundant in the
essential oil of O. gratissimum (Matasyoh et al., 2007;
Padalia and Verma, 2011; Joshi, 2013). According to
many scientific reports, O. gratissimum has
antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory,
anthelmintic, cardiovascular, antimutagenic,
antidiarrheal and others (Offiah and Chikwendu,
1999; Aguiyia et al., 2000; Lahlou et al., 2004;
Trevisan et al., 2006; Joshi, 2013; Ajayi et al., 2014;
Gontijo et al., 2014; Aderibigbe and Idowu, 2020).
This review investigates the information regarding
phytochemical compositions and their potential
pharmacological properties of O. gratissimum.
Nevertheless, additional advanced research studies
are needed to understand the mechanism of bioactive
constituents and their consumption in animals and
humans, which can help protect human beings from
various diseases.
O. GRATISSIMUM ESSENTIAL OIL (OGEO) AND ITS
COMPOSITION
The EO yield from O. gratissimum varied between
0.12% and 1.66%, on a dry basis, depending on the
variety, plant parts and extraction methods used
(Table 1). The EO estimation by various methods is
summarized in Table 1. The profiling of EO of aerial
parts of O. gratissimum sampled from Western Ghats
of southern India predominantly exhibited eugenol
(54.42%), germacrene D (15.43%), β-ocimene
(12.37%), caryophyllene (4.59%), and γ-muurolene
(3.05%), (Ashokkumar et al., 2020d). However, the
Brazil grown leaves of OGEO chiefly contained
eugenol, 1,8-cineole, and β-selinene. Furthermore,
Benin grown aerial parts of O. gratissimum essential
oil was predominant in p-cymene, thymol, γ-
terpinene, α-thujene and myrcene (Table 2). OGEO
was predominantly accumulated phenylpropenes,
(55.7%- 57.3%) followed by sesquiterpenes (27.5% -
38.1%), monoterpenes (4.0%-16.1%), (Joshi, 2017;
Ashokkumar et al., 2020d). The yield of minor
constituents of OGEO include β-pinene (0.1%),
borneol (0.1%), carvenone (0.1%), α-humulene
(0.1%), elemol (1.2%), caryophyllene oxide (0.15%),
α-thujene (0.17%), γ-elemene (0.2%), γ-terpinene
(0.2%), α-pinene (0.2%), camphor (0.3%), humulene
(0.3%), δ-Cadinene (0.4%), sabinene (0.5%), linalool
(0.5%), β-bourbonene (0.5%), α-copaene (0.6%), cis-
verbenol (0.7%), terpin-4-ol (0.7%),
isobornylformate (0.9%), isoledene (1.0%), (Joshi,
2017; Ashokkumar et al., 2020d). The molecular
structures of major essential oil constituents isolated
from O. gratissimum are shown in Figure 1.
PHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF OGEO AND
EXTRACTS
The OGEO and extracts have various pharmacological
properties including antioxidant, antibacterial,
antifungal, insecticidal, acaricidal and other
miscellaneous activities that are summarized in Table
3.
Antioxidant activity
Antioxidants are naturally or artificially derived
compounds that could prevent the free radical
formation and suppress chronic and degenerative
diseases by scavenging free radicals (Haliwell, 2000).
Natural antioxidants derived from herbal sources are
currently gaining popularity (Velioglu et al., 1998).

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140
Table 1. Yield of essential oil from O. gratissimum
Technique or method
Plant parts
Oil yield (%)
Authors
Hydro-distillation
Leaves
1.66
Melo et al. (2019)
Hydro-distillation
Aerial parts
0.60
Ashokkumar et al. (2020d)
Hydro-distillation
Aerial parts
0.65
Padalia et al. (2014)
Hydro-distillation
Aerial parts
1.10
Verma et al. (2016)
Hydro-distillation
Leaves
0.12 – 0.78
Matasyoh et al. (2008)
Hydro-distillation
Aerial parts
0.65-0.78
Kpadonou Kpoviessi et al.
(2012)
Steam distillation
Leaves
1.33
Ibeh et al. (2017)
Table 2. Major essential oil composition of Ocimum gratissimum L.
Origin
Plant parts
Major
constituents
Yield (%)
Authors
Western Ghats,
South India (Kerala)
Aerial parts
eugenol
54.4%
Ashokkumar et al. (2020d)
germacrene D
15.4%
β-ocimene
12.4%
caryophyllene
4.6%
γ-muurolene
3.1%
Brazil
Leaves
Eugenol
74.3%
Melo et al. (2019)
1,8-cineole
15.2%
β-selinene
2.8%
North India
Aerial Parts
eugenol
78.0%
Padalia et al. (2014)
germacrene D
4.4%
Peninsular India
(Karnataka)
Aerial Parts
eugenol
53.0%
Verma et al. (2016)
caryophyllene
oxide
7.2%
(Z)-β-ocimene
3.5%
Kenya
Leaves
eugenol
68.8 %
Matasyoh et al. (2008)
methyl eugenol
13.2%
Portugal
Aerial Parts
Thymol
48.1%
Martins et al. (1999)
p-cymene
12.5%
Colombia
Leaves
eugenol
43.2%
Benitez et al. (2009)
1,8-cineole
12.8%
β-selinene
9.0%
Benin
Aerial Parts
p-cymene
28.1–53.8%
Kpadonou Kpoviessi et al.
(2012)
thymol
3.3–29.1%
γ-terpinene
1.1–10.9%
α-thujene
3.4-10.8%
myrcene
4.2–8.3%

