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Status of water resources and opportunities in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia Water in agriculture in three Maghreb countries
Abstract and Figures
The Maghreb countries are facing increasing water scarcity amplified by inefficient water use and overexploitation of water resources. There is evidence that surface water is diminishing and that ground water levels are lowering rapidly. The countries are affected by climate change as rainfall is more erratic and there are longer lasting and more severe periods of drought, alternated with severe rains and catastrophic flooding. The projected climate change impact on agriculture in the Maghreb will most likely increase further. This is accompanied by salinization of soils and ground water, even strengthened by over-fertilization of soils, combined with a general low productivity and misuse of water.
The Netherlands has world-renowned expertise when it comes to water management and agriculture, and finding sustainable and practical solutions for water use efficiency, quality improvement and circular agriculture. In order to link the Dutch experience and expertise to the issues at hand, an assessment of the current situation of water use and water problems in agriculture as well as the challenges for improvement was needed.
We report here on the assessment carried out to better understand the challenges for bilateral cooperation in the field of water in agriculture in three Maghreb countries: Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The assessment results will be used for making concrete recommendations on business and institutional cooperation between the Netherlands and the three individual Maghreb countries especially in those fields where the Dutch agribusiness, knowledge and technology institutions can make a significant improvement.
The assessment included a literature study combined with interviews with experts and stakeholders in governments, research institutes, companies, international organisations in The Netherlands, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Reviewed were the:
• The status and trends of the available water resources in relation to water use and water use efficiency in agriculture.
• Important Government policies and development plans on water and agriculture including adaptation and mitigation policies for climate change impact.
• Governance in Water Resources for agriculture on water efficiency, water reuse and water allocation at a national level and in focus regions East/South East and Souss/Masa in Morocco; the coastal zones and Biskra-region in Algeria; Gabes-region in Tunisia.
• Development status and trends in water efficiency technologies, including use of drip irrigation, non-conventional water sources, sustainable energy for pumping, circular greenhouses, remote sensing and satellite data applications.
• Status and development of relevant water-agri knowledge needs in relation to available Dutch technologies and experience.
The outcome allowed a comparative overview of several key opportunities and specific technological developments and link these to Dutch knowledge and technology solutions available. For each of the countries we described most opportune cooperation opportunities shaped as business cases with the involvement of the local Government, Dutch and local private sector and knowledge organizations.
For centuries the countries have tried to overcome water stress and scarcity by improving water policy and strategy, infrastructure development, economy of water use, wastewater, and desalinization, among others. We report that the three countries have become more vulnerable and are severely threatened by water resources responses to the changing climate conditions. Current water scarcity will increase with growing demand for water resources due to demography, the growth of economic sectors in particular agriculture that consume water. With current climate change projections and water use trends the relevance of water development policies will become more relevant, given that agricultural performance and economic growth of the three Maghreb countries is closely related to water resources and contributes strongly to the socioeconomic balance, regional stability, and gross domestic product.
The need to mainstream this change into development plans is more recognized; the new constitutions have adopted the sustainable development concept, which opens opportunities for technological and practical improvements for the sustainable use and protection of the land and water resources.
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Morocco is basically a semiarid country with limited rainfall reducing the opportunities for rainfed agriculture. For feeding its ever growing population, irrigation is required. This study aims to evaluate the groundwater quality for irrigation in the Benslimane region by studying the main influencing chemical elements and characteristics. The main purpose is to provide the farmers and agricultural developers with a clear comprehension of the groundwater status. We focused on the determination and statistical analysis of physicochemical parameters and major elements (electrical conductivity, pH, Na+, K+,Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, SO42−, CO32−, and HCO3−) for 120 samples and the derivation of water quality indices like SAR, %Na, RSC, PI, KR, and MAR, along with graphical approaches such as Wilcox’s and Richards’s diagrams. Factors affecting groundwater hydrochemistry and quality were also discussed. The results show generally alkaline and shallow waters, with the majority of the samples belonging to the Na-Cl facies. Rock alteration, dissolution, ion exchange, evaporation, and anthropogenic activity are the main factors controlling water chemistry. Most prospected wells indicate high salinity problems due to salt water intrusion. With regard to the suitability of groundwater for irrigation, the majority of wells is of medium to poor quality and is therefore unsuitable. These types of water are found throughout the area, with a significant dominance on the coastal zone. The long-term use of this groundwater would therefore have negative impacts on soil quality and the sustainability of agricultural production. Therefore, we recommend proper agricultural management and irrigation practices in the Benslimane region, in order to increase agricultural production while preserving water and soil resources.
