Steiner Waldorf Pedagogy in Schools: A Critical Introduction

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Steiner Waldorf Pedagogy in Schools
This book oers a comprehensive exploration of Steiner or Waldorf pedagogy and
practice in schools. Drawing on key research, it traces the origins of Steiner education
from the original Waldorf school and shows how this approach has since been adapted
and applied in educational settings around the world.
Outlining the educational philosophy of Steiner education, the book considers its
unique features, such as its commitment to a pedagogical anthropology that takes
the whole developing human being into account– body, mind and spirit– and the
developmental approach that arises out of this. It sets out the specific curriculum and
teaching approach alongside vignettes of teaching and learning situations adopted in
Steiner educational settings to show how the approach works in practice. Oering a
critical perspective on this teaching style, Rawson examines the contributions that
Steiner education has made in dierent cultures and looks towards future developments
in China and other Asian countries.
Considering all aspects of Steiner education, this book is essential reading for anyone
wanting to understand the fundamental elements of this approach and its continuing
relevance within the educational landscape.
Martyn Rawson currently works on the Waldorf Master Programme at the
Waldorflehrerseminar Kiel and at the Freie Hochschule Stuttgart on the International
Master Programme in Germany. He is currently Honorary Professor at the National
Tsing Hua University, Taiwan and is an alumni research fellow at Plymouth University.
His research focusses on curriculum development in Steiner/Waldorf education, teacher
education and learning as well as learning and development in students of all ages.

Steiner Waldorf Pedagogy
in Schools
A Critical Introduction
Martyn Rawson

First edition published 2021
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To my family, friends and all the pupils and students who have
taught me over the years.

Acknowledgements x
The author xii
Introduction 1
Birthdays 1
Good practice– dubious ideology? 3
The aims of this book 4
The author’s position 6
Steiner and/or Waldorf? 7
References 7
1 Rudolf Steiner and the origins of his educational ideas 10
Rudolf Steiner: “Stranger in a strange land” 10
Biography and biographical mythos 11
Key stages in a varied career 15
What motivated Steiner? 16
Grand narrative or grand narratives? 17
Key ideas 18
An epistemological and philosophical basis for
Waldorf education 18
Knowledge as a productive activity 20
Who thinks? 26
Working with a spiritual perspective 29
Key ideas 32
Steiner’s experiences as a teacher and tutor 32
Education as part of the cultural domain, free from political or
economic determination 35
The Education of the Child, 1907 36
Steiner’s spiritual anthropology 39
Key ideas 44
References 45
Contents

viii Contents
2 Generative principles of teaching and learning in Waldorf education 50
Generative principles and how to work with them 50
Five vignettes of Waldorf practice 51
The lower school main lesson 51
Optics in grade 7 55
A craft project involving grades 5 and 10 57
Art history, grade 9 59
A foreign language lesson in grade 12 62
Generative principles for teaching and learning 64
Principle 1: Waldorf education takes the spiritual dimension
seriously 64
Principle 2: Sense of coherence is the basis for healthy learning
and well-being 72
Principle 3: The quality of the teacher’s preparation influences the
quality of learning 75
Principle 4: Children and young people need to be ready to learn,
and they need time to learn 79
Principle 5: Learning is a rhythmical process 83
Principle 6: The learning processes are structured
over time 94
Principle 7: Block teaching strengthens learning
dispositions 98
Principle 8: Direct experience is the basis for learning 102
Principle 9: Activating the imagination through vivid pictorial
descriptions and images is another powerful starting point
for learning 103
Principle 10: Aphenomenological approach enables the organic
growth of knowledge 105
Principle 11: The teaching must be artistic 116
Principle 12: The self-activity of the students is essential to
learning 119
Principle 13: Good teaching and learning depends on the
development of the senses 122
References 126
3 Communities of learning: Generative principles 132
Principle 14: The Waldorf class is a learning community 132
Principle 15: Teachers support their pupils’ learning and
development by generating active knowledge using
assessment for learning 135
Values 137
Self-assessment 137
Individual annual reports 138
Lesson planning and reviewing as assessment for learning 138