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Figure 1. Molecular structures of major essential oil constituents isolated from O. gratissimum
The leaves and aerial parts of O. gratissimum are rich
sources of antioxidant substances that neutralize free
radicals by preventing other components' oxidation.
In vitro, antioxidant assays such as DPPH, iron
chelating, ABTS, nitric oxide, and hydroxyl radical
scavenging indicated that O. gratissimum as a potent
free radical scavenging activity with IC50 values of
470, 330, 133, 83 and 260 g ml-1 (Venuprasad et al.,
2014) In another study, DPPH and ABTS models,
OGEO demonstrated comparative antioxidant activity
with IC50 values of 23.66 and 23.91 g ml-1,
respectively. This study also noted that eugenol had
marginally lower antioxidant activity than OGEO. In
contrast, O. sanctum oil had very low antioxidant
activity (Joshi et al. 2013) Yung-Wei et al. (2013)
studied the antioxidant and cytoprotective activity
of Ocimum gratissimum extracts against hydrogen
peroxide-induced toxicity in human HepG2 cells and
results showed that 66.7 μg ml-1 concentration
reduced up to 80% of the free radicals.
Antimicrobial activities
In vitro antifungal activity of OGEO (MIC: 0.06 - 0.25
mg/ml; MFC: 6.25- 12.50 mg ml-1) studied
against Candida albicans. The best inhibitory effect
was noted @ 0.24 mg ml-1 (Kpadonou Kpoviessi et al.,
O
OH
O
O
CH3
H3C CH3
CH2
Eugenol
Methyl eugenol
β-ocimene
CH3
H2C
H H
CH3
H3C
CH3
CH3
H3C
O
CH3
OH
CH3
H3C
Caryophyllene
1,8-cineole
Thymol
p-cymene
β-selinene
β-myrcene