The aim of this present study was to evaluate groundwater quality in the upstream part of the Essaouira basin. A detailed geochemical study of groundwater region is described, and the origin of the chemical composition of groundwater has been qualitatively evaluated, using multivariate statistical methods (PCA, HCA), and Water Quality Index (WQI) was used to determine the suitability of water for drinking. To attempt this investigation, 38 samples were analysed for various physicochemical parameters such as temperature, pH, TDS, Na, NO3, K, Ca, HCO3, Cl, Mg, and SO4. The results obtained showed that the facies characterizing the study area was a combination of Ca–SO4 and mixed Ca–Mg–Cl. Hydrochemical approach based on the bivariate diagrams of major ions indicates that the origins of groundwater mineralization are the result of (I) evaporite dissolution; (II) cation-exchange reactions; and (III) evaporation processes. The WQI values range from 82.3 to 390.9, and therefore the water samples can be categorized into five groups: excellent water to water unsuitable for drinking. In global, 61% of the groundwater sampled had poor water quality, 18% were very poor water quality, 16% are unsuitable for drinking, and just 6% represent a good quality. However, the results of this paper indicate that most water is not safe for drinking and needs further treatment.
Most dams lose capacity as a result of three principal phenomena: leakage, sedimentation and evaporation. The study of these phenomena is particularly important as they can also endanger the dam's stability. Here, we examine the case of the Gargar dam in western Algeria. This dam is located in an arid zone where water resources are becoming increasingly scarce. It is situated 5 km from the city of Ghelizane and is subject to considerable water loss. It has never been filled to capacity, and is now threatened by leakages that are clearly evolving over time. This article extends our earlier studies of the dam. Our work has estimated total average losses of 25 million m 3 /year for the period 1988-2015, made up of leakage (0.3 million m 3 /year) and evaporation (18 million m 3 /year), while dead storage accounts for 4.6 million m 3 /year. However, total losses for 2004 were estimated at 113.9 million m 3 , which increased to the alarming value of 166.8 million m 3 in 2015. We analyze variation in leakage as a function of the reservoir level, and quantify losses due to leaks, sedimentation and evaporation.
The hydrology of Morocco is characterized by a significant spatial variability. Precipitation follows a sharp gradient decreasing from the North to the South. In order to redistribute water, a project is proposed to transfer 860 million m³ per year from the wet north to the arid southern regions, {Water Highway}. The present study aims to address the viability of the project including the effects of climate change in the watersheds located in the North. We perform Regional Climate Model (RCMs) simulations over the study region using boundary conditions from five different global circulation models (GCMs) and following two emissions scenarios RCP4.5 (with mitigation) and RCP8.5 (business as usual). The impact on precipitation is assessed and the decrease of available water quantity is estimated. Under RCP8.5 the project is likely unfeasible. However, under the RCP4.5 a rescaled version of this project may be feasible depending on how much water is allocated to satisfy the local water demand.
The last 60 years has seen unprecedented groundwater extraction and overdraft as well as development of new technologies for water treatment that together drive the advance in intentional groundwater replenishment known as managed aquifer recharge (MAR). This paper is the first known attempt to quantify the volume of MAR at global scale, and to illustrate the advancement of all the major types of MAR and relate these to research and regulatory advancements. Faced with changing climate and rising intensity of climate extremes, MAR is an increasingly important water management strategy, alongside demand management, to maintain, enhance and secure stressed groundwater systems and to protect and improve water quality. During this time, scientific research—on hydraulic design of facilities, tracer studies, managing clogging, recovery efficiency and water quality changes in aquifers—has underpinned practical improvements in MAR and has had broader benefits in hydrogeology. Recharge wells have greatly accelerated recharge, particularly in urban areas and for mine water management. In recent years, research into governance, operating practices, reliability, economics, risk assessment and public acceptance of MAR has been undertaken. Since the 1960s, implementation of MAR has accelerated at a rate of 5%/year, but is not keeping pace with increasing groundwater extraction. Currently, MAR has reached an estimated 10 km³/year, ~2.4% of groundwater extraction in countries reporting MAR (or ~1.0% of global groundwater extraction). MAR is likely to exceed 10% of global extraction, based on experience where MAR is more advanced, to sustain quantity, reliability and quality of water supplies.
The Triffa plain covering about 307 km² is located in the semi-arid region of northeastern Morocco. The cover consists of Quaternary and Mio-Pliocene formations, including alluvial material, silt, sandstone, limestone, clay, and marl, underlain by a sequence of Jurassic carbonates and clastics. Two principal aquifers occur in this region: (1) an unconfined aquifer hosted by the Quaternary formations, which opens up on the coastal plain
of Saïdia, giving rise to the Aïn Chebbak and Aïn Zebda springs; and (2) a confined aquifer hosted by the underlying Liassic (Jurassic) formations, composed of limestone and dolostone.
