ArticlePDF Available

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rangers and the role of rangers as a planetary health service

Authors:
  • The University of Northern Virginia
  • Conservation Outcomes / International Ranger Federation

Abstract and Figures

Rangers play an indispensable role in maintaining balance between people and the natural world by protecting and managing protected and conserved areas. Despite occupying this key role, rangers are facing many challenges across organisational, occupational and personal fronts that hinder the delivery of their duties. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated these challenges and made the fight against the illegal killing of wildlife, illegal logging, illegal harvesting of non-timber forest products, encroachment, and other environmental crimes in protected and conserved areas even more difficult. 915 survey responses were generated from individual rangers from 60 countries in order to understand how they perceived the impact of COVID-19 on rangers and their work in protecting and conserving protected areas around the world. The findings indicate that different aspects of ranger work have been negatively impacted due to the pandemic and the associated actions of authorities and illegal actors. The study also reveals differing regional perceptions of the impact of the pandemic on protected and conserved areas and ranger work. The results of the survey, which provide useful insights into the challenges facing rangers during the current global crisis and indicate where actions may be required to mitigate an impending loss of biodiversity, are used to support four recommendations in the paper. © 2021, IUCN - International Union for the Conservation of Nature. All rights reserved.
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IMPACT OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON
RANGERS AND THE ROLE OF RANGERS AS A
PLANETARY HEALTH SERVICE
Rohit Singh1*, Chris Galliers2, William Moreto3, James Slade4, Barney Long4,
Hamera Aisha5, Andrew Wright6, Falon Cartwright7, Atul Deokar8, Alexander
Wyatt9, Deepali Deokar10, Rungnapa Phoonjampa11, Eddie Smallwood12,
Rizwana Aziz13, Amon Koutoua Benoit14, Renata Cao15, Sean Willmore16,
Deepani Jayantha17 and Sonali Ghosh18
* Corresponding author: rsingh@wwfnet.org
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ABSTRACT
Rangers play an indispensable role in maintaining balance between people and the natural world by protecting and
managing protected and conserved areas. Despite occupying this key role, rangers are facing many challenges across
organisational, occupational and personal fronts that hinder the delivery of their duties. The COVID-19 pandemic
has exacerbated these challenges and made the fight against the illegal killing of wildlife, illegal logging, illegal
harvesting of non-timber forest products, encroachment, and other environmental crimes in protected and
conserved areas even more difficult. 915 survey responses were generated from individual rangers from 60 countries
in order to understand how they perceived the impact of COVID-19 on rangers and their work in protecting and
conserving protected areas around the world. The findings indicate that different aspects of ranger work have been
negatively impacted due to the pandemic and the associated actions of authorities and illegal actors. The study also
reveals differing regional perceptions of the impact of the pandemic on protected and conserved areas and ranger
work. The results of the survey, which provide useful insights into the challenges facing rangers during the current
global crisis and indicate where actions may be required to mitigate an impending loss of biodiversity, are used to
support four recommendations in the paper.
Key words: conservation areas, community, pandemic, protected areas, survey, rangers
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INTRODUCTION
The COVID-19 pandemic is an example of the health
repercussions that can result from imbalance between
humans and nature caused by excessive exploitation
(Thompson, 2013; Magouras et al., 2020). The driving
forces behind outbreaks of this and similar zoonotic
diseases are: destruction of, and encroachment into,
wildlife habitats (Bloomfield et al., 2020; Gibb et al.,
2020; Plowright et al., 2017; Loh et al., 2015; Butler,
2008; Goldberg et al., 2008; Ferreira et al., 2021 illegal
wildlife trade (Aguirre et al., 2020); and consumption of
wildlife meat sold in unregulated markets (Hockings et
al., 2020; UNODC, 2020; UNEP & ILRI, 2020; Bisson
et al., 2015).
Rangers fulfil an indispensable role in maintaining the
delicate balance between humans and nature by
protecting and managing natural resources, moderating
human interaction with nature and providing the
primary deterrence to illegal activities within protected
and conserved areas (PCAs) (Rowcliffe et al., 2004;
Tranquilli et al., 2014). Their role in mitigating the risks
of zoonotic disease spill-over may therefore be
considerable (Bergen, 2020). Previous research has
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shown the organisational, occupational and personal
challenges that rangers face in discharging their duties
(Belecky et al., 2019; Moreto et al., 2019; Singh et al.,
2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the
struggle of rangers against the illegal killing of wildlife,
illegal logging, unpermitted harvesting of non-timber
forest products (NTFPs), encroachment and other
environmental degradation in PCAs (Hockings et al.,
2020; Waithaka, 2020; World Bank, 2020). In many
parts of Asia, Africa and South America, there are
reports that deforestation has increased during the
pandemic (Fair, 2020), including a 77 per cent increase
in global forest loss alerts recorded by Global Land
Analysis and Discovery (GLAD) compared to the
average from 2017-2019 (WWF, 2020).
In some countries, ranger services are considered to be
essential or enabling services and rangers have
therefore been expected to continue working unchanged
throughout the pandemic; elsewhere, their activities
have been sharply reduced because of staff cuts, re-
appropriation of operational budgets, limited access to
health care equipment and re-allocation to other duties
to control the spread of the disease. In some cases,
patrols and similar services have been withdrawn
because community support is no longer available (FFI,
2020). With increased workloads and reduced
resources, rangers are even less able to address the
threats facing PCAs (Bergen, 2020; Hockings et al.,
2020).
Rangers, occupying this role as a planetary health
service, are crucial in the implementation of the ‘One
Health’ approach, a collaborative effort of multiple
health and science professions, together with their
related disciplines and institutions – working locally,
nationally and globally – to attain optimal health for
people, domestic animals, wildlife, plants and our
environment (Mackenzie & Jeggo, 2019). Given the
importance of rangers in safeguarding PCAs, reducing
the exploitation of wildlife and helping to maintain a
healthy planet, and noting the high possibility of future
pandemics, it is essential to understand the impacts of
the COVID-19 pandemic on them. The purpose of this
paper, the first of its kind, is to throw light on what the
COVID-19 pandemic has meant for rangers and their
day-to-day work through a global survey. We also
provide case studies from two countries to show the
impact of the pandemic at the site level. The paper
provides broad recommendations and flags concerns
that may arise in the future.
METHODS
Two primary data sources were used for this paper: a) a
global survey; and b) case studies from independent
surveys conducted in Pakistan and India.
Global Survey
This global survey was undertaken by World Wide Fund
for Nature (WWF), Global Wildlife Conservation
(GWC), International Ranger Federation (IRF) and the
University of Florida1. The online survey consisted
mainly of close-ended questions aimed at understanding
the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the ranger
workforce. It explicitly targeted rangers, defined as a
“person involved in the practical protection and
preservation of all aspects of wild areas, historical and
cultural sites” (IRF, 2019). The survey was developed in
English and translated into Spanish and French. The
Spanish and French translations were verified by a third
party. It contained 52 questions, grouped into seven
areas.
Data were gathered between August and September
2020 using the online survey application ‘Qualtrics’. The
survey was shared through Facebook, Twitter and
WhatsApp; and through emails to regional and national
ranger associations, and conservation organisations that
support rangers. It was also emailed to over 500
individual rangers that participated in the 9th World
Ranger Congress (2019). 1,200 surveys were returned.
After removing incomplete surveys from the data, 915
completed surveys were used for the present study
(Figure 1).
Limitations
This global study is not without limitations. Many
rangers do not possess the skills, equipment and
connectivity necessary to complete an online survey.
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Though it was delivered in three major languages
(English, Spanish and French), not all rangers are fluent
in one of these languages. While the case studies
provide greater detail on how aspects of ranger work
have been affected, they need further evaluation to
justify broad conclusions. Some of the initiatives or
programmes that may have or are currently being
affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, such as budget
cuts, may not have been fully implemented at the time
of the survey, and therefore may not be captured. The
impact of mass migration and unemployment is yet to
be fully felt in protected and conserved areas.
