For natural language understanding (NLU) technology to be maximally useful, both practically and as a scientific object of study, it must be general: it must be able to process language in a way that is not exclusively tailored to any one specific task or dataset. In pursuit of this objective, we introduce the General Language Understanding Evaluation benchmark (GLUE), a tool for evaluating and analyzing the performance of models across a diverse range of existing NLU tasks. GLUE is model-agnostic, but it incentivizes sharing knowledge across tasks because certain tasks have very limited training data. We further provide a hand-crafted diagnostic test suite that enables detailed linguistic analysis of NLU models. We evaluate baselines based on current methods for multi-task and transfer learning and find that they do not immediately give substantial improvements over the aggregate performance of training a separate model per task, indicating room for improvement in developing general and robust NLU systems.
BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding
J Devlin
M.-W Chang
K Lee
K Toutanova
CommonsenseQA: A Question Answering Challenge Targeting Commonsense Knowledge
A Talmor
J Herzig
N Lourie
J Berant
SuperGLUE: A Stickier Benchmark for General-Purpose Language Understanding Systems