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2012). Ethanolic extract of O. gratissimum was tested
antimicrobial effects against Actinobacillus
actinomycetemcomitans in human dental plaque. The
0.6% concentration of extract have potential
antimicrobial activity compared with 0.2%
chlorhexidine and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO),
positive and as and negative control, respectively
(Eswar et al., 2016). In another study, the minimum
inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericide
concentration of 0.24 mg ml-1 and 0.95 mg ml-1
respectively of the OGEO had significant antibacterial
activity (Kpadonou Kpoviessi et al., 2012). Joshi
(2017) studied the antibacterial potential of OGEO
and eugenol against 13 bacterial species like S. aureus,
S. epidermidis, S. faecalis, Micrococcus flavus,
Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Serratia marcescens, Proteus vulgaris, P.
mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella
typhimurium. The MIC concentration of eugenol were
0.33 – 3.33 mg ml-1 and significant inhibitory activity
observed @ 1.04 mg ml-1against S. aureus. The MIC
concentration essential oil was 0.29 -1.51 mg ml-1 and
a significant inhibitory effect noted @ 0.29 mg ml-1
against S. marcescens.
Insecticidal activity
The insecticidal activity of OGEO was tested against
Sitophilus zeamais (a major stored pest of maize) by
mixtures OGEO (5%) and kaolin (10%). Results
remarked that OGEO on the test insects was
possessed an 85.7% knockdown effect (Jirovetz et al.,
2005). The OGEO was substantially more active on
target insects @ LC50/ LD50 of 39.6 mg l-1 on C.
quinquefasciatus, 72.2 μg adult−1 on M. domestica and
30.2 μg larva−1 on S. littoralis (Benelli et al., 2019).
Other insecticidal and acaricidal activities were also
summarized in Table 3.
Miscellaneous activities
Anxiolytic activity
O. gratissimum extract has shown potential lipid
peroxidation with an IC value of 735 μg ml-1. Also, O.
gratissimum extract found to possess a substantial
anxiolytic effect at a dosage of 400 mg kg-1 body
weight as analyzed by open field and elevated plus-
maze tests in mice (Venuprasad et al., 2014).
Gastrointestinal activity
In another study, the ovicidal activity of OGEO and its
predominant constituent eugenol was evaluated
against Haemonchus contortus, a gastrointestinal
parasite of small ruminants. H. contortus eggs were
obtained from faces of goats experimentally infected
and used for egg hatch test. OGEO and eugenol at a
dosage concentration of 0.50% remarked maximum
eclodibility inhibition (Pessoa et al., 2002). This study
also suggested that a possible utilization of the OGEO
and eugenol to control gastrointestinal helmintosis of
small ruminants.
Antinociceptive activity
Alabi et al. (2019) investigated the antinociceptive
activity of traditional analgesic drug polyherbal-TADP
(100, 200 and 400 mg kg-1) in the hot plate test and
acetic acid-induced nociception in mice. TADP (200
and 400 mg kg-1) significantly extended the latency
time in the hot-plate test. Dose-dependent inhibition
was observed at a TADP concentration of 100–400 mg
kg-1.
Antiviral activity
Eugenol from O. gratissimum has reported that
antiviral activity, which inhibits the HSV-1,2
replication. The bioactive constituent thymol also
destructs the virion of HSV-1 (Tshilanda et al., 2020).
Other miscellaneous activities were summarized in
Table 3.
CONCLUSION
In this review, we discuss what we know about the
phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of O.
gratissimum, a plant that has long been used to treat a
range of ailments in ancient and modern India. Cough,
cold, stomach pain, anxiety, headache, and bronchitis
have all been treated with O. gratissimum, according
to conventional Indian medical treatizes. O.
gratissimum is reliable over a long history, and it is
now essential to know if new pharmacological trials
on O. gratissimum are available to determine the
conventional uses. We show that several recent in
vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies have
confirmed O. gratissimum traditional usage.
More than 75 secondary metabolites have been
isolated from O. gratissimum based on currently
available knowledge, with eugenol being the most
significant bioactive compound that has shown many
potential health benefits. Furthermore, the beneficial
constituents of O. gratissimum extracts and OGEO
have been thoroughly investigated (Table 3).
However, there are gaps in the research studies on O.
gratissimum, and we have made suggestions for some
topics that should investigate further.
First, studies on metabolites' structural
characterization in O. gratissimum leaves and aerial
parts are highly restricted, based on currently
available phytochemistry reports. Second, very little
research has been done to date on how to preserve
OGEO's shelf-life quality.

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Table 3. The activities of O. gratissimum extracts and essential oil components
Pharmacological
activities
Extract/
essential oil
In vitro/
In vivo
Target/ Model
Control(s)
IC 50/
Dosage
Results / Remarks
Reference
Antibacterial activity
Essential oil
In vitro
Staphylococcus aureus
Positive:
Doxycycline
MIC : 0.24mg ml-1
MBC: 0.95mg ml-1
Moderate antibacterial
activity
Kpadonou
Kpoviessi et
al. (2012)
Antibacterial activity
Essential oil
In vitro
E. coli
Positive:
Doxycycline
MIC: 0.48mg ml-1
Noteworthy antibacterial
activity
Kpadonou
Kpoviessi et
al. (2012)
Antibacterial activity
Essential oil
In vitro
S. aureus, S. epidermidis,
S. faecalis, Micrococcus
flavus, M. luteus, Bacillus
subtilis, E. coli, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Serratia
marcescens, Proteus
vulgaris, P. mirabilis, P.
aeruginosa, Salmonella
typhimurium
Positive:
Erythromycin &
Amikacin
MIC: 0.29 to 1.51
mg ml-1
Best inhibitory effect @
0.29 mg/ml against S.
marcescens
Jhoshi,
(2017)
Antibacterial activity
Eugenol
In vitro
S. aureus, S. epidermidis,
S. faecalis, Micrococcus
flavus, M. luteus, Bacillus
subtilis, E. coli, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Serratia
marcescens, Proteus
vulgaris, P. mirabilis, P.
aeruginosa, Salmonella
typhimurium
Positive:
Erythromycin &
Amikacin
MIC: 0.33 to 3.33mg
ml-1
Best inhibitory effect @
1.04 mg/ml against S.
aureus
Jhoshi,
(2017)
Antifungal activity
Essential oil
In vitro
Candida albicans
Positive: Nystatin
Negative:
Solvent
MIC: 0.06 to 0.25
mg ml-1
MFC: 6.25 to 12.50
mg ml-1
Best inhibitory effect @
0.24 mg/ml against Candida
albicans
Kpadonou
Kpoviessi et
al. (2012)
Antioxidant activity
Essential oil
In vitro
DPPH
ABTS
-
-
IC50: 23.66 µg ml-1
IC50: 23.91 µg ml-1
Significant antioxidant
activity observed
Jhoshi,
(2013)

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Antioxidant activity
Eugenol
In vitro
DPPH
ABTS
-
-
IC50: 27.16 µg ml-1
IC50: 32.16 µg ml-1
Eugenol showed slightly
weaker antioxidant activity
compared to essential oil of
O. gratissimum
Jhoshi,
(2013)
Anthelmintic activity
Acetone
extract
In vitro
Adult H. placei
nematodes using adult
worm motility assay
Negative:
Normal Saline
IC 50: 5-60 mg ml-1
Best anthelmintic activity
recorded @ 56.04 mg/mL
against H. placei
Segun &
Sunday
(2020)
Anti-inflammatory
activity
Hydroethano
lic extract
In vivo
Rats anesthetized by
intraperitoneal
injection of 25 mg/kg of
thiopental sodium
Positive: -
Negative: Distilled
water
100, 200 or 400 mg
kg-1 b.w
The inhibition by the
extract was not dose
dependent as it was 15.2,
26.7 and 22.4% for 100,
200 and 400 mg/kg
respectively
Ajayi, et al.
(2014)
Anti-inflammatory
activity
Aqueous
extract
In vivo
Carrageenan-induced
paw oedema
in rats.
Negative: Distilled
water
100, 200 and 400
mg kg-1
Concentration 400 mg kg-1
significantly reduced
malondialdehyde
concentration and increase
glutathione level in the
carrageenan-induced rat
paw
Alabi et al.
(2019)
Antinociceptive
activity
Essential oil
In vivo
Swiss albino mice (25-
30g) induced pain.
Writhing and formalin
test
Positive:
Indomethacin
30, 100, 300mg kg-1
(p.o)
Dose dependent inhibition
observed. OGEO possessed
antinociceptive properties
in the writhing and
formalin test
Rabelo et al.
(2003)
Antinociceptive
activity
Aqueous
extract
In vivo
Acetic acid-induced
nociception in mice.
Hot plate test
Negative: Distilled
water
200 and 400mg kg-1
TADP (200 and 400 mg kg-1)
was significantly extend the
latency time in the hot-plate
test. Dose dependent
Inhibition was observed at
TADP concentration of 100–
400 mg kg-1.
Alabi et al.
(2019)
Gastroprotective
activity
Methanolic
extract
In vivo
Stress induced ulcer in
rats
-
200, 400, 800 mg
kg-1
Significantly reduced ulcer
indices in dose dependent
manner
Akah et al.
(2007)

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Hypoglycemic
activity
Methanolic
extract
In vivo
Alloxan-induced
diabetic rats
Negative: Normal
saline
400 mg kg-1
Intraperitoneal treatment
with 400 mg/ kg of
methanolic extract
significantly reduced in
blood sugar level in both
normal and diabetic rats by
56 and 69%, respectively
Aguiyia et al.
(2000).
Antidiabetic activity
Aqueous
extract
In vivo
Intraperitoneal
administration of (65
mg/kg), Type 1
Diabetes mellitus (DM
1) rats
Negative:
Distilled water
Not reported
The blood glucose
concentration of all the
diabetic groups was
significantly raised
compared to normal
control. Treatment with OG
and insulin showed potent
antioxidant activity
Okon and
Umoren
(2017)
Insecticidal activity
Essential oil
In vivo
Cockroach (Nauphoeta
cinerea) nymphs (20
days of age) were used
-
LC 50: 50 to 1000 μg
of oil per ml of air.
Mortality rates were
observed every 12 hours
for 1 day. OGEO has
substantial insecticidal
properties at lethal
concentration (LC50) of
516 µg ml-1
Rodrigues et
al. (2020)
Acaricidal activity
Essential oil
In vivo
Rhipicephalus microplus
(Acari: Ixodidae)
-
LC50: 0.84 mg ml-1
LC50: 1.58 mg ml-1
December (LC50: 0.84 mg
ml-1) and September (LC50
:1.58 mg ml-1) oils obtained
in the dry season were the
most active. Study
remarked that seasonal
variation in the chemical
composition of the OGEO
influences its acaricidal
activity
Silva Lima
(2018)
Note: -, Not reported; MIC, Minimum inhibition concentration; MBC, Minimum bactericide concentration; MFC, Minimum fungicidal concentration; IC50,
Inhibitory concentration; LC50, Lethal concentration 50%

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Third, some biological activity studies used very high
dose concentrations, others lacked comparison with
standard positive and negative controls, and others
lacked the determination of MIC values. Fourth, O.
gratissimum has numerous therapeutic effects on
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial,
antifungal, insecticidal, acaricidal, and other
miscellaneous activities. These studies were
performed only in animal and cell models, and clinical
investigations have rarely been implemented in
humans. Future studies need to focus on studying
structural characterization of metabolites, shelf-life
quality of OGEO, proper experimental setup conduct
with negative or positive control and correct MIC
values, and finally, clinical investigation implemented
with humans is essential.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The author declares no competing interests
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