So, while the study provides a snapshot of the current
global situation, it cannot be used to draw conclusions
at national levels. Moreover, because the varied sample
sizes in different geographic regions may have biased
the results, or not be statistically significant, any
extrapolation to the regional level – which has been
done at some points in discussing the global survey
results below – should be interpreted with caution.
Case Study: Pakistan
A case study from Pakistan, also conducted in May and
June 2020 before the online survey, aimed to provide
information separate to that of the primary survey. It
utilised a questionnaire which was designed to
establish: (1) rangers’ involvement in additional tasks
besides their designated jobs, such as relief support and
maintaining law and order; and (2) support- or relief-
related initiatives that rangers have undertaken in their
individual capacities, such as donations and relief
provision for nearby local communities. The survey,
which was conducted in the local language (Urdu), was
delivered to 157 rangers from 33 protected areas of all
kinds across the country. The questionnaire was
delivered through emails to individual rangers where
possible, and email groups, Facebook and other social
media-based wildlife and environmental groups of
Pakistan. Responses were also captured via direct phone
calls by the survey team; interviewees were informed of
the purpose of the interview and their verbal consent
obtained.
Case Study: India
A separate and independent case study was conducted
in India to capture the responses of family members of
rangers who were posted at outposts during the
pandemic. This used four open-ended questions: What
concerns do you have about your husband/wife/son/
daughter who is based in the forest during the COVID-
19 pandemic? What challenges are you facing in the
absence of your husband/wife/son/daughter during the
COVID-19 pandemic? How do you feel about the steps
taken by the government to protect rangers and their
families during the COVID-19 pandemic? What do you
think the government/NGOs/public can do to help
rangers and their families during the COVID-19
pandemic? Fifty-two interviews were conducted in 34
protected areas in 18 states of India in September 2020,
using telephone enquiries in Marathi, Hindi or English.
The surveyor was briefed on the purpose and interview
protocols before the administration of the survey. Before
each interview, the surveyor explained the purpose of
Figure 1. The countries where surveys were conducted with number of responses for each country2
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the interview and sought the verbal consent of
respondents.
RESULTS FROM THE GLOBAL SURVEY
Response rates: Responses were received from 62
countries with the USA having the most responses
(Figure 1).
Demographic information: Of those respondents who
indicated a gender, 79 per cent were male and 21 per
cent female. The age of respondents was between 19 and
74 years-old, with ranger experience ranging from one
to 40 years. The online survey was designed to target
only rangers, with the very first question asking the
respondent, “Are you a ranger or not?” If not, then the
respondent was prevented from progressing with the
survey. Therefore, 100 per cent of the responses are
from rangers.
Locational information: Some 28 per cent of rangers
were living and working at a remote outpost with no
access to medical help during the time of the survey.
More than half those in South America said they are
based in a remote location, followed by Asia (40.5 per
cent), Africa (38.6 per cent), Central America and
Caribbean (26.9 per cent) and Europe (12.2 per cent).
Very few reported being located remotely in North
America and Australia / Oceania.
Threats to protected and conserved areas: While it is
generally believed that threats and pressures to PCAs
have increased due to the COVID-19 pandemic,
respondents provided mixed responses to this question
(Figure 2). Most respondents believed that the threat
that had grown most was ‘other pressures’, for example
the collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)
and grazing: more than 58 per cent agreed that this had
increased in their country of operation.
Sharp geographical variations were revealed by the data.
For example, while more than half of respondents from
South America, Africa, and Central America and
Caribbean ‘strongly agreed’ or ‘agreed’ that subsistence
and commercial hunting had increased (Table 1), fewer
than 20 per cent of North American and European
respondents accepted that proposition. Similar contrasts
were shown in respect of illegal logging and
encroachment, and other pressures. There is a stark
contrast again between South America and other regions
in respect of perceptions of increased rates of logging
and encroachment. This reflects the different threats
faced by different regions and the need for further
research to understand the drivers of those threats.
Impact on protected and conserved area management
activities: Key protected area conservation activities
across all regions have been affected by the COVID-19
Figure 2. Responses to the ques0on: “Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in your country, what threats have
increased in your protected and conserved areas?”
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pandemic (Figure 3). Community engagement activities
were often the most affected. Pandemic control
measures have affected community outreach, awareness
and community conservation activities. The fear among
most rangers of contracting COVID-19 when interacting
with members of the local community and visitors, has
affected their work in community engagement.
Lockdowns and movement control orders may have also
had this effect. Many law enforcement activities may
have been negatively impacted, with reductions in
essential operation supplies needed for daily patrols, as
well as the closure of courts. Wildlife monitoring is
identified as the least impacted activity (Figure 3). This
may be because there is seasonal variation in wildlife
monitoring activities or because such monitoring is
most often done in remote areas free of contact with non
-rangers. It is also possible that respondents overlooked
basic wildlife monitoring undertaken on regular patrols
during the pandemic. Many rangers were re-assigned to
other tasks related to addressing the pandemic. The
additional tasks included:
Conducting international border patrols to control
the spread;
Delivering essential goods (e.g. rations) to
communities and vulnerable groups;
Enforcement of social distancing and use of masks
among park visitors and communities around the
Region
Subsistence
Hunting
Commercial
Hunting
Illegal
Logging
Encroachment
Other Pressure (e.g.
NTFP collection and
grazing)
South America 70.5% 60.0% 79.1% 80.0% 79.1%
North America 17.9% 11.5% 9.0% 39.1% 50.0%
Asia 48.1% 38.5% 47.3% 31.6% 60.8%
Africa 76.3% 68.9% 57.2% 50.7% 70.2%
Europe 8.2% 15.7% 15.7% 18.7% 41.8%
Australia & Oceania 16.3% 21.8% 49.1% 45.5% 56.4%
Central America and
Caribbean
56.0% 64.0% 44.0% 36.0% 52.0%
Table 1. Percentage of rangers by region that ‘Strongly agreed’ and ‘Agreed’ with the statement: “Since the start of
the COVID-19 pandemic in your country, [threat/pressure] has increased.”
Figure 3. Responses to the statement: “COVID-19 has nega0vely impacted the daily opera0ons of protected/
conserva0on area”
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park;
Enforcement of social distancing and gathering rules
Supporting homeless populations;
Creating awareness (e.g. posting signs, educating the
public) among the communities;
National disaster service assignments (e.g.
enforcement of public health orders);
Filling in on other labour/tasks due to lack of
seasonal staff;
Providing emergency medical assistance;
Supporting authorities in track and tracing;
Undertaking more frequent decontamination of
public use areas in the park;
Increasing patrols to ensure social distancing and
use of face masks; and
Distributing health kits (e.g. masks, sanitisers) to
local communities.
Staffing and budgets: When asked whether the COVID-
19 pandemic had affected staffing and budgets, nearly a
third of all rangers ‘strongly agreed’ that budget cuts
due to COVID-19 had negatively affected their day-to-
day work (e.g. less fuel and rations). This includes
impacts on community engagement (over 75 per cent),
law enforcement activities (over 60 per cent) and
human–wildlife conflict management activities (nearly
60 per cent). Less than ten per cent of rangers from
Australia / Oceania and Europe reported budget cuts; in
Africa, more than half of all rangers did so.
In addition to the operational work, more than half of
the rangers reported that their personal life has been
impacted due to the budget cuts which led to salary
delays, reductions in pay and subsequent impacts on
living conditions. More than one in four rangers said
that their salary has been reduced or delayed and nearly
20 per cent of rangers reported that colleagues had been
laid off from their jobs due to COVID-19 related budget
cuts. More than a third of all rangers in Central America
and Caribbean countries reported being laid off, closely
followed by South America and Africa. In Asia, the
figure was one in five and in Europe less that one in ten.
Respondents whose salaries had been reduced were
asked to describe the reduction. Nearly a quarter
(n=150) reported reductions in ranger salaries and some
rangers (n=32) reported reduced allowances and
benefits; however, some of these reductions were
temporary and may last only for a few months.