In this paper, we present a conceptual hydrogeological model for the Triffa aquifer, which opens laterally into the Saïdia aquifer, based on borehole data, bedrock geology, hydrodynamic parameters, piezometric maps, and time-series groundwater level and precipitation data, obtained from several meteorological stations and pumping wells. These comprehensive data were incorporated in the Geographic Information System (GIS) platform and processed using groundwater modeling software, with the development of the numerical model and its limitations discussed in detail in the present work. Subsequently, we evaluated the impact of climate change on the Triffa aquifer, assuming three different climate scenarios developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). These were the B1 - low, A1B - mean, and A1F1 – extreme scenarios, which we modeled by simulating a decrease in the recharge in all of the study area up to year 2099 that would correspond to 9, 19, and 47%, respectively. The calibration of the model in steady and transient states produced a good agreement between the observed and simulated heads. The simulation of the impact of climate change on groundwater by a decrease in the recharge highlights the groundwater drawdown occurring in this region. This work can significantly help the authorities in the sustainable management and exploitation of local groundwater.
Two contrasting views prevail on groundwater use in situations of predominantly state-‐led irrigation development. The first considers 'groundwater as liberation', i.e., how, by capturing the irrigation initiative, farmers liberated themselves from 'state' water, enabling more intensive and productive agriculture. The second view – 'groundwater as anarchy'-‐ considers groundwater as a declining resource, overexploited by millions of individualistic farmers in the absence of effective groundwater governance with mounting inequalities in groundwater use. We analyse the Janus nature of groundwater in the expanding groundwater economy in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Groundwater redesigned irrigation frontiers, and caters to over 60% of the total irrigated area, supplying more than 500,000 farms with irrigation water. However, more than half of the aquifers are overexploited, and typically only 40-‐50% of farmers in a given area access groundwater. We conclude that groundwater use in North Africa cannot be qualified as anarchy, but rather as a negotiated disorder where the interests of farmers, the private sector, and the state, are continuously realigned. Groundwater 'liberated' farmers only partially from 'state' water, as the state remained present in groundwater economies. Moreover, groundwater concerned a minority of farmers, who are often keen to get state support when facing resource depletion or harsh agricultural markets. Breaking the current conundrum will require creating space for change, by making visible the current and future effects of groundwater dynamics to local actors, and supporting the building of coalitions of actors towards a sustainable agricultural use of groundwater.
This chapter examines the nature of trade and security links among the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) countries, Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. Since the beginning of the Arab Spring in late 2010, this region has undergone significant political and economic changes, among them, facing new forms of terrorism and violent religious fundamentalism.
In this work, the salinization mechanisms were highlighted in the coastal area between Sidi Abed and Ouled Ghanem (El Jadida Province, Morocco). This study was based on analyzing and discussing the physicochemical data of water samples from 73 wells distributed in the whole studied region. Firstly, the results of the principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) showed that the study area is composed of three main groups. This classification is firstly based on the proximity of the wells to the seawater. In fact, it was found that the first and second groups of wells which are located in the coastal fringe are characterized by high concentration of sodium and chloride and EC values whereas lower values are found in the third group that is located in upstream. Moreover, the results also showed the influence of the hydrogeological characteristics of the area where the wells are located on the composition of the water samples. The evaluation of the hydrochemical facies using Piper trilinear diagram have also confirmed these results and showed the probable contribution of seawater intrusion in the modification of wells composition by ion exchange process and by increasing the concentration of sodium and chloride. Then, the groundwater quality were assessed using Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) and sodium percentage (Na %) parameters. In order to define the salinization processes occurring in the aquifer, the binary diagrams between chloride and the other elements were plotted. It was found that the groundwater is contaminated by seawater intrusion which is accompanied by ions exchange depending on the hydrogeological characteristics of the area.
The Maghreb region covers an area of 5 countries (Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) with different water situations.
Each country has individual water resources characteristics and water management history. Nevertheless, three of them, namely
Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, share a number of similarities that constitute a good basis for a generalisation using Morocco
as a case study as in this paper. Indeed, water scarcity is becoming a serious challenge affecting development in these countries.
Population growth and urbanisation, industrialisation and tourism, decreasing precipitation and higher frequency of droughts
increase the pressure on the resources. Present water use patterns and withdrawals are not sustainable. Thus, the three countries
have no choice. They must make a decisive break from past policies and management practices to embrace a holistic water sector
approach that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable.