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Are intelligent peers liked more? Assessing peer-reported liking through the network analysis
Abstract
The current study examines whether intelligent adolescents are liked more by their peers, does this likeability assessment remains constant over time, and do intelligent adolescents like certain people or everyone? For this purpose, we recruited seven classes of adolescents at the beginning of the first school year. We administered an intelligence test and gathered peer-reported information regarding the liking relations. To examine the dynamics of such associations, we repeated the measurement three months and one year later. The results of the Temporal Exponential Random Graph Model revealed that intelligent adolescents are liked more. However, these highly intelligent adolescents did not reciprocate such relations, as they liked fewer people than those who were less intelligent. This finding was stable both across short- and long-term and could be explained by the fact that those who are intelligent, tend to only like other intelligent peers, representing a fewer number of individuals. Our results suggest that intelligence is important in the explanation of the relation of liking.
... This type of overstimulation can potentially have a negative impact on mental health (Karpinski et al., 2018). Moreover, functioning distinctively from most of one's peers on a basic cognitive level can be detrimental to an individual's sense of relatedness (Falck, 2020;Flakus et al., 2021). The need for relatedness is, alongside the need for autonomy and the need for competence, one of the basic psychological needs according to the self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000. ...
Background
Despite intelligence being generally related to better mental health, individuals with extremely high levels of intelligence (also often referred to as gifted) are frequently viewed to be socially maladjusted, emotionally unstable, and eccentric. Although this view has existed for decades, the scientific data on this subject are highly inconsistent and suffer from several methodological limitations.
Participants and procedure
In this study, to test whether the relationship between general intelligence and general mental health is nonlinear in such a way that at extreme values of intelligence the relationship turns from positive to negative the data from eight waves of the 1970 British Cohort Study (BCS70) were used (N range from 2,870 to 7,984), with intelligence being assessed at age 10, and mental health being assessed with several different measures at ages 16, 26, 30, 34, 42, 46 and 50. Quadratic regression, as well as spline regression, which divides the dataset into intervals, creates a separate regression for each interval and then smooths out the breakpoints, was used for analyses.
Results
The results showed that the nonlinear models generally fit the data better than the corresponding linear models.
Conclusions
At high values of intelligence, individuals might begin to experience unique issues affecting their mental health, despite their mental health being at potentially the same or higher level than those with average intelligence. Intellectually gifted individuals have a large potential to have a positive impact on the functioning of the whole society. Recognizing and understanding their problems may prove to be of great importance.
... To the best of our knowledge, ours is the first study to focus specifically on the role of academic achievement in shaping classmates' peer relationships during adolescence. As regards the possible differences between peer acceptance and peer friendship, previous studies have shown that the degree of social inclusion in a peer group can be affected by students' academic skills [118][119][120], which are often highly valued. On these premises in the present study we expected that academic achievement would be more important for peer acceptance rather than for peer friendship. ...
Background:
This study aimed to investigate differences in adolescents' social relationships with classmates of diverse gender, socioeconomic status, immigrant background, and academic achievement.
Methods:
A population of 10th-grade students (N = 406,783; males = 50.3%; Mage = 15.57 years, SDage = 0.75) completed the Classmates Social Isolation Questionnaire (CSIQ), an instrument specifically designed to measure two distinct but correlated types of peer relationships in class: peer acceptance and peer friendship. To obtain reliable comparisons across diverse adolescent characteristics, the measurement invariance of the CSIQ was established by means of CFAs and then latent mean differences tests were performed.
Results:
Immigrant background, academic achievement, and socioeconomic status all proved to be important factors influencing relationships with classmates, while being a male or a female was less relevant. Being a first-generation immigrant adolescent appears to be the foremost risk factor for being less accepted by classmates, while having a low academic achievement is the greatest hindrance for having friends in the group of classmates, a finding that diverges from previous studies.
Conclusions:
This population study suggests that adolescent characteristics (especially immigrant background, socioeconomic status, and academic achievement) seem to affect social relationships with classmates.
The xergm package is an implementation of extensions to the exponential random graph model (ERGM). It acts as a meta-package for multiple constituent packages. One of these packages is btergm, which implements bootstrap methods for the temporal ERGM estimated by maximum pseudolikelihood. Here, we illustrate the temporal exponential random graph model and its implementation in the package btergm using data on international alliances and a longitudinally observed friendship network in a Dutch school.
El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la relación entre tipos sociométricos, categorías conductuales y aptitudes intelectuales en una muestra de 1349 (51.7% varones) adolescentes españoles de 12 a 16 años. La identificación sociométrica de los estudiantes se realizó mediante el Programa Socio y para el análisis de las aptitudes intelectuales se administró el Test de Aptitudes Mentales Primarias (PMA; Thurstone, 1938; TEA, 1996). Las hipótesis del estudio plantean, en primer lugar, que los estudiantes nominados positivamente por sus iguales presentarán puntuaciones significativamente superiores en las diferentes escalas del PMA que los estudiantes nominados negativamente por sus compañeros y, en segundo lugar, que las aptitudes intelectuales serán una variable predictora estadísticamente significativa de los tipos sociométricos y categorías conductuales. Los resultados muestran que los estudiantes nominados positivamente obtuvieron puntuaciones significativamente más altas en las diferentes aptitudes intelectuales que los nominados negativamente. Las aptitudes intelectuales resultaron un predictor significativo de los tipos sociométricos, ya que a medida que aumenta la puntuación en las diferentes aptitudes intelectuales los estudiantes presentaron mayor probabilidad de ser nominados positivamente por sus compañeros.
Are smarter people funnier? Recent work suggests that cognitive abilities are important to humor production—the ability to generate funny ideas on the spot. Using the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence, the present research examined both general and specific contributions of cognitive factors to humor ability. It extended past research by (1) measuring a broader range of cognitive abilities, including some that have not been assessed thus far, (2) assessing humor with a broader battery of tasks, and (3) using bifactor models to estimate both general and specific effects of intelligence on humor. A sample of 270 young adults completed measures of fluid reasoning (Gf), vocabulary knowledge (Gc), and broad retrieval ability (Gr) along with a battery of humor production tasks. All three specific factors correlated with humor ability, and a higher-order model found a large effect of g on humor ability (β = .51 [.32, .70]). In a bifactor model, however, humor ability was predicted primarily by g and Gr but not Gf, suggesting that fluid intelligence’s correlation with humor ability found in past studies is carried by g. These findings illustrate both general and specific effects of intelligence on humor, and they expand the growing literature on the important role of intelligence in creative thought.
This research investigated effects of narcissism and emotional intelligence (EI) on popularity in social networks. In a longitudinal field study we examined the dynamics of popularity in 15 peer groups in two waves (N=273). We measured narcissism, ability EI, explicit and implicit self-esteem. In addition, we measured popularity at zero acquaintance and three months later. We analyzed the data using inferential network analysis (temporal exponential random graph modeling, TERGM) accounting for self-organizing network forces. People high in narcissism were popular, but increased less in popularity over time than people lower in narcissism. In contrast, emotionally intelligent people increased more in popularity over time than less emotionally intelligent people. The effects held when we controlled for explicit and implicit self-esteem. These results suggest that narcissism is rather disadvantageous and that EI is rather advantageous for long-term popularity.
The educational, occupational, and creative accomplishments of the profoundly gifted participants (IQs ⩾ 160) in the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY) are astounding, but are they representative of equally able 12-year-olds? Duke University’s Talent Identification Program (TIP) identified 259 young adolescents who were equally gifted. By age 40, their life accomplishments also were extraordinary: Thirty-seven percent had earned doctorates, 7.5% had achieved academic tenure (4.3% at research-intensive universities), and 9% held patents; many were high-level leaders in major organizations. As was the case for the SMPY sample before them, differential ability strengths predicted their contrasting and eventual developmental trajectories—even though essentially all participants possessed both mathematical and verbal reasoning abilities far superior to those of typical Ph.D. recipients. Individuals, even profoundly gifted ones, primarily do what they are best at. Differences in ability patterns, like differences in interests, guide development along different paths, but ability level, coupled with commitment, determines whether and the extent to which noteworthy accomplishments are reached if opportunity presents itself.
For as long as groups and teams have been the subject of scientific inquiry, researchers have been interested in understanding the relationships that form within them, and the pace at which these relationships develop and change. Despite this interest in understanding the process underlying the unfolding of relationships in teams, current theoretical and operational formulations of team process require greater specificity if they are to truly afford a high-resolution understanding. Most researchers interested in team process, study it as either a snapshot, or as a limited series of snapshots, rather than as a continuous movie displaying the nuanced sequential interactions unfolding among various subsets of team members. Given the increasing availability of rich data regarding team dynamics, corresponding advances are needed in conceptual and analytic frameworks to utilize continuous-time data to further our understanding of team processes. This paper identifies four challenges that hinder the identification of team process/dynamics and elaborates a theoretical approach with the associated analytic machinery needed to advance a truly time-sensitive understanding of team process.
Previous empirical studies have yielded inconclusive results about peer perceptions of academically high performing students. The purpose of this study was to investigate students’ perceptions of the intellectual ability, positive social qualities, and popularity of a hypothetical new high performing classmate. Participants were 1060 Vietnamese, South Korean, British, Australian, Peruvian, and Spanish boys and girls in 10th grade. The results revealed that the perceptions of academically high performing classmates differed by country group. Positive perceptions of intellectual ability and social qualities were commonly found in all countries except the two Asian countries (Vietnam and South Korea), where the students reported more neutral views of high performers. In conclusion, it is argued that there is no evidence for possible iatrogenic effects of gifted education programs aiming at high achievements
To verify whether development of cognitive skills and peer acceptance are necessarily linked, 212 students of low socioeconomic status in the first, second, and third grades of a public school in Brazil were studied. A sociometric evaluation of peer group acceptance in play and study situations was conducted. The cognitive tasks were rbe mental imaging and conservation of mass and length (operative tasks) as well as location of dice and equidistancing arrangements (creation of possibilities tasks). Analysis showed the children identified as desirable study companions had highly developed general cognitive abilities, and those chosen as desirable for both study and play nor only had highly developed general cognitive abilities but also highly developed operativeness. Children who were socially isolated, however, had even higher mean cognitive assessment score in relation to both creation of possibilities and general cognitive development than did those with ratings of negative or positive salience.
Two cohorts of intellectually talented 13-year-olds were identified in the 1970s (1972-1974 and 1976-1978) as being in the top 1% of mathematical reasoning ability (1,037 males, 613 females). About four decades later, data on their careers, accomplishments, psychological well-being, families, and life preferences and priorities were collected. Their accomplishments far exceeded base-rate expectations: Across the two cohorts, 4.1% had earned tenure at a major research university, 2.3% were top executives at "name brand" or Fortune 500 companies, and 2.4% were attorneys at major firms or organizations; participants had published 85 books and 7,572 refereed articles, secured 681 patents, and amassed $358 million in grants. For both males and females, mathematical precocity early in life predicts later creative contributions and leadership in critical occupational roles. On average, males had incomes much greater than their spouses', whereas females had incomes slightly lower than their spouses'. Salient sex differences that paralleled the differential career outcomes of the male and female participants were found in lifestyle preferences and priorities and in time allocation.
The reported study investigated students’ perceptions of their high-performing classmates in terms of intelligence, social skills, and conscientiousness in different school subjects. The school subjects for study were examined with regard to cognitive, physical, and gender-specific issues. The results show that high academic achievements in particular school subjects lead to negative reactions in the peer group whereas high achievements in other school subjects result in positive peer reactions. In contrast, the respondents’ gender and the gender of the successful classmates had little influence on student perceptions of high achievers. The results are discussed in regard to their implications for gifted education.
To evaluate the impact of actual and perceived similarity on interpersonal attraction, we meta-analyzed 460 effect sizes from 313 laboratory and field investigations. Results indicated that the associations between interpersonal attraction and both actual similarity (r = .47) and perceived similarity (r = .39) were significant and large. The data also indicate that (i) actual similarity was important in no-interaction and short-interaction studies, (ii) there was a significant reduction in the effect size of actual similarity beyond no-interaction studies, and (iii) the effect of actual similarity in existing relationships was not significant. Alternatively, perceived similarity predicted attraction in no-interaction, short-interaction, and existing relationship studies. The implications of perceived similarity, rather than actual similarity, being predictive of attraction in existing relationships are discussed.
The classical definition of altruism in evolutionary biology requires that an organism incur a fitness cost in the course of providing others with a fitness benefit. New insights are gained, however, by exploring the implications of an adaptationist version of the 'problem of altruism,' as the existence of machinery designed to deliver benefits to others. Alternative pathways for the evolution of altruism are discussed, which avoid barriers thought to limit the emergence of reciprocation across species. We define the Banker's Paradox, and show how its solution can select for cognitive machinery designed to deliver benefits to others, even in the absence of traditional reciprocation. These models allow one to understand aspects of the design and social dynamics of human friendship that are otherwise mysterious. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study investigates the relation between intelligence and the currently widely used five sociometric types ‘popular’, ‘rejected’, ‘neglected’, ‘controversial’ and ‘average’.
The sample consists of N = 5861 children belonging to 317 third-grade classes. Intelligence was operationalized by a combination of three standardized intelligence tests and a combination of three ratings — corresponding to the three intelligence tests — of the pupils' intelligence by their head teachers.
Results show that, regardless of the operationalization of intelligence, there is a positive relation between intelligence and ‘popularity’, whereas ‘rejection’ is negatively related to intelligence. For the other three sociometric types ('controversial', ‘neglected’ and ‘average’) no relation to intelligence can be observed
The discussion stresses the need to control the variable ‘intelligence’ in studies investigating the behavioural and socio-emotional correlates of ‘popular’ and ‘rejected’ children.
Exponential-family random graph models (ERGMs) represent the processes that govern the formation of links in networks through the terms selected by the user. The terms specify network statistics that are sufficient to represent the probability distribution over the space of networks of that size. Many classes of statistics can be used. In this article we describe the classes of statistics that are currently available in the ergm package. We also describe means for controlling the Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm that the package uses for estimation. These controls a ect either the proposal distribution on the sample space used by the underlying Metropolis-Hastings algorithm or the constraints on the sample space itself. Finally, we describe various other arguments to core functions of the ergm package.
This study compared the effects of social intelligence and cognitive intelligence, as measured by academic achievement, on adolescent popularity in two school contexts. A distinction was made between sociometric popularity, a measure of acceptance, and perceived popularity, a measure of social dominance. Participants were 512, 14-15 year-old adolescents (56% girls, 44% boys) in vocational and college preparatory schools in Northwestern Europe. Perceived popularity was significantly related to social intelligence, but not to academic achievement, in both contexts. Sociometric popularity was predicted by an interaction between academic achievement and social intelligence, further qualified by school context. Whereas college bound students gained sociometric popularity by excelling both socially and academically, vocational students benefited from doing well either socially or academically, but not in combination. The implications of these findings were discussed.
It "was hypothesized that (a) a stranger who is known to have attitudes similar to those of the subject is better liked than a stranger with attitudes dissimilar to those of the subject, (b) is judged to be more intelligent, better informed, more moral, and better adjusted and (c) is evaluated more positively on four [other] variables." The first 2 hypotheses were confirmed. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4GE13B.
50 articles dealing with stages of group development over time are separated by group setting: therapy-group studies, T-group studies, and natural- and laboratory-group studies. The stages identified in these articles are separated into those descriptive of social or interpersonal group activities and those descriptive of group-task activities. 4 general stages of development are proposed, and the review consists of fitting the stages identified in the literature to those proposed. In the social realm, these stages in the developmental sequence are testing-dependence, conflict, cohesion, and functional roles. In the task realm, they are orientation, emotionality, relevant opinion exchange, and the emergence of solutions. There is a good fit between observed stages and the proposed model. (62 ref.)
We present a systematic examination of real network datasets using maximum likelihood estimation for exponential random graph models as well as new procedures to evaluate how well the models fit the observed graphs. These procedures compare structural statistics of the observed graph with the corresponding statistics on graphs simulated from the fitted model. We apply this approach to the study of friendship relations among high school students from the the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (AddHealth). The sizes of the networks we fit range from 71 to 2209 nodes. The larger networks represent more than an order of magnitude increase over the size of any network previously fit using maximum likelihood methods for models of this kind. We argue that several well-studied models in the networks literature do not fit these data well, and we demonstrate that the fit improves dramatically when the models include the recently-developed geometrically weighted edgewise shared partner (GWESP) and geometrically weighted degree (GWD) network statistics. We conclude that these models capture aspects of the social structure of adolescent friendship relations not represented by previous models.