Many conservation sites, particularly in developing
countries, depend on income provided by tourism and
donations from conservation organisations. We
enquired as to whether study participants believed that
tourism positively contributed to PCA management and
almost three-quarters of respondents agreed that it did.
When asked whether tourism had been negatively
impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, nearly 85 per cent
of rangers agreed (Figure 4). Most also reported the
negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other
revenue sources such as donations (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Responses to the statement: “In your opinion, tourism has been nega0vely impacted by COVID-19”
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Occupational welfare: To better understand the
organisational elements that may have been impacted
by the COVID-19 pandemic, we examined responses
related to occupational welfare. The overwhelming
majority believed they received adequate information
about COVID-19 from their employers, governments or
other organisations as well as adequate supplies of
sanitation and hygiene equipment, such as clean water,
soap, face masks. However, regional differences were
recorded as highlighted in Figure 5.
Five ranger casualties due to COVID-19 have been
recorded from the outset of the outbreak to 30 June
2020 (IRF, 2020). More than one in four rangers said
they do not have access to adequate insurance to cover
the treatment of COVID-19. Africa was the region with
the lowest coverage and North America reported the
highest. Given the results of recent research (Belecky et
al., 2019; Long et al., 2016), the low level of coverage in
Africa and Asia is unsurprising (Figure 6).
Two-thirds of all rangers expressed concern about their
financial well-being. This was most marked in the less
wealthy regions of Africa, Asia and South America,
where more than four out of five respondents were
concerned about their financial well-being. This was a
matter of less concern in the economically wealthier
regions. However, more than three-quarters of all
respondents felt that they were being supported by their
organisations or employers during the pandemic.
Figure 5. Responses to the ques0on “Do you have access to adequate sanita0on and hygiene equipment (e.g. clean
water, soap, face masks) that is useful in preven0ng the spread of COVID-19?”
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5
Rangers’ personal lives appeared to have been impacted
by the COVID-19 pandemic across all regions, with
almost half of them agreeing that they were spending
less time with their families as a result. More than 85
per cent were worried about family members
contracting COVID-19 while they were away on duty.
Respondents were also concerned about COVID-19
during their daily operations: more than 70 per cent of
rangers reported being worried about contracting the
virus during patrol and more than 80 per cent were
concerned about contracting COVID-19 when they
encountered suspects. Nearly 40 per cent of rangers
were also worried about potentially transmitting COVID
-19 to wildlife that they encountered during their work.
Two-thirds of rangers had access to a COVID-19 test if
needed. But, whilst more than three-quarters said that
they did not have to pay for testing, access varied region
by region: half of those in Africa, two-thirds of those in
Asia but barely 30 per cent of those in South America
were able to be tested.
The role of rangers in controlling COVID-19: When
asked, “Do you believe that rangers have a role in
controlling COVID-19?”, four out of five respondents
agreed. Ranger roles that were nominated by
respondents included:
1. environmental conservation that reduces risk of
zoonotic disease spillover;
2. awareness and education in relation to health
guidelines (masks, social distancing etc) for:
a. local communities
b. visitors
3. support for others provided by:
a. building visitor confidence to revive tourism
b. providing food for remote and vulnerable
communities
c. assisting other agencies to protect provincial
and international borders
4. providing access to natural areas to support mental
and physical well-being
Those who do not believe that they have such a role in
controlling COVID-19 considered that their primary role
is nature protection, not health response because:
1. they do not have the right expertise, skills and legal
mandate to be a respondent to health crisis;
2. their workload has significantly increased (e.g. in the
USA huge influx in visitor numbers) and they do not
have the time to take on additional duties;
3. Indigenous rangers have to stay away from any
health risk to ensure that they do not take the virus
back to their Indigenous communities;
4. rangers do not contact the public sufficiently to play
a role in controlling the spread of the virus; and
5. involvement in such work should be voluntary and
not mandated by managers.
There was, though, some variation between regions: the
overwhelming majority of African rangers believed that
they did not have any direct role in controlling the
spread of COVID-19, whereas little more than half the
European rangers took that view. This shows the pivotal
Figure 6. Responses to the ques0on “Do you have access to adequate medical insurance that helps cover poten0al
treatment for COVID-19?”
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 C/*+
need for clarity and understanding about the role of
rangers, not only among the general public but also
among rangers themselves.
Impact on ranger–community relationship: Half the
respondents believed that the PCA authority they
worked for had conducted sufficient awareness and
education programmes about COVID-19 for local
communities. However, nearly 90 per cent reported an
impact on community engagement activities due to the
COVID-19 pandemic. Lockdowns, movement control
orders and fear of spreading COVID-19 may have been
the reason behind the impact on community
engagement activities. A quarter of all rangers
interviewed have mentioned that their park authorities
have shared their rations with local communities during
the COVID-19 pandemic; in Asia more than a third have
done this (Figure 7). Many also mentioned that they
have done this in their personal capacity too.
RESULTS FROM THE CASE STUDIES
Pakistan
Supporting other agencies: 58 of the 157 rangers
interviewed were partially or fully assigned with
additional duties to support other government
departments. These included helping to implement
lockdown measures (e.g. preventing public gatherings,
prohibiting the public from entering protected and
conserved areas) and raising awareness regarding
COVID-19 related measures.
Supporting communities: Officially no tasks were
assigned to rangers regarding community support.
However, rangers have been doing so in a professional
and personal capacity. 118 rangers provided a portion of
their salary to COVID-19 relief efforts. 125 rangers said
they also helped communities by providing food, 44
helped arrange access to doctors or health care facilities
during lockdown periods and 3 taught children in local
communities.
India
Out of 52 respondents, 39 were female and 13 were
male. When rangers were required to be absent during
the COVID-19 pandemic, their family members faced
challenges in procuring food, medical equipment and
other daily needs. Two-thirds of female rangers found
their work-life balance very challenging during the
pandemic. 45 of the families surveyed were concerned
about rangers contracting COVID-19 in the field and
about the lack of medical support available there. Three-
quarters of rangers interviewed said they received their
salaries on time and were positive about the steps their
respective departments were taking to support them
during these challenging times. 49 of the 52 families
were content that their rangers should spend more time
in the field helping to control the spread of the virus.
DISCUSSION
COVID-19 has had an unprecedented impact on human
health, society and the global economy, so a priority is to
Figure 7. Responses to the statement: “Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, the conserva0on/protected area
authority has sufficiently shared ra0ons with the local communi0es.”
4
understand how this and other zoonotic diseases came
into being and how to prevent future zoonotic spill-over
events. This pandemic is believed to have arisen from
the consumption or handling of wildlife meat from an
unregulated market (Bisson et al., 2015; Hockings et al.,
2020). While this may never be fully verified, similar
disease outbreaks have been linked to the destruction of
nature, especially encroachment into wild areas
(Brancalion et al., 2020; Gibb et al., 2020; Goldberg et
al., 2008). Therefore, a priority is to establish
preventative measures such as the protection of wildlife
habitats and the reduction of unregulated and illegal
exploitation of wildlife. The most effective means of
habitat protection is the establishment of protected and
conserved areas and other effective area-based
conservation measures. 15.4 per cent of terrestrial areas
and 3.4 per cent of global ocean area is under some
formal protective status (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN,
2016). The key to maintaining their value and reducing
the exploitation of nature is effective management,
enforcement of regulations and building strong
community relations. These actions all rely heavily on
rangers, who are on the frontline, protecting nature
from many threats notably illegal logging, land
clearing (Sodhi et al., 2004; Wilcove et al., 2013),
hunting and the illegal wildlife trade (Gray et al., 2017;
Harrison et al., 2016). By performing this vital task,
rangers are, in turn, helping to reduce the likelihood of
future pandemics of zoonotic origin (Bergen, 2020),
thus delivering a planetary health service.
The results from this study suggest that a significant
proportion of rangers believe the current pandemic is
exacerbating threats to PCAs and negatively impacting
on them and their work, which was already fraught with
various organisational, occupational and personal
challenges before the pandemic (Belecky et al., 2019;
Singh et al., 2020). On a personal level, rangers are
already burdened with long working hours and job
requirements that keep them away from their families
for significant periods of time. Other studies on rangers
from Asia, Africa and Latin America, for example,
reported that they already work an average of 105.7
hours per week and more than a quarter (26.5 per cent)
of rangers spend less than five days a month with their
families (Belecky et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2020). On top
of this, our survey found that half of all respondents
reported that the pandemic is causing them to spend
less time with their families, and is causing the added
stress of employment and financial uncertainty. All of
these factors put the welfare of rangers at risk.
The perceived increase in threats to PCAs in some
regions, particularly in South America, is in line with
other research that suggests that the pandemic has
resulted in more illegal killing of wildlife, logging and
other environmental crimes (Badola, 2020; Waithaka,
2020; World Bank, 2020). However, our data indicate
strong regional differences in rangers’ perceptions, with
many disagreeing that threats have increased during
this period. While previous reports have uncovered an
increase in logging and poaching (Hockings et al., 2020;
Waithaka, 2020; World Bank, 2020), the highest
perceived threat by rangers globally was NTFP
collection, grazing and other similar pressure – although
this was the only type of threat increase that was not
corroborated by most South American rangers.
An increase in NTFP collection and grazing was
reported by most rangers in North America, Asia, Africa,
Australia and Oceania. This can be a significant issue in
some PCAs with varied impacts on different taxa
(Broder et al., 2019; Soofi et al., 2018). However, this
threat is often considered less serious than illegal
logging and poaching, which can rapidly impact wildlife
populations (Sodhi et al., 2004; Wilcove et al., 2013).
The perception that NTFP collection and grazing are the
greatest threats may be a result of the high number of
responses from rangers in the USA and Asia, where
grazing or land use intensification (Hanberry & Abrams,
2018), and NTFP reliance (Das, 2005), are respectively
common issues impacting PCAs. Despite this, the
regions with the highest proportions of rangers
reporting threat increases were South America and
Africa, where the primary threats identified by rangers
were illegal logging, encroachment and subsistence
hunting – the latter more strongly reported by African
rangers. These results are not surprising, given the
existing reports of illegal logging and encroachment in
South America (Brancalion et al., 2020; Escobar, 2020;
Silva-Araújo et al., 2020) and the often poorly resourced
or understaffed ranger forces in both regions. The high
proportion of rangers in South America reporting an
increase in encroachment (80 per cent) and the existing
reports of deforestation in the region should provide
renewed concern for the forests of South America. The
strong link between the pandemic and increased
hunting reported by African rangers is also concerning:
even though the region has been the site of various
zoonoses in recent decades (Marcotty et al., 2009;
Asante et al., 2019), this does not seem to be deterring
wildlife consumption, indeed it may even have
increased. Interestingly, the responses from Asia, which
has been the source of notable recent zoonoses,
indicated that the pandemic had not led to more
hunting, however, the threat posed by poaching and
wildlife consumption is well documented in the region
(Sodhi et al., 2004; Wilcove et al., 2013).
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 C/*+
The negative impact on PCAs may be due to
deteriorating socio-economic conditions around PCAs.
The long-term economic and environmental
consequences of pandemic-related changes increased
poverty, displacement of populations, undermining of
protection from risks such as unemployment and
exclusion are unclear and will require continued
attention (UNDP, 2020). Reduced ranger services may
also have played a part as more than half of rangers
reported that they had been assigned to additional
tasks, many of which were unrelated to their regular
duties.
The social and economic fallout resulting from the
pandemic has led to budget cuts for PCAs, which affect
their ability to operate effectively and impact on the
rangers as individuals. More than half of rangers
reported adverse effects on their personal lives: a
quarter reported salary reductions and payment delays;
20 per cent reported losing their jobs as a direct result
of the pandemic. This loss of salary and staff will put
further pressure on an already overstretched and
underpaid workforce (Belecky et al., 2019) with
negative impacts on PCAs which are already operating
below the level required for effective protection
(Leverington et al., 2010). The current situation also
affects ranger welfare, directly through job losses and in
other ways. Recent research has shown that rangers
around the world often lack adequate health insurance
(Belecky et al., 2019) and with the risk of disease
transmission this concern is heightened. 27.9 per cent
of rangers reported a lack of insurance coverage should
they contract COVID-19 and previous research
indicated that half of all rangers have no access to
medical facilities (Belecky et al., 2019). 82.5 per cent of
survey respondents indicated a fear of contracting
COVID-19 at work. Rangers who continue to deliver
their duties in the field could be at significant risk.
While most rangers were fearful of contracting COVID-
19 while on patrol or encountering suspects, most
believed that they have a role in controlling its spread.
However, strong regional differences were reported
which provide some insights as to the differing
perceptions of rangers about their roles. Nearly all
North American rangers felt they had a role to play,
while practically none of the rangers from Africa felt
they had a direct role in controlling the spread of the
virus. There are clearly great differences in how the
importance of rangers’ work is perceived in each region.
This could be a result of the way that rangers’ work
differs in different regions or it could demonstrate that
many rangers themselves are unaware of the full
potential of their role.
The survey results have provided some concerning
results, most notably perhaps the impact on activities
relating to community engagement. This could further
complicate the already problematic relationship
between communities and protected and conserved
areas (Anaya & Espirto-Santo, 2018), and between
rangers and local communities (UN OHCHR, 2010).
Given the increased rate of global unemployment
(Bluestein et al., 2020), financial hardship (Nicola et al.,
2020), internal migration (Dandekar & Ghai, 2020) and
reliance on wildlife for subsistence (McNamara et al.,
2020), a positive and mutually supportive relationship
between PCA authorities and communities is more
important than ever.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Rangers are among those on the frontline in managing
and protecting biodiversity, along with many other
stakeholders, but especially Indigenous peoples and
local communities. Despite the critical role that rangers
play in conservation, their work is often under-
recognised and under-resourced; they are often poorly
trained and equipped to address the threats facing the
world’s biodiversity.
The COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted the
critical role that rangers should play in preventing
disease by maintaining the balance between nature and
humans – in effect acting as front-line health service
workers on behalf of the planet. At the same time, it has
revealed that many of them have been serving their local
communities at this moment of crisis. However, the
COVID-19 pandemic has also made their job more
difficult. The surveys have provided insights into the
challenges that rangers are facing during the pandemic
and their role in alleviating its impacts.
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In light of our analysis, we suggest the following four
recommendations to address the critical needs of
rangers:
Raise the status of rangers: The unregulated harvest
and trade in wildlife, illegal logging, human
encroachment into wildlife habitat, unauthorised land
clearance and other environmental crimes that destroy
nature increasingly bring people into contact with
wildlife which in turn contributes to an increased risk of
zoonotic disease transmission. Through their work in
protecting biodiversity, rangers play an indispensable
role in limiting the likelihood that zoonotic diseases will
endanger people. In countries such as India, Bhutan,
Nepal and South Africa, rangers are already recognised
as an essential service, meaning that their critical work
continues despite lockdowns or other similar
restrictions. This is not the case in many other
countries, where ranger work is severely impacted
during national emergencies. Recognition of rangers as
an essential service by governments, to be set alongside
comparable public servants such as the police,
firefighters and medical health workers especially in
Asia, Africa and Latin America, will benefit biodiversity
conservation during the pandemic and help maintain
public health.
Professionalise the job of a ranger: Recognition of the
ranger profession as an essential service should lead to
greater investment in professionalising the ranger
sector, including through increased allocation of
government resources, improved recruitment processes,
better training opportunities when beginning service
and throughout the duration of service. In many
countries, the profession needs better career
opportunities, improved working conditions and
enhanced pay.
Put community relations at the heart of ranger
work: More than four out of five rangers in Asia, Africa
and Latin America believe that success in their jobs
depends on the help of local communities, which was
the aspect of ranger work most impacted by the
pandemic according to this survey. While much of this
may be due to a temporary reduction in contact between
rangers and communities, this relationship must
remain at the very top of the agenda for protected and
conserved areas. Furthermore, livelihoods of local
communities may have been so undermined by the
pandemic that they will become more dependent on
forest resources, leading to an increase of illegal
activities, which could damage the often already
precarious relationship between rangers and
communities. The role of rangers in supporting
communities and their livelihoods, by protecting the
resources that communities depend upon, needs to be
recognised. The current pandemic has demonstrated the
crucial interdependence of these two vital partners in
conservation, and consequently the mutually supportive
roles of community and conservation stakeholders in
the protection and management of PCAs.
Ensure sufficient resources on the ground: The
pandemic has highlighted the role of rangers as
planetary health workers and the crucial role they can
play in supporting vulnerable communities in remote
areas. Prevention of future pandemics is far less costly
than managing future ecosystem service losses (IPBES,
2020; Waldron, 2020), or the pandemics and the public
health crises they precipitate. In this light, the best
precaution against another pandemic is to invest in the
care of the natural environment so that it delivers stable
ecosystem services, climate change mitigation, jobs and
other benefits to society (OECD, 2020). Those making
this case to governments should include the resourcing
of rangers in terms of ranger numbers, training,
equipment and welfare – as a priority. Indeed, the three
recommendations above all call for more support to
rangers.
ENDNOTES
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9) ()  " ()   ! $( $!  () 7 !  " ()
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(( ( >+
SUPPPLEMENTARY ONLINE MATERIAL
Survey form – Impact of COVID-19 on ranger workforce
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The survey was only possible with support from the
many individuals and institutions that contributed to it.
We would specifically like to thank Southern African
Wildlife College, all regional chapters of the
International Ranger Federation, and national and
provincial ranger associations. We would also like to
thank the field teams of World Wide Fund for Nature
and Global Wildlife Conservation. Finally, we are also
highly indebted to all the rangers who participated in
the survey.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Rohit Singh has over 15 years’ experience in wildlife
law enforcement and anti-poaching. He currently leads
the Zero Poaching Initiative of WWF Wildlife Crime
Initiative.
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 C/*+
Chris Galliers is the current president of the
International Ranger Federation (IRF), having been on
the IRF committee since 2012.
William Moreto is an academic, working for the
University of Central Florida, with a background in
criminology and has studied rangers extensively across
Asia and Africa.
James Slade is Global Wildlife Conservation’s Wildlife
Crime Prevention Officer with over a decade of
experience in protected areas and anti-poaching.
Barney Long is the director of species conservation at
Global Wildlife Conservation, focusing on the
conservation and recovery of highly threatened
mammals.
Hamera Aisha is associated with WWF-Pakistan. She
has been working on wildlife conservation including
poaching and illegal wildlife for over 10 years in
Pakistan.
Andrew Wright is the Park Manager at Pickwick
Landing State Park in Tennessee in the United States
and North American Representative of the IRF.
Falon Cartwright is the Operations Manager for the
Bahamas National Trust with over a decade of
experience in national park management, grants and
project management, and strategic planning.
Atul Deokar is associated with Maharashtra Forest
Department, in the Government of India, as Assistant
Conservator of Forest, Pench Tiger Reserve. He worked
as General Secretary of the Forest Rangers Association
of Maharashtra
Alexander Wyatt is a conservation professional
contributing to WWF’s Wildlife Crime Initiative
supporting anti-poaching and ranger work primarily in
Asia.
Deepali Deokar is working for empowerment of
female staff of the forest department and also with the
locals through various activities in Maharashtra, India
Rungnapa Phoonjampa is the Wildlife Practice Lead
based in WWF-Thailand. Her interests are focused on
gibbon population and ecology. She is currently in
charge of tiger conservation in the Upper Western
Forest Complex, Thailand.
Eddie Smallwood is an Aboriginal and South Sea
Island man from the Townsville Region in Australia.
Rizwana Aziz is Assistant Director Wildlife at the
Punjab Wildlife and Parks Department in Pakistan.
During her 13 years’ experience, she has been involved
in various aspects of wildlife crime prevention.
Amon Koutoua Benoit is the Western Africa
Representative of the Game Rangers Association of
Africa and the Africa Representative of the IRF.
Renata Cao is a passionate conservationist with more
than 15 years of experience working with IPLC in Latin
American Protected Areas. Currently her work relates to
Latin American Wildlife.
Sean Willmore is a former Australian Park Ranger
and now founder and Managing Director of the Thin
Green Line Foundation, and the current President of the
IRF.
Deepani Jayantha is a veterinarian and a
conservationist from Sri Lanka, working closely with the
local department of wildlife conservation for more than
15 years.
Sonali Ghosh is a practising forester and formerly a
natural World Heritage site manager.
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9World Wide Fund for Nature Cambodia, 21, Street 322, BKK-1, Phnom Penh-2467, Cambodia
10Exploring Womanhood, Nagpur Maharashtra, India 440013
11World Wide Fund for Nature-Thailand, Phisit Building, 9 Soi Pradiphat, Phaya thai, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
12Gudjuda Reference Group Aboriginal Corporation, Lot 91 Hurney Rd, Home Hill QLD 4806, Australia
13Punjab Wildlife and Parks Department, Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan
14International Ranger Federation, Office Ivoirien des Parcs et Reserves, 06BP 426 Abidjan 06, Ivory Coast
15World Wide Fund for Nature, Av México 51, Hipódromo Delegacion Cuauhtémoc, Cuauhtémoc, 06100 Ciudad de
México, CDMX, Mexico
16Thin Green Line Foundation, 258A Coventry St, South Melbourne VIC 3205, Australia
17Elemotion Foundation, 5302 Terrace Arbor Circle, Midlothian, Virginia, 23112, USA
18Centre on World Natural Heritage Site Management and Training for Asia and the Pacific Region at Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehradun, India
RESUMEN
Los guardaparques desempeñan un papel indispensable en el mantenimiento del equilibrio entre las personas y el
mundo natural mediante la protección y la gestión de las áreas protegidas y conservadas. A pesar de desempeñar
este importante papel, los guardaparques se enfrentan a muchos retos en el ámbito organizativo, ocupacional y
personal que dificultan el cumplimiento de sus obligaciones. La pandemia del COVID-19 ha exacerbado estos retos y
ha hecho aún más difícil la lucha contra la matanza ilegal de la vida silvestre, la tala ilegal, la recolección ilegal de
productos forestales no madereros, la invasión y otros delitos ambientales en las áreas protegidas y conservadas. Se
recibieron 915 respuestas al cuestionario de guardaparques de 60 países con el fin de comprender cómo percibían el
impacto del COVID-19 en los guardaparques y su labor de protección y conservación de las áreas protegidas en todo
el mundo. Las conclusiones indican que diferentes aspectos de la labor de los guardaparques han tenido efectos
adversos como resultado de la pandemia y las acciones relacionadas de las autoridades y los actores ilegales. El
estudio también revela diferentes percepciones regionales del impacto de la pandemia en las áreas protegidas y
conservadas y en la labor de los guardaparques. Los resultados del estudio, que proporcionan una visión útil de los
retos a los que se enfrentan los guardaparques durante la actual crisis mundial e indican dónde pueden ser
necesarias las medidas para mitigar una inminente pérdida de biodiversidad, se utilizan en el documento para
apoyar cuatro recomendaciones.
RÉSUMÉ
Les rangers jouent un rôle indispensable pour maintenir l’équilibre entre les populations et le monde naturel en
protégeant et en gérant les aires protégées et conservées. Alors même qu’ils occupent un rôle clé, les rangers sont
confrontés à de nombreux défis sur des fronts organisationnels, professionnels et personnels qui entravent
l’exécution de leurs fonctions. La pandémie de COVID-19 a exacerbé ces défis et rendue encore plus difficile leur
lutte contre l’abattage illégal de la faune, l’exploitation forestière illégale, la récolte illégale de produits forestiers non
ligneux, l’empiètement et d’autres délits environnementaux dans les aires protégées et conservées. Les réponses à
une enquête auprès de 915 rangers dans 60 pays ont permis de comprendre comment ils perçoivent l’impact de la
COVID-19 sur eux-mêmes et sur leur travail de protection et de conservation des aires protégées à travers le monde.
Ces données indiquent que de nombreux aspects du travail des rangers ont souffert de l'incidence de la pandémie et
des actions connexes des autorités et des acteurs illégaux. Elles révèlent également des différences régionales dans la
perception de l’impact de la pandémie dans les aires protégées et conservées et sur le travail des rangers. Les
résultats de l'enquête apportent un éclairage utile sur les défis auxquels sont confrontés les rangers pendant la crise
mondiale actuelle et permettent de déterminer quelles actions pourraient s’avérer nécessaires pour atténuer une
perte imminente de biodiversité. Les conclusions viennent appuyer quatre recommandations contenues dans
l’article.
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... Enforcement capacity was reduced, while the maintenance of infrastructure and other routine management tasks were postponed or abandoned. Furthermore, per Bates et al. (2020) and Singh et al. (2021), the work overload on staff and the fear of contagion affected their PAs staff's health, causing symptoms of fatigue, anxiety, and stress. Furthermore, the staff faced difficulties accessing medical aid during the first months of the pandemic. ...
... Múltiples estudios han evidenciado el efecto disruptivo de la COVID-19 en la movilidad de las personas y han destacado las acciones que las administraciones públicas han implementado en su intento de adaptarse a las nuevas condiciones. Sin embargo, esta nueva literatura se ha centrado especialmente en transformaciones de grandes ciudades y destinos urbanos (Aloi et al., 2020;Anke et al., 2021;Honey-Rosés et al., 2020;Przybylowski et al., 2021;Wojcieszak-Zbierska et al., 2020), o bien, han analizado el impacto de la pandemia en ENP, pero basándose en macro-regiones (Anand & Kim, 2021;Kroner et al., 2021;Singh et al., 2021;Souza et al., 2021;Spenceley et al., 2021;Waithaka et al., 2021). Por lo tanto, detectamos la necesidad de estudiar los efectos de la pandemia en la gestión de los cambios en los flujos de visitantes hacia y dentro de los ENP. ...
... (4) Finalmente, los guardaparques han experimentado una mayor carga de trabajo, ya que se aumentó la vigilancia ante comportamientos no deseados, como la disposición de desechos fuera de las zonas indicadas (Singh et al., 2021). De igual manera, Cazorla (2015) también señalaba que la mayor parte de la demanda actual de los ENP cuenta con un perfil generalista, cuyo interés son los sitios e itinerarios más emblemáticos, o con un perfil contemplativo, es decir, que visita el ENP como un complemento de su viaje y no como la principal actividad. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
This dissertation explores issues related to visitor management in protected areas in the context of the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Protected areas have benefited from the development of nature-based tourism, both for funding and raising public awareness. However, as tourism has grown, conflicts among different stakeholders’ perspectives on how these areas should be valued and used have risen. Moreover, the effectiveness of protected area management is challenged when balancing the preservation of ecosystems with visitors’ rights and aspirations of enjoying nature, particularly in the face of external drivers of change such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This dissertation focuses on how the pandemic impacted visitor flows in protected areas, which lead to adjustments in the management of these, as well as on visitors' attitudes toward measures implemented in a natural park. The study further discusses the relationship between protected areas and tourism, as well as the concept of visitor management on these types of destinations. It also argues on the crucial role of an adaptive visitor management in balancing the different stakeholders’ interests, user experiences, and the conservation functions of protected areas. The methodology used, herein, is a mixed method approach that includes both quantitative and qualitative data collection. Using a multiscale perspective, the research investigates managers’ responses at the global, regional (Catalonia), local (Province of Tarragona), as well as site (Ebro Delta Natural Park) levels. All things considered, the research offers insightful information for improving visitor management and adaptability in the post-pandemic context.
... Ranger employment welfare, (the range of benefits and services an employer offers to employees), are few, for example, the average monthly salary of a ranger is less than half that of police (Belecky et al., 2021). Rangers are often paid late (Belecky et al., 2021), and government agencies that employ rangers are often the first to receive budget cuts (Singh, Galliers, Moreto, et al., 2021). Only a third of rangers (33.7%) have employee insurance schemes that provide compensation in case of job-related fatality, and only slightly more (41.8%) ...
... In addition to having poor employment conditions, rangers' roles are often misunderstood and the common, media-perpetuated image of a ranger does not always match the reality. In many places, they are seen primarily as law enforcement officers, whereas in most cases their work encompasses a wide range of other activities (Singh, Galliers, Appleton, et al., 2021) including monitoring, community development, nature-based tourism, education, fire management, invasive species control, and most recently disease containment and monitoring (Singh, Galliers, Moreto, et al., 2021). In addition, they are perceived as only protecting biodiversity, while they are also securing ecosystem services, cultural heritage, and peoples' rights (URSA & IRF, 2023). ...
... The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes the importance of protecting nature in preventing pandemics (WHO, 2020) and researchers suggest that primary pandemic prevention actions such as wildlife trade management and reduced deforestation would cost less than 1/20th of the value of lives lost each year to emerging viral zoonoses and would have substantial co-benefits (Bernstein et al., 2022). Rangers are already contributing to the management, mitigation, and monitoring of zoonotic spillover events where they occur (Singh, Galliers, Moreto, et al., 2021), but this could be far more effective if their role was explicitly recognized and training provided. ...
Article
Our planet is facing increasing challenges: climate change, biodiversity loss, pandemics, poverty, and many other problems closely linked to a deteriorating environment. Meanwhile, one of our most important assets, rangers working in protected and conserved areas responsible for managing large tracts of the planet's lands and waters, are often underutilized, underrecognized and underequipped. They are generally left out of the debate about conservation and sustainable development policy, despite being central to the success of those policies. This paper outlines the need for global leaders across multiple sectors to recognize the profession of rangers as essential planetary health workers and to position rangers more effectively within global conservation and environmental policy mechanisms. It introduces the challenges facing rangers, the emerging diversity of roles within the ranger profession and the important contribution of rangers to conservation and sustainable development. It presents policy and implementation avenues to improve recognition and professionalization of rangers as key executors of conservation and development policy, particularly considering the recent Global Biodiversity Framework ambitions.
... In line with McNamara et al.'s hypothe-ses, we expect that the frequency of successful trips and these outcomes will be higher during the lockdown compared to other periods. Further, given reported disruptions in protected area management during lockdown (Eklund et al., 2022;Singh et al., 2021), we also investigate changes during and after the lockdown in (a) ranger patrol efforts in CRNP and (b) hunting locations (i.e., within vs. outside the park). Our results provide quantitative evidence of the importance of wild meat to local communities and the vulnerability of wild animal populations during shocks, which can help to inform policies for withstanding future disruptions. ...
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There is limited quantitative evidence of the effects of socio‐economic shocks on biological resource use. Focusing on wild meat hunting, a substantial livelihood and food source in tropical regions, we evaluated the impacts of the shock from Nigeria's coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) lockdown on species exploitation around a global biodiversity hotspot. Using a 3‐year quantitative dataset collected during and after the lockdown (covering 1008 hunter‐months) and matching by time of year, we found that successful hunting trip rates were more frequent during the lockdown, with a corresponding increase in the monthly number, mass, and value of animals caught. Moreover, hunters consumed a larger proportion of wild meat and sold less during lockdown, compared to non‐lockdown periods. These results suggest that local communities relied on wild meat to supplement reduced food and income during the lockdown, buffering the COVID‐19's socio‐economic shock. Our findings also indicate that wild species may be especially vulnerable to increased hunting pressure during socio‐economic shocks.
... Currently, there are approximately 280,000 rangers worldwide and it is estimated that 1.5 million will be needed by 2030 to adequately protect 30% of the planet (Appleton et al. 2022). The present and projected number of rangers and their local contributions to a healthier planet (Kuisma et al. 2019;Vila et al. 2019;Wolf et al. 2019;Montecino-Latorre et al. 2020;Orozco et al. 2020;Singh et al. 2021;Porco et al. 2023;Stolton et al. 2023) reveal their unique potential as a worldwide distributed "One Health workforce" that could drastically strengthen WH and One Health surveillance systems (Machalaba et al. 2021;Worsley-Tonks et al. 2022). ...
