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The American Journal of Family Therapy
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uaft20
Parental Alienation: Targeted Parent Experience in
Turkey
Fuat Torun, Sebahat Dilek Torun & Mandy Matthewson
To cite this article: Fuat Torun, Sebahat Dilek Torun & Mandy Matthewson (2021): Parental
Alienation: Targeted Parent Experience in Turkey, The American Journal of Family Therapy, DOI:
10.1080/01926187.2021.1895903
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2021.1895903
Published online: 09 Mar 2021.
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THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF FAMILY THERAPY
Parental Alienation: Targeted Parent Experience in
Turkey
Fuat Toruna, Sebahat Dilek Torunb and Mandy Matthewsonc
aDepartment of Psychiatry, Istanbul Yeniyüzyıl University, School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey;
bDepartment of Public Health, Bahçeşehir University, School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey; cSchool
of Psychological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
ABSTRACT
This study aimed to investigate Turkish targeted parents’ expe-
rience of alienating tactics used in the process of being alien-
ated from their child. The study also aimed to explore targeted
parents’ thoughts on the services they have received from
mental health and legal professionals that they encountered
during the process of family separation. Eighty-four targeted
parents completed an online survey. The survey consisted of
questions pertaining to sociodemographic information, ques-
tions developed by the researchers asking about the targeted
parents’ experiences, and questions regarding 13 alienation
tactics described in the literature. The majority of participants
were male (94%), with an average age of 42 years. Participants
reported they had been exposed to many alienating tactics
and almost half of the participants had not seen their child
despite the existence of court ordered visitation. Half of the
participants had been referred to mental health professionals
during the divorce process, with the majority of these partic-
ipants of the opinion that these professionals had insufficient
knowledge of parental alienation. Further, most participants
thought that the legal professionals they encountered had
insufficient knowledge of parental alienation. Participants also
reported feeling hopeless, desperate, lonely, anxious, and
unable to enjoy life. These findings are consistent with research
with participants from other countries.
Parental alienation (PA) occurs when a child rejects a parent as a conse-
quence of the child’s other parent behaving in ways to damage the rela-
tionship between the child and the rejected parent (Bernet et al., 2010;
Haines etal., 2020). The rejected parent is often referred to in the literature
as the targeted parent and/or alienated parent because they are the target
of a campaign of alienation tactics that can ultimately lead to them being
alienated from their child (Haines etal., 2020).
PA does not occur in every child exposed to alienating behaviors.
Factors such as the parent’s relationship with the child before the divorce,
https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2021.1895903
© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CONTACT Fuat Torun fuattorun@hotmail.com Department of Psychiatry, Istanbul Yeniyüzyıl University,
School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 2 October 2020
Revised 14 February 2021
Accepted 15 February 2021
KEYWORDS
Parental alienation;
divorce; targeted parent;
alienation tactics
2F. TORUN ETAL.
the duration and severity of the alienating behavior, the child’s temper-
ament and character, age, birth order, and the presence of other indi-
viduals influencing alienation may influence the occurrence of PA
(Harman etal., 2019). For PA to occur, the following factors need to be
present: (1) the child actively avoids, resists, or refuses a relationship
with a parent (the targeted parent); (2) the targeted parent-child rela-
tionship was previously a positive one; (3) there is no evidence of abuse,
neglect or seriously deficient parenting on the part of the targeted parent;
(4) multiple alienating behaviors have been used by the alienating parent;
and (5) the child exhibits behavioral manifestations of the alienation
(Baker, 2020).
Many alienating strategies have been defined by researchers. Some of
these alienating strategies include badmouthing the targeted parent and
their family in front of the child; telling the child the targeted parent does
not love them; forcing child to choose a preferred parent during custody
disputes; limiting contact and interfering with communication between
the child and targeted parent; creating the impression that the targeted
parent is dangerous; forcing the child to reject targeted parent; asking the
child to spy on the targeted parent; asking the child to keep secrets from
targeted parent; witholding medical, academic and other important infor-
mation from targeted parent; and cultivating dependency (Baker & Darnall,
2006; Harman etal., 2016, 2018). It is estimated that more than 22 million
Americans have been exposed to these types of alienating behaviors
(Harman et al., 2016).
In a study of 97 adults who had been alienated from a parent during
childhood, 66 different alienating strategies used by the alienating parent
were identified by these individuals; 11 of these strategies were found in
20% of the participants (Baker & Darnall, 2006). In other studies, different
alienation strategies have been described (Baker & Darnall, 2006, 2007;
Baker & Fine, 2014; Poustie, Matthewson, & Balmer, 2018). Balmer et al.
(2018) summarized 13 alienation tactics as reported by targeted parents.
However, further research is needed to explore if these same behaviors
are also experienced by targeted parents in other countries such as Turkey.
It is also important to examine the impact PA has targeted parents.
Previous research has shown that targeted parents experience despair,
distress, frustration, isolation and dissatisfaction with legal and mental
health system services available to them (Baker & Fine, 2014; Balmer
et al., 2018; Lee-Maturana et al., 2020). They also report dissatisfaction
with mental health and legal services. Specifically, they describe encoun-
tering mental health and legal services ill-equipped to respond to PA and
practitioners who have inadequate knowledge of PA (Baker, 2010; Baker
& Darnall, 2006, 2007; Baker & Fine, 2014; Poustie etal., 2018; Vassiliou
& Cartwright, 2001).
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF FAMILY THERAPY 3
Much of the literature pertaining to targeted parents’ experience of PA
has been conducted in the US (Lee-Maturana et al., 2019). There are
limited studies in Turkey regarding PA. The first scientific publication on
the PA is a case report (Torun, 2011a). To date, no publication has been
found on alienating tactics used in the Turkish literature. Further, it is
the experience of the first author of this study that mental health and law
professionals in Turkey are still developing their understanding of PA.
In this study, we aimed to investigate Turkish targeted parents’ experi-
ence of alienating tactics used in the process of being alienated from their
child. The study also aimed to explore targeted parents’ thoughts on the
services they received from mental health and legal professionals they
encounter during the process of family separation. It is important to
understand if the experience of Turkish targeted parents is similar to or
different from the experience of targeted parents in other countries.
Method
Participants
A total of 91 people commenced an online survey about their experience
of being alienated from their child. Data from 7 participants were excluded
from the analysis because significant portions of these surveys were incom-
plete. Responses from a total of 84 participants were analyzed. A summary
of the characteristics of the sample are in Table 1.
Measures
Sociodemographic form
A sociodemographic form was developed by the researchers. This form
included information such as demographic data about the targeted parent
and the child they are alienated from, their divorce process, and custody
status. A questionnaire with alienation strategies commonly reported in
the literature was used (Balmer etal., 2018). In addition to the difficulties
faced by the participants during the divorce process, the level of knowledge
and attitudes of the professionals they encountered and their opinions
about common custody issues were also asked through the online ques-
tionnaire created in Googleforms. A self-report questionnaire was chosen
as the data collection method because this study is interested in the
experience of Turkish targeted parents and their insights into the experi-
ence of being recipients of mental health and legal services. Data from
self-report measures provides valuable insight into the problems faced by
individuals, which can provide information that can lead to an improve-
ment in interventions (Baldwin, 2009).
4F. TORUN ETAL.
Procedure
This study received ethics approval from the Istanbul Yeni Yüzyıl University
Ethics Committee on Science, Social and Non-Interventional Health
Table 1. Sociodemographic and other features of participants.
Mean ± SD Min-max
Age 42 ± 6.94 30-60
n %
Gender
Male 79 94.0
Female 56.0
Education
Middle school 67.1
High school 13 15.5
University and above 65 77.4
Income
Good-very good 21 25.0
Middle 53 63.1
Bad 10 11.9
Length of marriage
< 1 year 22.4
1-2 years 18 21.4
3-4 years 16 19.0
5-9 years 21 25.0
10 years< 27 32.1
Divorce
Contentious 65 77.4
Non-contentious 19 22.6
Duration of the divorce case *
< 1 year 19 22.6
1-2 years 14 16.7
2-3 years 17 20.2
3 years < 28 33.3
Number of common children
148 57.1
230 35.7
3 6 7.2
Legal custody status of the children
Separated spouse 78 92.8
Others 67.1
Frequency of interviews determined by the court **
1 time per week 15 19.7
1time per 2 weeks 45 59.2
1 time per 3 weeks 22.6
Once a month 11 14.5
1 time per six months 11.3
Once a year 22.6
Frequency of meeting with the children
Never 41 48.2
1 time per week 78.4
1 time per 2 weeks 10 12.0
Once a month 17 20.5
1 time pers ix months 67.2
Once a year 33.6
Taking the child at least once with enforcement
Yes 52 61.9
No 32 38.1
Opinion about common custody
Positive 78 92.8
Negative 67.2
*Six participants were excluded due to incomplete data.
** 10 participants left the question unanswered.
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF FAMILY THERAPY 5
Sciences Research (Number: 2020/02). Alienated parents were invited to
complete the online survey. Alienated parents were recruited through
advertisement on social media, organizations supporting alienated parents,
and parents who came to the psychiatrist for examination. A total of 91
participants participated in the research. Participants included in the study
were informed about the purpose of the research and method of com-
pleting the survey online. Consent to complete the online survey was
obtained. The inclusion criteria for participation were being a biological
parent of a child from whom they were alienated as a consequence of
alienating tactics used by the other parent.
Statistical analysis
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 22.0 was used to analyze the
data. Descriptive statistics from the sociodemographic survey were eval-
uated by number, percentage, mean, and standard deviation. Because the
sample was small, the data has been analyzed descriptively rather than
conducting inferential statistical analyses. The chosen analyses adequately
answers the research questions.
Results
Table 1 provides a summary of the sociodemographic details of the sample
obtained from the online survey. Table 1 includes information about the
gender of participants, their education level, participants’ description of
their income, the length of their marriage with the alienating parent,
whether participants described their divorce as contentious or not, length
of custody dispute, and information about the participants’ contact with
their children.
The distribution of alienation tactics used by the alienating parent to
alienate the child from the target parent is given in Table 2.
51.2% of the participants stated that they consulted with mental health
professionals for support for the problems they experienced during the
divorce process. 77.2% of these participants stated that mental health
professionals they met in some way believed that they did not have enough
information about parental alienation. 90.9% of these participants said
they received insufficient support from mental health professionals. 91.5%
of participants thought that the lawyers and judges they encountered had
insufficient knowledge of parental alienation.
Participants reported feeling desperation (66.6%), hopelessness (75%),
loneliness (50%), anxiety (66.6%), unable to enjoy life (67.8%) and inse-
curity (55.9%). 69% of participants believed their relationship with their
children will improve in some way. Table 3 provides a summary of
6F. TORUN ETAL.
participants’ experiences and opinion of mental health and legal
professionals.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate Turkish targeted parents’ expe-
rience of alienating tactics used in the process of being alienated from
their child. It also aimed to explore targeted parents’ thoughts on the
services they have received from mental health and legal professionals that
they encounter during the process of family separation. The majority of
participants in this study were male (94%). This may be due to the fact
that divorced fathers are organized in various associations and platforms
in Turkey and the online survey may have been more widely spread among
fathers than mothers. Gardner (2001) stated that 90% of those who were
Table 3. Participants’ opinions about mental health and legal professionals and sharing the
problem.
Opinions Yes n (%) No n (%)
Have you contacted to mental health professionals in the face of the problems you
encountered in the divorce process?
43 (51.2) 41(48.8)
Do you think the mental health professionals you encounter have enough knowledge
of PAS?
18(22.8) 61(77.2)
Do you think you can get enough support from the mental health professionals you
meet?
7(9.1) 70(90.9)
Do you think that the legal professionals you meet have enough knowledge about the
PAS?
7(8.5) 75(91.5)
Do you think that the relationship with your child will somehow improve? 58(69) 26(31)
Can you easily share the process with other people? 49(59) 34(41)
Do you think they can understand you when you share the process with other people? 39(47) 44(53)
Table 2. Alienation tactics used by the alienating parent.
Never
n (%)
Rarely
n (%)
Sometimes
n (%)
Often
n (%)
Almost always
n (%)
AP interfering with time spent with TC 1 (1.3) 4 (5) 8 (10) 15 (18.8) 52 (65)
AP implications of TP being dangerous 2(2.5) 3(3.7) 8(9.9) 17(21) 51(63)
AP interrogating the TC after time spent 1 (1.3) 3(3.8) 6(7.7) 16(20.5) 52(66.7)
AP withdrawing love from TC when they
express support for the TP
5(6.8) 7(9.6) 16(21.9) 17(23.3) 28(38.4)
AP speaking badly about the TP in front of
the TC
9(11.5) 5(6.4) 9(11.5) 15(19.2) 40(51.3)
AP attempts to damage loving connection 0 (0) 2(2.5) 7(8.6) 14(17.3) 58(71.6)
TC being deant during time spent with TP 11(13.9) 10(12.7) 17(21.5) 15(19) 26(32.9)
AP demanding TC to be loyal only to them
(AP)
1(1.3) 1(1.3) 4(5.1) 21(26.9) 51(65.4)
AP inappropriately disclosing information
about TP to TC
4(4.8) 6(7.1) 7(8.3) 2(28.6) 43(51.2)
AP encouraging unhealthy TC and AP
alliance
4(5.3) 4(5.3) 15(20) 12(16) 40(53.3)
AP cut TP o from receiving information
about TC
3(3.7) 2(2.4) 7(8.5) 17(20.7) 53(64.6)
AP attempts to completely remove TC from
TP’s life
2(2.4) 3(3.7) 5(6.1) 14(17.1) 58(70.7)
AP utilizing outside forces against TP 8(9.8) 5(6.1) 5(6.1) 15(18.3) 49(59.8)
AP = alienating parent; TC = targeted child; TP = targeted parent.