Contents ix
Principle 16: The teachers are a collegial learning community with
responsibility for the educational leadership of the school 138
Principle 17: The curriculum maps out possible learning
situations and learning pathways in relation to the
developmental tasks 142
Principle 18: Becoming a Waldorf teacher is a process of
transformative learning 152
References 154
4 Waldorf education and the academy: positions, research
and outlook 158
Introduction 158
Reception problems 159
Hermeneutics of suspicion or empathy? 161
Critique as polemic 162
Some key perspectives on Waldorf education 164
Alumni research 171
Studies of pupils in school 173
References 175
PART 5
Waldorf schools around the world 182
The literature 182
Overview of the phases 182
After the Wall came down 185
Waldorf-inspired ideas in the world 187
Camphill schools and curative education 187
Emergency education 188
References 190
Conclusions 192
References 196
Subject Index 197
Index of Persons 200

Many thanks to Ulrike Sievers for the support, corrections and always helpful feed-
back. Iam also grateful to Jan Swann and Christiane Niemeyer for their help with
proofreading. My thanks, too, go to Annamarie Kino at Routledge for having faith in
this project and for having the patience to extend my various deadlines.
The reader will notice the frequency of references to Gert Biesta and Johannes
Kiersch. This reflects the extent to which these two scholars have influenced the way
I understand education. Gert’s many challenging ideas have enabled me to locate
myself within the wider field of educational philosophy. Johannes, now in his 80s,
has long been an inspiration for me within the Waldorf field– his open-mindedness,
deep insight, encouragement and inspiration remain a model for me, of how to retain
clarity of focus and yet maintain a sense for where this connects to the wider cultural
discourse. My understandings of Waldorf education have also been influenced by fel-
low teachers and now Waldorf scholars Neil Boland, Peter Lutzker, Jost Schieren, Wil-
fred Sommer, Angelika Wiehl and Michael Zech, all of whom share my commitment
to engaging with the mainstream educational discourse. Ialso wish to acknowledge
my longtime friend and cofounder of the York Steiner School, Michael Rose, whose
insights and talents have frequently inspired me.
There are many talented and capable people in Waldorf education from whom
Ihave learned. Among those Ihave worked with are Josie Alwyn, Amanda Bell, Edith
Bierman, Kath Bransby, Erhardt Dahl, Nana Göbel, Cathy Hu, Gabriel Knight, Sunita
Krishnan, Hsini Li, ZeWu Li, Yi Ling, Magda Maier, Smitha Mallya, Jon McAlice,
Trevor Mepham, Janni Nicol, Florian Osswald, Porn Panosot, Margareta van Rae-
mdonck, Claus-Peter Röh, Wolfgang Schad, Rita Schumacher, Ulrike Sievers, Jörg
Soetebeer, Stefan Sigler, Wilfred Sommer, Thomas Stöckli, John Thompson, Christof
Wiechert and Heinz Zimmermann. On another day, perhaps this list would vary,
because there really are a lot of talented people who have been my fellow travellers.
Very much outside the Waldorf camp, Iwould like to mention Pete Kelly, Nick Pratt
and Ulrike Hohmann at Plymouth University, from whom Ialso learned much.
Finally, I acknowledge my Scottish mother, Wilma Morton Rawson, who just
recently passed away at the age of 87. She was a state-school teacher and special-needs
advisor and was constructively critical of my early naivety as a Waldorf teacher, yet
was always hugely supportive of me and my school. She would never have acknowl-
edged her influence, but Ihereby insist on acknowledging it! From her Iacquired a
sense of social justice in education and life, and Icontinue to strive to live up to her
unobtrusive but profoundly lived ethic of care. Ialso learned from her the importance
Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements xi
of books, reading and lively discourse. She introduced me to Gordon Wells’ book The
Meaning Makers, which led me to Vygotsky, Bruner and ultimately to narrative and
socio-cultural perspectives on learning. These ideas have enriched and transformed
my understanding of Waldorf education and have enabled me to add a new dimension
to this education– a perspective that is still shared by very few of my colleagues.

Martyn Rawson was born in Glasgow in 1954. Because his father was a soldier, he
‘enjoyed’ a very wide range of schools as the family moved every two years. He read
history and English at York University, and much later completed a master’s degree
and an education doctorate at Plymouth University. He was a cofounder of York
Steiner School in 1979 before moving to Stuttgart, where he taught English and art
history at the Freie Waldorfschule Uhlandshöhe, the original Waldorf school. He
returned to the United Kingdom, teaching in Botton Village School in North Yorkshire
and Michael Hall School in Sussex. Starting in 1994, he also worked for the Steiner
Waldorf School’s fellowship with responsibility for publications and curriculum devel-
opment. From 1995 until 2010, he was a member of the College of the Pedagogical
Section at the Goetheanum and was involved in various research projects related to
international curriculum development. In 2003 he returned to Germany to teach at
the Freie Hochschule Stuttgart and returned to part-time school teaching in 2007,
currently at the Christian Morgenstern School in Hamburg. He has been involved in
Waldorf teacher education for the past 25years, teaching on the Plymouth University
International Masters Programme, on the Masters Programme in Waldorf Education
at the Freie Hochschule Stuttgart and the Teacher Training Seminar in Kiel and is cur-
rently Honorary Professor at the National Tsing Hua University in Taiwan. He has
published widely on various aspects of Waldorf education and contributes as schools’
advisor and teacher educator in China, Taiwan, India and South Africa.
The author

Birthdays
On a radiant sunny Sunday afternoon, 7th September1919, a ceremony was held in
the Great Hall of the City Gardens in Stuttgart, Germany, to mark the opening of the
Waldorf School. Athousand people were present, including around 250 pupils and
their parents, the teachers and the entire management of Waldorf-Astoria Cigarette
Factory and its owner, Mr. Emil Molt, who was the founder of the school. There was
recitation of poetry, the music of Bach, Beethoven and Carl Loewe, a Eurythmy per-
formance and speeches from Molt, Rudolf Steiner, the school’s educational founder;
E.A. Karl Stockmeyer, representing the teachers’ college; and a Mr. Saria, a representa-
tive of the factory workers, for whose children the school was being founded. After
the ceremony, all the participants paraded through the city centre and back up the
hill to the new school on the Uhlandshöhe, a site including a well-known café with a
magnificent view over the city below, which Molt had bought for the school. At the
school, each child was given a Laugenbretzel – the traditional product of Stuttgart’s
bakeries– and a box of chocolate, printed with the message ‘Welcome to the Waldorf
School’. The adults were served coee, and presumably the children were oered local
apple or grape juice. Games were played well into the sunny early evening, and the day
was rounded o with a performance of Mozart’s The Magic Flute in the Staatstheatre
at the invitation of Molt and his wife, Bertha. Teaching in the school only started on
16th September because the renovations of the buildings were not yet complete. The
details of the school opening are known to us from a range of well-researched sources
(Frielingsdorf, 2019; Göbel, 2019; Neider& Schukraft, 2011).
Thus began an educational movement that has become, after Montessori schools
one of the most widespread alternative forms of education in the world. Its phi-
losophy and practice certainly stand in marked contrast to most other educational
approaches due to its commitment to the spiritual dimension in the human being and
in the world, its unique pedagogical anthropology and its practice of non-hierarchical
self-management and leadership. These are aspects Iwill be exploring later in the
book.
One hundred years later, on 7th September2019 and the following days, the found-
ing of the Waldorf School and the movement that grew out of it was celebrated with
speeches, performances by pupils, a concert in Stuttgart’s Liederhalle and an inter-
national congress. The audience was greeted in 23 languages, including Stuttgarter
Schwäbisch (“Ibin Baschdian, Ikomm aus Schduagert ...”). Winfried Kretschmann
(Green Party), the Minister President of Baden-Württemberg– the federal state of which
Introduction

2 Introduction
Stuttgart is the capital– emphasized that Waldorf education was the most extraordinary
and successful development in education in Germany in the last 100years. He praised
the social engagement of the Stuttgart industrialist Emil Molt, who founded the school,
to improve social relationships and compared him with another Stuttgart entrepreneur,
Robert Bosch. Whilst praising Rudolf Steiner’s deeds and ideas, Kretschmann criticized
his terminology in relation to race and emphasized the importance of the Stuttgart Dec-
laration in 2007, in which all the Waldorf schools in Germany committed themselves to
stand against all forms of nationalism, discrimination and racism. Waldorf education,
Kretschmann argued, does “not have an ideology, but a method of teaching that engages
the whole human being and can be called a higher school of empathy”. He referred to
the founding of the school as “a great cultural and pedagogical deed that has shaped the
mentality of the city and works positively in the world”.
The city of Stuttgart, which today has 14 Waldorf kindergartens and 5 schools, is
proud of its Waldorf connection. The long-serving mayor Manfred Rommel (after
whom the city’s airport is named) often quipped that Stuttgart is famous for its
exports to the world– Daimler Benz, Porsche, Bosch and Waldorf education. The
federal state of Baden-Württemberg has 59 Waldorf schools, and Germany currently
has 254 schools and 11 teacher education centres. The city of Hamburg and its catch-
mentarea alone has 15 schools, whilst Berlin has 13. There are around 90,000 stu-
dents in Waldorf schools, with about 9,000 Waldorf teachers in Germany (see www.
waldorfschule.de).
In December2020 there were 1,958 Waldorf kindergartens in 70 countries and
1,187 Waldorf schools in 64 countries (Paull& Hennig, 2020). This number is stead-
ily growing, and the number of unocial initiatives is significantly larger, as it is dif-
ficult with the resources available to the Waldorf movement to keep track of these
developments. The China Waldorf Forum had 71 ocially registered schools as of
December 2020, and the International Association for Steiner/Waldorf Early Child-
hood Education had over 400 institutional members in China in 2019 (currently
reduced to 230 + due to Corona) (with over 300 Waldorf kindergartens, many of
which are growing into schools).
The growth of the Waldorf movement has now been well documented (Göbel,
2019a, 2019b; Frielingsdorf, 2019; Zdrazil, 2019) and illustrates that it has not been
a centrifugal movement from a single centre outwards, but rather a network with
nodal points radiating out into their local regions, whilst demonstrating a rhizome-like
structure with rich cross-fertilization and hybridity. The ‘invisible’ network comprises
a set of generative ideas and people who encounter and translate them in various,
often idiosyncratic ways. This expansion also highlights a number of challenges that
have actually been there since the beginning but are only really being systematically
addressed today. These include the ‘translation’ of a Middle European idea to other
cultural settings and the status of Steiner’s Anthroposophy as a basis for Waldorf
practice.
Waldorf schools oer an alternative, but obviously not the only alternative, to main-
stream education. They are an example of counter-practice. As Gerd Biesta (1998)
points out,
a counter practice should not be designed out of arrogance that it will be bet-
ter... than what exists. Acounter-practice is only dierent. The critical task of a
counter-practice can therefore be to show (to prove, Foucault says) that the way

Introduction 3
things were is only one (limited) possibility. But this step is crucial, as it opens up
the possibility ‘of no longer being, doing, or thinking what we are, do, or think’
(Foucault, 1984, p.47). In this way, Foucault argues, ‘it is seeking to give new
impetus... to the undefined work of freedom’ (1998, 507).
In other words, Waldorf education at least shows that the ways things are in public
education or indeed in private (i.e. non-state funded) education, is not the only way
they can be. It shows that there is an alternative. Waldorf education contributes to
pluralism and diversity at a time when these qualities are in short supply in education.
Waldorf is not just a miniature model with a high profile. These schools operate in
around 70 countries and therefore represent a counter-practice with a wide range of
applications in very dierent cultures– and all that without a central, directing body
or leader.
Though the overall expansion of the movement continues apace, this is no guar-
antee that individual schools can sustain the momentum. Institutions as social
organisms have their developmental phases, like pioneer phases and consolidation
phases; they have inner crises; they attract opposition; they lose their vitality,
focus and purpose; and finally, they outlive their usefulness. Failure has a high
price for all concerned. Bob Dylan’s lyric from the song, “It’s Alright Ma (I’m Only
Bleeding)” – he not busy being born is busy dying -– is true of Waldorf schools.
To survive, they have to maintain and develop their quality continuously. From
a spiritual perspective, they have to continue to grow and transform and channel
energy into meaningful things, they have to be places in which people– and espe-
cially children and young people– feel spiritually seen, recognized and enabled
to develop their unique potential. When they cease to be able to do this, schools
lose their purpose. The United Kingdom (UK), where Waldorf schools have been
around. The United Kingdom (UK), where Waldorf schools have been around
since the 1920’s, has recently lost a number of schools, including some of those
pioneers and some founded since the 1970’s. Some of these schools were unable
to cope with the challenge of sustainability and renewal, some failed inspections
and were not in a position to make the necessary changes in the time available,
though this failure was perhaps symptomatic of a wider inability of leadership to
respond to changing circumstances. This does not mean that Waldorf has failed; it
means that those schools, for a variety of reasons, failed. The Waldorf movement
in the UK (led by the Steiner Waldorf Schools Fellowship) now has a new, highly
competent leadership, which will go a long way to ensure that its member schools
are doing the right things and doing them well. Of course, when the state makes
demands that make Waldorf unworkable, then hard decisions have to be made,
because Waldorf in name only, is not Waldorf in reality. However, the message is
unavoidably clear; Waldorf only works if it can maintain its own very high stand-
ards of pedagogical creativity, clear-sightedness, knowledge creation and ethic of
care.
Good practice– dubious ideology?
Despite the growing number of Waldorf-related schools, early-years settings, therapeu-
tic schools and communities and numerous emergency and peace-education projects,
not to mention the other Steiner-influenced fields of work in medicine, agriculture,

4 Introduction
organizational development, banking and the arts around the world, this movement is
generally held at arm’s length by the academic world. Professor Heiner Ullrich, a leading
academic expert on Waldorf education, notes, “because the scientific discourse on Waldorf
schools has become more intense, the otherness of Rudolf Steiner’ pedagogy has become
clearer but its fruitfulness has also been shown to be even stronger” (2008, p.224).
In various publications over the years, Ullrich has made significant criticism of Wal-
dorf education, in particular its underlying theory. Ullrich’s position – and this is
typical for the academic world generally– has been formulated by Professor Chris-
tian Rittelmeyer, “you have in many ways a good educational practice but a dubious
(anthroposophical) ideology” (2010, p.8). Johannes Kiersch pointed out some time
ago that Waldorf education provokes critique on two grounds, firstly “because it is
successful and secondly because it has no adequately secured theory” (1986, p.543).
External critiques of Waldorf education always circle around the idea that it would
be good to separate the obsolete, anachronistic, esoteric und unscientific ideas of the
person most centrally identified with this education– Rudolf Steiner– from what is
widely regarded as a good education that ever more parents around the world choose
for their children. Rittelmeyer (2010), who is neither a Waldorf teacher nor an anthro-
posophist, refutes this solution, saying, no, one cannot separate the education from its
underlying educational philosophy and pedagogical anthropology. But, he adds, this
doesn’t mean that Waldorf teachers shouldn’t use other sources and interpret Steiner
in new ways.
That indeed is the crucial question for Waldorf teachers: What is the (right, appro-
priate, intended, necessary, actual) relationship between practice in a Waldorf school
and the ideas of Steiner’s Anthroposophy? It is a question that this book seeks to
explore and answer. It is perhaps less of a question for parents, who choose schools on
the basis of their reputation and what they value for their children. If parents have a
choice and can aord to choose– which, of course, many do not– in the long run, they
tend to choose and stay with schools that deliver what they value, and that is in most
cases not an esoteric philosophy but a good education for their children. Aschool
that doesn’t deliver what parents want, doesn’t keep those children. It is a competitive
‘market’. It is remarkable, however, how many professionals, including academics and
state school teachers, choose Waldorf schools for their children and even become Wal-
dorf teachers, in spite of its “dubious ideology” (Barz& Randoll, 2007).
Both the educational success and the dubious ideology are also questions for the
educationalists in the academy, for researchers and for university students who study
education. Waldorf is one of the few educational alternatives with a comprehensive
and very dierent educational practice that one can study and research in so many
dierent settings and countries. In Germany at least, it has become quite a busy niche
for educational researchers. Given the increasing homogeneity of schools generally
in terms of their aims and methods, Waldorf is a relatively rare example of other
education.
The aims of this book
In 2000, Ico-edited and published The Educational Tasks and Content of the Steiner
Waldorf Curriculum (Rawson& Richter, 2000, republished in 2014 as Avison, Raw-
son,& Richter). The aim of that publication was to present an account of Waldorf
education and its curriculum in a systematic way, in accessible language that people