Objective
We investigated how Dark Triad traits influence the development and maintenance of social relations.
Method
Participants completed the Short Dark Triad questionnaire and a measure of social relations at three times points: at the beginning of their first year in high school, three months later, and at the end of their first year. We investigated whether the Dark Triad traits are stable over time using Multilevel Modeling (N = 265; 59.6% girls) , and how Dark Triad traits predict incoming and outgoing agentic and communal relations using Temporal Exponential Random Graph Models (N = 192; 60.4% girls).
Results
Overall, the Dark Triad traits were stable over a one‐year period. Narcissism did not predict an increase in communal and agentic relations in the short‐term, but predicted slightly less incoming communal and more agentic relations in the long‐term. In the short‐term, Machiavellianism predicted a small increase while psychopathy predicted a small decrease in the incoming agentic and communal relations. In the long‐term however, neither Machiavellianism nor psychopathy was a significant predictor of any incoming relations.
Conclusions
Our results shed new light on the dynamics of making and maintaining social relations through the prism of the Dark Triad traits.
The phenomenon of social coping among students with gifts and talents (SWGT) is not well understood. In interviews with elementary-, middle-, and high-school aged SWGT (N = 90; 50% female) from the United States, United Kingdom, South Korea, Ireland, and France, the universality of awareness of visibility of their exceptional abilities, high expectations and pressure to achieve from adults and peers, and peer jealousy and rejection, was confirmed. In all countries, SWGT were concerned about peers’ upward social comparison and the effects of their outperformance on peers’ feelings. SWGT attempted to hide their abilities or conform to peers’ behaviors. Prosocial helping behaviors were found among SWGT in nearly all age groups and a focus on the self was a useful coping strategy to students in all countries except France. Parallels are drawn between these findings and stigma theory.
Extant empirical research, despite some theoretical descriptions, has consistently demonstrated that the Dark Triad is not related to general mental ability. In the present study, we investigated the relationship between the Dark Triad of personality (narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy) and fluid intelligence. A sample of 128 Polish high school students (M age = 16.89 years; SD age = 0.31; 28.1% of the sample were boys) completed the Polish translation of the Short Dark Triad and the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices. Hypotheses were tested using a structural equation model, which fit the data well. As predicted, we found that of the three Dark Triad traits, only Machiavellianism was significantly predicted by fluid intelligence. Our findings are discussed in light of previous research and theory.
A long-running investigation of exceptional children reveals what it takes to produce the scientists who will lead the twenty-first century.
The manner in which the concept of reciprocity is implicated in functional theory is explored, enabling a reanalysis of the concepts of "survival" and "exploitation." The need to distinguish between the concepts of complementarity and reciprocity is stressed. Distinctions are also drawn between (1) reciprocity as a pattern of mutually contingent exchange of gratifications, (2) the existential or folk belief in reciprocity, and (3) the generalized moral norm of reciprocity. Reciprocity as a moral norm is analyzed; it is hypothesized that it is one of the universal "principal components" of moral codes. As Westermarck states, "To requite a benefit, or to be grateful to him who bestows it, is probably everywhere, at least under certain circumstances, regarded as a duty. This is a subject which in the present connection calls for special consideration." Ways in which the norm of reciprocity is implicated in the maintenance of stable social systems are examined.
Models of dynamic networks --- networks that evolve over time --- have
manifold applications. We develop a discrete-time generative model for social
network evolution that inherits the richness and flexibility of the class of
exponential-family random graph models. The model --- a Separable Temporal ERGM
(STERGM) --- facilitates separable modeling of the tie duration distributions
and the structural dynamics of tie formation. We develop likelihood-based
inference for the model, and provide computational algorithms for maximum
likelihood estimation. We illustrate the interpretability of the model in
analyzing a longitudinal network of friendship ties within a school.
The paper examines whether unpopularity and disliking among peers are partially distinct dimensions of adolescents' negative social experience. We recruited 418 students (187 boys, 231 girls, M = 12.12years, SD = 4.33) from an urban junior high school. These early adolescents completed a peer nomination inventory assessing aspects of their social relationships with peers (i.e., popularity, liking, unpopularity and disliking), reciprocated friendships and behavioral reputations with peers (i.e., relationally and overtly aggressive, relationally and overtly victimized, withdrawn and prosocial). The participants also completed self-report inventories assessing their feelings of loneliness and peer victimization. In addition, academic performance data was obtained directly from school records. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that unpopularity and disliking among peers were associated with different behaviors. Unpopularity was also associated with reports of loneliness, relational victimization and low numbers of reciprocated friends, whereas disliking was associated with low academic performance. These results highlight the importance of multidimensional conceptualizations of negative social experiences in early adolescence and the differential risks associated with unpopularity and disliking among peers.
The peer group is an important developmental context for children. In this paper we present a method to operationalize a child's integration into the classroom by their informal social classroom roles, which we obtained using a blockmodel analysis based on role equivalence. This method differs in several respects from the common socio-metric status approach. Analysis of multiplex social relationships of 1,241 first-grade children in 71 classrooms showed nine empirical classroom roles. The roles were not associated with physical attractiveness not with ethnic ancestry, were associated only weakly with age, sex, and intelligence, and were associated strongly with school adjustment. Classroom roles and sociometric status were clearly associated, but measured different aspects of a child's integration into the classroom. For all school problems except academic performance, classroom roles explained a much larger proportion of the variance than did sociometric status.
A recurrent problem in the analysis of behavioral dynamics, given a simultaneously evolving social network, is the difficulty of separating the effects of partner selection from the effects of social influence. Because misattribution of selection effects to social influence, or vice versa, suggests wrong conclusions about the social mechanisms underlying the observed dynamics, special diligence in data analysis is advisable. While a dependable and valid method would benefit several research areas, according to the best of our knowledge, it has been lacking in the extant literature. In this paper, we present a recently developed family of statistical models that enables researchers to separate the two effects in a statistically adequate manner. To illustrate our method, we investigate the roles of homophile selection and peer influence mechanisms in the joint dynamics of friendship formation and substance use among adolescents. Making use of a three-wave panel measured in the years 1995–1997 at a school in Scotland, we are able to assess the strength of selection and influence mechanisms and quantify the relative contributions of homophile selection, assimilation to peers, and control mechanisms to observed similarity of substance use among friends.
The stereotype content model (SCM) defines two fundamental dimensions of social perception, warmth and competence, predicted respectively by perceived competition and status. Combinations of warmth and competence generate distinct emotions of admiration, contempt, envy, and pity. From these intergroup emotions and stereotypes, the behavior from intergroup affect and stereotypes (BIAS) map predicts distinct behaviors: active and passive, facilitative and harmful. After defining warmth/communion and competence/agency, the chapter integrates converging work documenting the centrality of these dimensions in interpersonal as well as intergroup perception. Structural origins of warmth and competence perceptions result from competitors judged as not warm, and allies judged as warm; high status confers competence and low status incompetence. Warmth and competence judgments support systematic patterns of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions, including ambivalent prejudices. Past views of prejudice as a univalent antipathy have obscured the unique responses toward groups stereotyped as competent but not warm or warm but not competent. Finally, the chapter addresses unresolved issues and future research directions.
Earlier research shows that peer-rejected children are at risk of a wide range of subsequent adjustment difficulties in different social contexts, as, for example, in school.
This study investigated the academic performance and school adjustment in adolescence of children with different peer status in middle childhood.
Age 15 boys and girls (N=90), who at age 10 and 11 were sociometrically rejected, popular, or of average popularity in their school class.
School marks, intelligence scales, and self-reports were used as adjustment measures. School dropout rate for boys was also included.
The academic performance and intelligence level of rejected boys and girls were short of the standards of children from the other status groups, while the scores of popular boys and girls were of superior standard. There were some slight indications that rejected girls (but not rejected boys) had negative attitudes towards school and schoolwork, and that popular girls had positive school attitudes. The school dropout rate of rejected boys was much higher than that of other boys.
The results show that the rejected children are a risk group for school problems also over a long period of time. Considering the important developmental aspects of the adolescence years, there appear to be good reasons, therefore, to worry about the future adulthood adjustment of peer-rejected children.
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