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Diseases are a threat to biodiversity conservation and global health, however, wildlife health (WH) surveillance systems remain uncommon. This deficit is especially relevant in protected areas (PAs) facing anthropogenic pressures. Integration of field conservation actors patrolling PAs can drastically strengthen WH surveillance. Nevertheless, baseline information regarding current WH monitoring mandates and practices at these sites is missing. To address this gap, we surveyed globally distributed protected area data managers (PADMs). PADMs considered WH as relevant to the conservation goals of PAs and >90% of them confirmed that non-healthy and dead wildlife are encountered. However, >50% and >20% of PADMs claimed that these animals were not recorded, respectively. When these animals were documented, the recording methods and information collected differed. Although domestic animal presence was common and considered a conservation concern, these animals and their health status were not always recorded. Health data were often stored in a database, but paper forms and spreadsheets were also used. Responses suggest that valuable syndromic WH surveillance data from PAs are being lost due to non-collection or inadequate management and their value could be limited by unstandardized documentation. Rangers could become a globally distributed “One Health workforce” but these flaws must be addressed first.
... Reasons that local communities engage in conservation efforts were categorised as both heteronomous motivations (engaging in a behaviour to obtain social and economic rewards) and autonomous motivations (self-endorsed behaviour from an intrinsic value such as love of nature) (Nilsson et al., 2016). During the Covid-19 pandemic, less studied qualitative aspects in the protected area workforce emerged such as increased anxiety and stress among staff and exacerbated negative effect of chronic understaffing (Powlen et al., 2023), the roles of rangers in providing health service (Singh et al., 2021b;Stolton et al., 2023) and continued maintenance of conservation activities through on-the-ground presence (Eklund et al., 2022). ...
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Protected areas depend on a reliable and strong workforce to achieve biodiversity conservation goals. The Kunming Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework adopted a target to protect at least 30 per cent of the planet’s land and seas by 2030, also known as 30x30. To reach and maintain this ambitious goal, an expanded conservation workforce is indispensable. Despite this, most protected areas are currently critically understaffed. This study examines staffing in shared governance protected areas in Madagascar - a biodiversity hotspot that has significantly expanded its protected area network since 2015. We explore factors that attract and retain protected area workers in order to suggest recommendations for workforce development. We employ a qualitative approach utilising face-to-face interviews and a survey of protected area staff and local communities in Madagascar. We obtained data from 62 individuals across 10 protected areas, under IUCN management categories II, V and VI. Findings indicate that understaffing is a dynamic rather than a static phenomenon. A key motivation for working in the protected area sector is place attachment. Non-monetary work practices including place-based empowerment of community groups and gender-inclusive approaches can improve organisational culture to meet growing human resource needs in protected areas. By charting a new path for workforce development, protected areas may be able to address long standing human resources issues and contribute to community empowerment and sustainable livelihood.
... In line with an increase of new visitors, park officials are challenged with greater demands for information and with keeping offenders/trespassers in check (see Schnabel-Jung and Wipf 2021;Singh et al 2021). Moreover, a shift in visitor composition to more first-time visitors may call for a higher demand for in situ information (ie orally from rangers). ...
... Excessive logging of forests on the one hand and increasingly severe droughts on the other hand are very destructive to the climate. Unfortunately, the COVID-19 pandemic did not stop excessive tree logging [60][61][62]. In many regions, forests are dying because of increasing temperatures and a lack of rainfall. ...
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New threats such as the COVID-19 pandemic have brought forth not only threats to human health but also changes to many other sectors of the global economy. Despite strict lockdowns, the highest annual number of global renewable energy installations were completed in 2020, in- cluding onshore wind power stations and PV power stations. The development of these two types of renewables is increasing rapidly. Transformations in terms of renewable energy require both governmental and public support; thus, it is important to note that the pandemic did not weaken the public commitment to fight climate change. This article aims to evaluate the actual level of support for renewable energy sources in different countries of the world and how the pandemic has affected public opinion regarding this issue. Our analysis suggests that, regardless of the pandemic, public support for renewable energy remains strong in different regions of the world.
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Crises and disasters are among the most critical threats to the sustainability of wildlife tourism globally. The chapter assesses the crises and disasters that have affected wildlife tourism in Southern Africa. A thorough search of scholarly and grey literature related to crises and disasters that have affected tourism in general and wildlife tourism from the year 2000 was conducted from December 2022 to February 2023. Content analysis was used to analyse the articles. The findings reveal that although there are many crises and disasters that have affected wildlife tourism globally, only coronavirus (COVID-19) and other disease outbreaks, and natural disasters, have had a greater impact in the region. The analysis, which was mainly drawn from the impacts of COVID-19 in Botswana and cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe revealed that the net impacts of the COVID-19 crisis and natural disasters in Southern Africa have been strongly negative. These include reduced economic activity, negative tourist perceptions, destruction of infrastructure, less revenue for wildlife management, reduced conservation capacity, biodiversity loss and disturbance, reduced household income, and reduced agricultural production. Implications for policy and practice include re-establishing public perceptions of destination safety and attractiveness following a crisis or a disaster; addressing risk perceptions and behaviours of tourism stakeholders; stakeholder cooperation in formulating crisis destination marketing; creating emergency wildlife funds; providing support to key industries underpinning conservation efforts, such as tourism; introduction of conservation tax credits; as well as capacitating local communities to reduce over-reliance on nature and wildlife-based tourism. The chapter underscores the need for tourism destinations to prepare well in advance for crises and disasters to minimise negative impacts on visitors and the tourism industry at large.
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Protected areas are under immense pressure to safeguard much of the remaining global biodiversity and can be strained by unpredicted events such as the Covid-19 pandemic. Understanding the extent of the effects of the pandemic on protected area management and conservation outcomes is critical for recovery and future planning to buffer against these types of events. We used survey and focus group data to measure the perceived impact of the pandemic on protected areas in Mexico and outline the pathways that led to these conservation outcomes. Across 62 protected areas, we found substantial changes in management capacity, monitoring and tourism, and a slight increase in non-compliant activities. Our findings highlight the need to integrate short-term relief plans to support communities dependent on tourism, who were particularly vulnerable during the pandemic, and to increase access to technology and technical capacity to better sustain management activities during future crises.
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African pangolins are intensively harvested to feed illegal trade networks. We focused on the conservation genetics of the most trafficked African species, the white-bellied pangolin (WBP; Phataginus tricuspis), through the genotyping of 562 individuals from reference populations and urban bushmeat markets in a vibrant trade hub from western Central Africa. Across Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and northern Gabon, there was a lack of genetic differentiation and a signature of isolation-by-distance possibly due to unsuspected dispersal capacities involving a Wahlund effect. Despite a high level of genetic diversity compared to western Africa, we detected a 74-83% decline in the effective population size of WBP during the Middle Holocene. Private allele frequency tracing approach indicated up to 600 km sourcing distance by large urban markets from Cameroon, involving transnational trade activities. The 20 microsatellites markers used in this study provided the necessary power to distinguish among all WBP individuals and should be considered a valuable resource for future forensic applications. Because lineage admixture was detected in the study area, we recommend a multi-locus approach for tracing the pangolin trade. The Yaounde market was a major recruiter of genetic diversity in the region, and should receive urgent conservation action to mitigate the pangolin trade.
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Whilst humans have coexisted with domestic and wild animals for millennia, several anthropogenic factors have intensified the animal-human interface in recent decades, increasing our interactions with animals, and consequently, the risk of disease spillover. This increased intensity is largely driven by human population growth and efforts to alleviate the associated poverty, which include intensified farming and unsustainable exploitation of natural resources. This opinion paper presents and discusses the different interfaces and potential sources of Emerging Zoonotic Diseases (EZD's) and demonstrates a recurring theme of intensified anthropogenic factors driven by cultural and socioeconomic interests. Therefore, the authors appeal for more sustainable animal harvesting and production practices, with a stronger focus on health, and not solely productivity. This will not only reduced the risk for EZDs, but also improve environmental balance and animal welfare.