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF FAMILY THERAPY 7
alienated from their children were men in the 1980s, but later stated that
mothers and fathers can equally be alienated from their children. The
average age of the participants in this study was 42 ± 6.94. This average
age is similar to the average age (42.8) in a systematic review of target
parents (Lee-Maturana et al., 2019).
Participants in this study reported that they had been exposed to many
of the alienating tactics asked about in the survey. It is reported in the
literature that a number of tactics are used to alienate children from a
parent (Baker & Darnall, 2007; Bond, 2008; Hands & Warshak, 2011). PA
mainly occurs in contentious divorces (Gardner, 2001). This was seen in
this study with 92.8% reporting that their children were in the care of
the spouse they were separated from. Further, 48.2% of participants
reported that they had never seen their child despite the existence of court
ordered visitation. 64.2% of the participants stated that they had to see
their children through enforcement. Although joint custody is not yet
included in law in Turkey, 92.8% of respondents expressed a positive view
of joint custody.
Half of the participants in our study stated that they were referred to
mental health professionals during the divorce process. The majority of
participants (77.2%) were of the view that these professionals had insuf-
ficient knowledge of PA and 90.9% said they received insufficient support
from mental health professionals. Similar results have been reported in
the literature from other countries (Baker, 2010; Baker & Darnall, 2006,
2007; Baker & Fine, 2014; Poustie etal., 2018; Vassiliou & Cartwright, 2001).
When respondents were asked whether they thought their relationship
with their children would improve in the future, 69% of respondents
thought they would improve in some way. This suggests that many targeted
parents in this study have not lost hope and hope may help to protect
targeted parents from poorer mental health outcomes. This finding is also
consistent with previous research (Lee-Maturana et al., 2020).
Participants in this study were asked whether they could easily share
their experiences with other people. While 59% said they share their
experiences with other people, 41% stated that they cannot confide in
others. 53% of those who shared their experiences stated that other people
did not understand them. Again, this finding is consistent with previous
research (Lee-Maturana et al., 2020).
Implications for practice
Parental alienation is not a diagnostic category in the DSM and ICD and
the debate about its inclusion in diagnostic systems has been confusing
for many practitioners. As such, not enough is known about parental
8F. TORUN ETAL.
alienation and this research shows that this is also the case in Turkey. To
the knowledge of the authors, the assessment and treatment of parental
alienation is not included in the training curriculum of mental health
professionals in Turkey.
In a study conducted with mental health and legal professionals in the
US, participants stated that they did not learn about PA in and after their
training, but learnt about it through various courses they attended after
training (Bow etal., 2009). It is important that mental health practitioners,
lawyers, prosecutors and judges have sufficient knowledge of PA. If these
professionals have sufficient information and knowledge of PA, they may
be able to prevent the development of PA through timely and appropriate
interventions (Templer et al., 2017). Unfortunately, 91.5% of the respon-
dents thought that the legal professionals they encountered had insufficient
knowledge of PA. Similar results have been reported in other studies on
PA (Baker, 2010; Poustie et al., 2018).
The participants reported that they experienced feelings of hopelessness,
desperation, loneliness, anxiety, insecurity and being unable to enjoy life.
These findings are consistent with previous research (Baker & Fine, 2014;
Lee-Maturana etal., 2020). Research has suggested that these feelings are
exacerbated when mental health and legal practitioners lack an under-
standing of parental alienation and its consequences (Baker, 2010; Lee-
Maturana etal., 2019). Together, these findings show the the urgent need
for training programs for mental health and legal professionals to be
developed. The existence of parental alienation in Turkey cannot be ignored
and trained professionals able to deliver evidence-based interventions to
address it are necessary.
Limitations and directions for future research
There are a limited number of publications on PA in Turkey and research
on the topic is scarce (Torun, 2011a,b). Although this study provides
important insights into the experience of targeted parents in Turkey, our
study has some limitations. The current study is cross-sectional and pro-
vides information about the targeted parent experience at one point in
time. The sample size is small and includes a large proportion of males.
Consequently, we are uncertain if these results are truly reflective of the
experience of targeted parents in Turkey or this is a limitation of our
recruitment strategy. Importantly, there is no way of verifying if the sample
consists of parents who are indeed alienated from their child as a result
of alienating behaviors. It may be valuable for future research to explore
the value and importance of self-report measures in parental alienation
studies. Further research in Turkey should aim to recruit mothers and
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF FAMILY THERAPY 9
fathers and include measures of reliably establishing the accuracy of reports
from participants. Nonetheless, this study provides important insights into
the experience of targeted parents in Turkey.
Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the authors.
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