Introduction 5
outside the Waldorf camp and especially educational authorities could relate to. In this
book, Itake up this challenge again, 20years later. One of the dierences today is that
we have considerably more academic literature to draw on about Waldorf education,
most of it in German. The earlier book set out to present Waldorf as it is, though it
was inevitably an interpretation. This book is much more explicitly a new interpreta-
tion. In particular, it departs from most previous presentations of this education in
that it oers a series of generative principles that are drawn from the underlying ideas
of Steiner, plus 100years of practice, but also takes more recent education theory into
account. These generative principles can be used to generate new practice and evaluate
and research existing practice. It oers an interpretation of Waldorf education today–
not as it is practiced everywhere today, but rather what constitutes (in my judgement)
best practice and the current Waldorf discourse, which has changed significantly over
the last 15years.
The book starts with Rudolf Steiner the man and his ideas about the spiritual dimen-
sion of life and about how knowledge can be generated, including knowledge of the
world not accessible to our senses– the spiritual world. In Parts 2 and 3, Iintroduce
and explain a series of generative principles that underpin Waldorf practice in terms
of teaching and learning, and then Ilook at Waldorf schools as learning communities.
In Part 4, Isummarize the existing research on the education and give a brief overview
of the international growth of the Waldorf movement.
In order to explain Waldorf education to the reader in the terms of this new dis-
course, Ihave to leave much out. Irefer to the past only in as much as it directly
shapes the present. Idiscuss Steiner’s spiritual ideas only in as much as they relate to
pedagogy today. Likewise, the book does without visual images, though so much of
Waldorf is visual– from children’s books and craft works, to the colour of classroom
walls and the shape of their architecture. These have been illustrated in high quality
elsewhere, not least through the wealth of publications that appeared in connection
with Waldorf 100. In particular Irefer to Insights Waldorf, sponsored by the Leica
Camera company and illustrated by well-known Leica photographers (Freunde &
Leica Camera, 2019; and also Göbel& Reinthal, 2019). There are also a number of
helpful websites: the Friends of Waldorf Education (www.freunde-waldorf.de), which
is also available in English; the Association of Waldorf Schools in Germany (www.
waldorfschule.de), or the website of the Association of Waldorf Schools in North
America (www.waldorfeducation.org); the Waldorf Resources site of the Pedagogi-
cal Section in Dornach, Switzerland (www.waldorf-resources.org); and of course, the
Waldorf 100 site in English (www.waldorf-100.org).
I have also resisted the temptation to analyse the current educational climate, with
its brisk winds of testing and performativity blowing across the educational landscape
and the inhospitable climate of standardization it brings for creative education. Oth-
ers have done this far better than Icould (e.g. Ball, 2012, 2013, 2019; Verhaeghe,
2015; Biesta, 2010, 2012, 2015). This climate change of neoliberal policy technolo-
gies is the biggest single threat to the future of Waldorf education and remained in
my mind throughout the writing of the book, as the reader will notice here and there.
This book is not a manual for becoming a Waldorf teacher (or parent). That would
require a very dierent kind of book (in preparation for Floris Books) and above all an
interactive process. Nor does it detail the curriculum or teaching methods. It refers to
these in order to illustrate the generative principles. The book also restricts itself to Wal-
dorf education in schools, which typically teach children and young people from the age

6 Introduction
of 6 to 18/19years. Waldorf early-years and kindergarten education has been more than
adequately covered (Nicol, 2016; Nicol& Taplin, 2017; Patzla& Sassmannshausen,
2007; Rawson& Rose, 2003). Nor does it address Waldorf special education or its var-
ious applications in emergency education, or indeed Waldorf education in state schools.
There are three factors that make understanding and writing about Steiner in Eng-
lish particularly challenging. Steiner lived in another era and spoke German, and
most of his pedagogical works are in the form of transcripts of lectures. As Johannes
Kiersch (2012) has pointed out, Steiner tried to describe experiences for which there
was and still is no common, unambivalent vocabulary. Kiersch suggests that Steiner,
despite his extraordinarily creative use of language, was actually linguistically scepti-
cal, permanently wrestling with the impossibility of finding adequate words for what
cannot really be expressed in words. He continuously sought to approach ideas from
as many dierent perspectives as possible and to ensure that these concepts remained
as fluid as possible. Interestingly, Steiner once commented that in order to ‘translate’
spiritual truths, it is necessary to dogmatize them, in the sense of constructing a system
which fixes the meaning of words and concepts, but that one must rigorously avoid
seeing truth in the dogma (Steiner, 2001, cited in Kiersch, 2012, p.313). Thus, the
notion that Steiner wanted to articulate absolutely valid knowledge has to be relativ-
ized in the light of this insurmountable gap of alignment between word, meaning and
truth– words always have to be interpreted.
These aspects have perhaps contributed to the muted reception of Steiner in the
English-speaking academic world. In order to overcome these limitations, Ihave tried
to explain Steiner’s key epistemological, philosophical and pedagogical ideas. Of
course, such explanations and translations are always also interpretations. Most of
the translations from German Ihave done myself, if there are no published transla-
tions that Ifeel catch the meaning (based on my subjective judgement), and Ihave also
chosen to use the female gendered pronouns she/her where the original German was
Mensch, i.e. the human being or where male pronouns were used in a general sense (or
Ihave used the symbolic distancing device ‘sic’).
The author’s position
Writing this book after 40years of teaching in Waldorf schools has provided me with
an invaluable opportunity to review my position on practically everything related to
this education. In all cases, it has led to a deepening of my understanding. Iposition
myself as a critical insider, in the sense outlined by Kathryn Herr and Gary Anderson in
their chapter on the continuum of positionality in action research (2015, pp.37–59).
Writing this book has been a bit like action research within an extensive literature
review. Regarding my insider status, Ihave taught in Waldorf schools in the UK and in
Germany since 1979, and Ihave worked in Waldorf teacher education in both of these
countries and as a visiting lecturer and advisor in many other countries in Europe,
Africa and Asia, as well as in the United States.
I take a somewhat dierent stance to Heiner Ullrich (Ullrich, 2015), whose book
is also a critical introduction (Waldorfpädagogik: Eine kritische Einführung). In a
sense, this book also tries to oer answers to some of the questions that Ullrich poses.
My position may be summed up as follows: Waldorf education has an interesting,
challenging and epistemologically important educational theory. The practice is often
highly eective but is not always as good as it could and should be for a variety of
reasons. My position is thus that of an insider who is critical in both the sense of

Introduction 7
recognizing weaknesses and asking critical questions about assumptions, but also in
the sense of describing, contextualizing, reflecting on, analyzing and evaluating both
theory and practice– rigorous skills that Ilearned during my practitioner master’s
degree and education doctorate at Plymouth University.
Finally, Iam not a passive observer but an active participant involved in the further
development of this education. My particular contribution is to identify a series of
generative principles, based on Steiner’s pedagogical anthropology and Waldorf prac-
tice, as a set of tools for the evaluation, research and development of practice. To echo
Jennifer Gidley’s (2016, p.15) apology for her complex analysis of integral thinking
on the evolution of consciousness (including the works of Steiner), Ihereby state that
this is my hermeneutic interpretation, my narrative, and it is woven into the fabric of
my lived experiences and reflects my interests. It leaves much out – maths for example,
gets short shrift. I leave the gaps to those more capable than me, to fill in. Ican do no
more than articulate the fusion of my horizons with a lifetime engagement with this
educational practice. This book brings me to a new starting point.
Steiner and/or Waldorf?
Finally, a word about terminology. As Ihave briefly outlined in the previous sec-
tion, Rudolf Steiner was the educational founder of the first Waldorf school for the
children of the workers in the Waldorf-Astoria Cigarette Factory, whose owner,
Emil Molt, invited Steiner to found the school. The school was named after the
factory. Steiner himself frequently spoke of Waldorf pedagogy (die Waldorfpäd-
agogik), Waldorf ideas and thinking (der Waldorfgedanke) and so on. Schools
around the world either refer to themselves as Rudolf Steiner schools or Waldorf
schools, with some national preferences (e.g. the United States and Germany prefer
Waldorf, with Australia, New Zealand and the Scandinavian countries preferring
Steiner). In the Netherlands, they are referred to as Vrijeschool (free in the sense
of independent schools). Other schools that follow this educational approach have
quite dierent names; for example, my own school, the Christian Morgenstern
School in Hamburg, or the Scuola Novalis in Zoppè di San Vendemiano, Italy. In
the English-speaking academic and political world, people usually refer to Steiner
education.
My personal identification is not with the person Rudolf Steiner, though he is the
primary creator of this educational approach and was certainly a remarkable man,
but rather with the tradition of practice that has grown from its origin in the Stuttgart
Waldorf School, where Itaught from 1987–1993. From the beginning of my career,
Ihave been inspired by the idea of a school for the children of factory workers just
after the catastrophe of World War I. Therefore, in this book Irefer to Waldorf educa-
tion and pedagogy, Waldorf teachers constructing Waldorf curricula and so on. This
includes all the schools in the World List of Waldorf Schools, whether called Waldorf,
Steiner or anything else.
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