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Riparian deforestation may strongly affect stream functioning, with consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem services. These effects can be assessed using bioindicators relating to biotic community structure and ecosystem functioning. We evaluated the effects of riparian deforestation on 1. measures of community structure using aquatic benthic invertebrates, and 2. an aspect of ecosystem functioning, aquatic leaf processing. We selected sites along gradients of riparian land use in four Atlantic rainforest streams and measured physical and chemical properties for their association with riparian deforestation. We sampled benthic invertebrates and calculated metrics of community structure at each site. We measured rates of leaf processing using leaves of a common riparian tree, Guarea guidonia. Riparian deforestation was accompanied by increasing concentration of ammonia, water current and temperature and decreasing nightly oxygen saturation. Invertebrate diversity decreased and community metrics changed with deforestation as expected of negative impacts. Leaf processing decreased with deforestation. Although there were significant differences in physical and chemical measurements among streams, the gradients in community and ecosystem responses were similar, thus suggesting that both types of bioindicators were useful for monitoring changes and relating them to loss of biodiversity and ecosystem function.
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Land use change—for example, the conversion of natural habitats to agricultural or urban ecosystems—is widely recognized to influence the risk and emergence of zoonotic disease in humans1,2. However, whether such changes in risk are underpinned by predictable ecological changes remains unclear. It has been suggested that habitat disturbance might cause predictable changes in the local diversity and taxonomic composition of potential reservoir hosts, owing to systematic, trait-mediated differences in species resilience to human pressures3,4. Here we analyse 6,801 ecological assemblages and 376 host species worldwide, controlling for research effort, and show that land use has global and systematic effects on local zoonotic host communities. Known wildlife hosts of human-shared pathogens and parasites overall comprise a greater proportion of local species richness (18–72% higher) and total abundance (21–144% higher) in sites under substantial human use (secondary, agricultural and urban ecosystems) compared with nearby undisturbed habitats. The magnitude of this effect varies taxonomically and is strongest for rodent, bat and passerine bird zoonotic host species, which may be one factor that underpins the global importance of these taxa as zoonotic reservoirs. We further show that mammal species that harbour more pathogens overall (either human-shared or non-human-shared) are more likely to occur in human-managed ecosystems, suggesting that these trends may be mediated by ecological or life-history traits that influence both host status and tolerance to human disturbance5,6. Our results suggest that global changes in the mode and the intensity of land use are creating expanding hazardous interfaces between people, livestock and wildlife reservoirs of zoonotic disease.
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Wild animals play an integral and complex role in the economies and ecologies of many countries across the globe, including those of West and Central Africa, the focus of this policy perspective. The trade in wild meat, and its role in diets, have been brought into focus as a consequence of discussions over the origins of COVID-19. As a result, there have been calls for the closure of China’s “wet markets”; greater scrutiny of the wildlife trade in general; and a spotlight has been placed on the potential risks posed by growing human populations and shrinking natural habitats for animal to human transmission of zoonotic diseases. However, to date there has been little attention given to what the consequences of the COVID-19 economic shock may be for the wildlife trade; the people who rely on it for their livelihoods; and the wildlife that is exploited. In this policy perspective, we argue that the links between the COVID-19 pandemic, rural livelihoods and wildlife are likely to be more complex, more nuanced, and more far-reaching, than is represented in the literature to date. We develop a causal model that tracks the likely implications for the wild meat trade of the systemic crisis triggered by COVID-19. We focus on the resulting economic shockwave, as manifested in the collapse in global demand for commodities such as oil, and international tourism services, and what this may mean for local African economies and livelihoods. We trace the shockwave through to the consequences for the use of, and demand for, wild meats as households respond to these changes. We suggest that understanding and predicting the complex dynamics of wild meat use requires increased collaboration between environmental and resource economics and the ecological and conservation sciences.
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Although the exact origin of SARS‐CoV‐2, the etiologic agent of COVID‐19, is currently unknown, there is substantial evidence to suggest the source of transmission of the virus occurred within the Wuhan wet market. In these markets, bats and wild animals are frequently sold and stored in close contact. During several of the world's past pandemics, bats were essential to the spread of zoonotic diseases from bat to another animal or to humans directly. Live animal markets create the perfect conditions for novel viruses such as COVID‐19 to emerge. This paper suggests that to prevent future pandemics, the sale of exotic animals be banned at wet markets. It also advocates for the integration of the analysis of illicit trade with the study of zoonotic disease transmission and pandemics. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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ContextDeforestation and landscape fragmentation have been identified as processes enabling direct transmission of zoonotic infections. Certain human behaviors provide opportunities for direct contact between humans and wild nonhuman primates (NHPs), but are often missing from studies linking landscape level factors and observed infectious diseases.Objectives Our objective is to better understand landscape and livelihood factors influencing human-NHP contact in rural communities whose landscapes undergo deforestation. We investigate core loss and edge density within a buffered area around survey respondent households to identify which landscape changes and behaviors increase the risk of human-NHP contact.Methods Behavioral survey data were collected from small-scale agriculturists living near forest fragments around Kibale National Park in western Uganda. We combined spatially explicit behavioral data with high-resolution satellite imagery. Using land cover classification and change detection, we investigated the relationships between forest loss and fragmentation, behavioral data, and human-NHP contact using logistic regression.ResultsBetween 2011 and 2015, there were differences in the landscape metrics around the households of individuals who had experienced human-NHP contact compared to those who had not had contact. Increased edge density around households, collection of small trees for construction, and foraging and hunting for food in forested habitat significantly increase the likelihood of human-NHP contact.Conclusion This study provides empirical evidence that forest landscape fragmentation and certain smallholders’ behaviors in forest patches jointly increase the likelihood of human-NHP contact events. Combining spatially explicit data on land use and human behaviors is crucial for understanding the social and ecological drivers of human-NHP contact.
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Cambodia's healthcare system has seen significant improvements in the last two decades. Despite this, access to quality care remains problematic, particularly for poor rural Cambodians. The government has committed to universal health coverage (UHC) and is reforming the health financing system to align with this goal. The extent to which the reforms have impacted the poor is not always clear. Using a system-wide approach, this study assesses how benefits from healthcare spending are distributed across socioeconomic groups in Cambodia. Benefit incidence analysis was employed to assess the distribution of benefits from health spending. Primary data on the use of health services and the costs associated with it were collected through a nationally representative cross-sectional survey of 5000 households. Secondary data from the 2012-14 Cambodia National Health Accounts and other official documents were used to estimate the unit costs of services. The results indicate that benefits from health spending at the primary care level in the public sector are distributed in favour of the poor, with about 32% of health centre benefits going to the poorest population quintile. Public hospital outpatient benefits are quite evenly distributed across all wealth quintiles, although the concentration index of À0.058 suggests a moderately pro-poor distribution. Benefits for public hospital inpatient care are substantially pro-poor. The private sector was significantly skewed towards the richest quintile. Relative to health need, the distribution of total benefits in the public sector is pro-poor while the private sector is relatively pro-rich. Looking across the entire health system, health financing in Cambodia appears to benefit the poor more than the rich but a significant proportion of spending remains in the private sector which is largely pro-rich. There is the need for some government regulation of the private sector if Cambodia is to achieve its UHC goals.
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It has become increasingly clear over the past three decades that the majority of novel, emergent zoonotic infectious diseases originate in animals, especially wildlife [...]
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The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in over 1.4 million confirmed cases and over 83,000 deaths globally. It has also sparked fears of an impending economic crisis and recession. Social distancing, self-isolation and travel restrictions forced a decrease in the workforce across all economic sectors and caused many jobs to be lost. Schools have closed down, and the need of commodities and manufactured products has decreased. In contrast, the need for medical supplies has significantly increased. The food sector has also seen a great demand due to panic-buying and stockpiling of food products. In response to this global outbreak, we summarise the socio-economic effects of COVID-19 on individual aspects of the world economy.