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The UN-Habitat Urban-Rural Linkages Guiding Principles: Assessment of the Adoptability to Topical Land Management Challenges in Germany, Kenya and Tanzania

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Abstract

Land and soil are critically impacted by multiple use requirements. It is increasingly understood that the urban-rural metabolism and relationships are critically determining the in-/efficiency of land use practices. Thus, the following question has been emphasized: How can improved urban-rural linkages contribute to sustainable territorial development, including sustainable land management?

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... Mr. Njaramba a 46 years grass cutter from Raiyani, Kwamaiko who had been in the business of cutting grass for the last 17 years indicated that he was no longer cutting grass from Tatu City and was recommending the farmers who hire him to venture into other farms like Oaklands, Waguthu, and Bibirioni (Pavillion estate). The expansion of towns into the high productive agricultural areas lead to vegetation and soil loss threatening food production (Bartke et al., 2021;. While the expansion of Ruiru into agricultural land will consume prime agricultural land, it will on the other hand increase the market for rural products from the surrounding rural hinterland. ...
... Ruiru, Githunguri and the other surrounding towns should focus on developing collaborations and partnerships rather than competing with each other. Roberts (2014, p. 87) points out that secondary cities should develop collaborative rather than competitive advantage: (Wairimu, 2015) Peri-urban zones face unique planning and governing challenges because of their location at the interphase between the city and rural areas, land speculation, lack of land documentation, political interference, changing land uses, varying land tenure regimes, different planning jurisdictions and the limited capacity of adjoining rural areas to plan these areas (Bartke et al., 2021;Schlimmer, 2021;. ...
... In Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Bartke et al. (2021) indicate that the middle income segment of the population, and the rich and politically connected individuals are keen to buy land in the periurban areas of the city for speculation. The authors indicate that the indigenous villagers in the peri-urban zone of Dar es Salaam are selling land for diverse reasons including: quick monetary gains to finance household needs, to build their homes, establish businesses or buy land in cheaper zones. ...
Thesis
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Urban and rural areas are inter-connected through physical, economic, environmental and social linkages, and their boundaries are blurred. The interaction between the two areas is dependent on sustainable mobility that is anchored on resilient infrastructure. However, this interconnection is affected by barriers of mobility that limit effective interaction between the two areas leading to among others under-development especially in rural areas, food loss, high cost of production, decreased investments, and isolation of some areas. In particular, milk production is dependent on efficient mobility because milk is perishable. Infrastructure that is not well integrated to ensure mobility and accessibility may not reliably improve livelihoods in rural areas. The research investigated mobility patterns between urban and rural areas and its implications on urban-rural linkages with a focus on the milk value chain. It covered issues of the patterns, motives, benefits, barriers and challenges faced during mobility. The research area was a transect between Ruiru town to Uplands village centre. It made use of qualitative techniques to assess both the usability and operational aspects of mobility by interviewing various actors and stakeholders along the dairy value chain.The research shows patterns of mobility directed towards the locations where goods and services are sourced mostly in the urban centres and the flow of goods and services from the urban centres to the rural areas. This flow of goods between urban and rural areas creates a convergence and divergence in urban centres, making them focal points for human activities in rural areas and enhancing rural-urban linkages. The connecting road networks in turn act as the arteries or conduits that form connections and facilitate the flow of goods and services. The study also reveals the existence of a symbiotic relationship between urban and rural areas, whereby rural areas provide the raw material – milk, while the urban areas provide goods and services and undertake the processing of the raw materials. These rural-urban interactions that are anchored on mobility leads to a robust dairy value chain and a milk industry cluster particularly in Githunguri town which emerges as a ‘milk town’. The findings show that the milk value chain exhibits itself in the rural-urban space leading to the shaping of the territory from the village, market to urban centres.
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Man’s history and developmental endeavour have been advancing alongside a trail of ecological ramifications and climate change. Since prehistoric times, scientists have not recorded an accelerated shift in ecology during any other epoch beside that of modern man on the planet. The paper seeks to explore how man’s history and development affects ecology and climate. It uses desk analysis to recollect data from global assessment reports and runs a One paired Sample Means t-Test, 1 tailed, 8 df, at Pearson Correlation value 0.458 and 0.5  level. Findings show that, there is global climate change, seen in global warming trends; and imbalance in ecological footprint, seen in depletion of air, water and land sinks. The t-Testreveals significant net loss of global forest cover. The study also, found that at present,processes of development generally tend to damage ecology. Therefore, the study recommends a refocus to sustainable means of development.
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Technical Report
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Chapter
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Small-scale land acquisitions are transforming long-standing human–land relations in West Africa. In particular, high rates of urban population growth lead to the transfer of land from non-market customary tenure systems to market-based, formal land tenure regimes on the edges of cities. The literature suggests that the conversion process from inalienable land to private property is highly contested, locally specific, and historically contingent. However, little is known about how this process affects a community. In the Kati cercle on Bamako’s peri-urban eastern edge with exponential growth in land registration, this village case study examines: (1) how residents secure livelihoods, and (2) how the advent of a land market affects livelihood strategies. Interviews conducted in 2011 in the village of Soro complement data collected in 1996 and 1987. The longitudinal data show increases in population as well as indicators of relatively stable livelihood strategies. Since 2001 only men in the chieftancy lineage and families close to it have sold land, and that land was of least value to them using the subsistence logic of grain production. Those authorizing land sales at the local level are also the immediate beneficiaries. Land privatization reduces access to resources for those with secondary land rights recognized through social relations in a customary tenure system. This study concludes that public policy in areas undergoing land conversion – especially peri-urban areas – should consider the impact of social differentiation in communities and how new land values will change land use and access.
Article
Sub-Saharan cities are currently experiencing the world's highest rate of urbanization. A vast number of people migrate towards the peri-urban areas, changing the use of the land and its ownership, which often implicates a change of the land tenure system as well. Peri-urban land markets are the most dynamic and most diverse in sub-Saharan Africa. The question is whether the different land tenure systems in Africa in the long-run converge towards private property or develop into a diversity of property regimes which might be more divers than elsewhere. The article therefore analyses the changes in property regimes and land tenure systems which are forming current land transaction processes. What types of land tenure systems developed so far? Which property regimes are most in demand? Is there a general trend towards one specific property regime? Are there specific land tenure systems which only exist in sub-Saharan Africa? Based on this analysis, the article aims to identify which land tenure systems and property regimes fit best to meet current needs. Differing from earlier theories such as the Property Rights Doctrine and the Induced Institutional Innovation Hypothesis, the current institutional change in sub-Saharan Africa is neither a straight-forward transition from common to private property nor a self-acting and smooth process. It is rather characterized by insecurity of tenure and numerous conflicts as predicted by Boserup as early as in the 1960s. Although there is a trend towards formal private property, (neo-) customary common property provides for numerous advantages which are appreciated not only by the poor. Common property being so appreciated in sub-Saharan Africa, the author also investigates why over centuries it has been neglected by mainstream theories.
Article
This paper examines recent trends in land use transformation taking place in the peri-urban areas of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. It demonstrates that urbanisation in poverty is the key factor underpinning and catalysing changes in land use, land transactions, increased rural–urban immigration and the overall transformation of land use in the peri-urban areas. Unregulated peri-urban land development has given rise to complex organic urban structures which predominantly expanding horizontally. The emerging land use pattern, by and large, indicates a mismatch with the widely cherished planning norms and standards and land value theories which, underpin urban land use planning instruments such as zoning and density distribution and principles like equitable provision of basic services and complimentarity in urban land development.It is argued that for an unforeseeable future, organic urban growth is likely to remain an indispensable reality depicting urban land development in resource starved situations such as Tanzania because of the severe resource constraints facing local and central governments, the nature of the subsisting land tenure structure in most peri-urban areas, poor national economic performance and looming poverty in rural and urban areas. Therefore, planners and policy makers have little choice but to ensconce and consolidate the emerging form. Decentralised land management anchored on the subsisting local government administrative structures, introduction of user-friendly and pro-poor land regularisation systems, and embarking on land banking by local authorities are some of the key and immediate policy action areas of concern.
Article
Land markets in urban Africa have not been well studied. This is perhaps because African governments believe that they are the major source of urban land through planning schemes, or because governments do not generally recognize sale of bare land, and therefore believe that land market transactions do not exist. However, there is considerable evidence that most landowners in urban Africa obtain land by way of purchasing it from recognized owners, be they in the planned or in the unplanned sector. This paper gives insights into some aspects of the land markets in urban Africa, taking the case of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania as an example. The paper is based on the results of a study carried out in Dar es Salaam in 1994. Five areas, considered to be representative of Dar es Salaam were selected for this study. These are: an inner city planned area (Kariakoo); an inner city unplanned area (Manzese); a sites and services area (Kijitonyama); an outer city planned area (Mbezi) and an outer city unplanned area (Mabibo). The findings elucidate on the question of land markets in urban Africa. It is recommended that the government should help land markets to come out in the open and to operate efficiently since land buying was found to be a common practice. If this was to be the case, dividends would accrue to both the transactors in land, who would have a more reliable and efficient market to work into, and to the government which would have better information to manage urban land, including a possibility of reaping higher revenue.
Article
Agriculture is a central part of Tanzania’s economy. Both within Dar es Salaam, its primate city, and in the city’s peri-urban zone, agriculture is an important part of the livelihood strategy for people of all social classes. However, because the peri-urban zone is one of transition from urban to rural, it tends to undergo more pronounced changes in land use over time than do the city and rural area it borders. This paper examines recent changes in agriculture, land use and livelihoods in the peri-urban zone of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Based on a literature review and semi-structured interviews conducted in three peri-urban villages, this paper argues that structural adjustment policies and changing land tenure regimes are impacting the presence and practice of agriculture in peri-urban Dar es Salaam. This paper further argues that because agriculture provides a means of investing in the future, it is an essential part of the livelihood strategy for middle and upper class residents of peri-urban areas.
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