Content uploaded by Lufuno Makhado
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Lufuno Makhado on Apr 21, 2021
Content may be subject to copyright.
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rpia20
Journal of Psychology in Africa
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rpia20
Correctional rehabilitation programmes’
effectiveness: A phenomenological study of
recidivists in a South African setting
Ofhani P Musekwa, Tshilidzi M Mulaudzi, James F Takalani & Lufuno
Makhado
To cite this article: Ofhani P Musekwa, Tshilidzi M Mulaudzi, James F Takalani & Lufuno
Makhado (2021) Correctional rehabilitation programmes’ effectiveness: A phenomenological
study of recidivists in a South African setting, Journal of Psychology in Africa, 31:1, 102-106, DOI:
10.1080/14330237.2020.1871234
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2020.1871234
Published online: 08 Mar 2021.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 22
View related articles
View Crossmark data
Journal of Psychology in Africa is co-published by NISC (Pty) Ltd and Informa UK Limited (trading as Taylor & Francis Group)
Journal of Psychology in Africa, 2021
Vol. 31, No. 1, 102–106, https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2020.1871234
© 2021 Africa Scholarship Development Enterprize
Introduction
Effective correctional rehabilitation services prevent
recidivism (Schoeman, 2010). Nonetheless, the fact
that 97% of parolees and/or ex-convicts in South Africa
are likely to re-offend, implies gaps in rehabilitation
programmes’ influence on behavioural change among
offenders (Guse & Hudson, 2014). This high recidivism
rate has discouraged some jurisdictions from implementing
restorative justice (Liebmann, 2014; Petersilia, 2000).
Rehabilitation of offenders has been central to the South
African Justice System (Murhula et al., 2019), yet the
recidivism rate is exceptionally high. Furthermore,
Petersilia (2000) states that rearrests occur within the
first six months of being released. It is unclear what
contemporary correctional rehabilitation services could do
better. Informants, who are ex-offenders may contribute
insights on ways that would enhance restorative justice
practices by correctional services. This study aimed to
explore the correctional rehabilitation experiences on
South African offenders to inform practices to reduce
recidivism in the South African setting.
The South African correctional rehabilitation system
The South African prison population is the eleventh
largest in the world, and its justice system continues to
face serious challenges besides overcrowding (Jacobson
et al., 2017). In the 1990s, South African prisons were
changed to correctional facilities, with prison reform
initiatives aimed at humanising the prison services from
a penal towards a rehabilitation focus (South African
government White paper 8, 2016). The transition was
more apparent with the new political dispensation post-
1994, which ended apartheid-era penal practices, with an
emphasis on rehabilitation methods and social restoration
(South African government White Paper 8, 2016). The
South African government White Paper 8 (2016) proposed
a rehabilitative centred system inclined towards a
needs-based plan of intervention, catering to the offender’s
needs, and reducing the risk for reoffending (Newsome &
Cullen, 2017).
The present South African the rehabilitative model
includes psychological, social work, educational,
religious, and recreational intervention programmes
aimed at enhancing successful offender rehabilitation
and reintegration into society (Jonker, 2011). This model
assumes a focus on psychological and social supports for
inuencing behavioural change enabling the rehabilitated
ex-offender new ways of thinking about and interacting
with the environment around them. This could reduce
the risk for recidivism. The correctional rehabilitation
services are based on behavioural change, social learning
approaches (Auty et al., 2017), and for ex-offenders to
acquire social responsibility competencies (Curlewis,
2016).
Structure of the South African correctional services
programs
About 99% of South African inmates attended social
work sessions while only 20% attended psychological
sessions. Further, 21% attended formal education;
52% attended arts, sports, and culture programmes, 4%
attended production workshops, while 1% were involved
in agriculture (Macquet, 2014). Despite attending these
sessions, prison experiences make it difficult for inmates
to recover and seek out a new life afterwards (Gilfillan,
2017). Guse and Hudson (2014) highlight that in the South
African context, there is little known about psychological
facilitation for successful re-entry into society. This
suggests that there is little preparation for reintegration and
sustainable methods for behavioural change.
Goal of the study
We aimed to explore the lived experiences of parole
recidivists from a South Africa district for a better
PROFESSIONAL ISSUES
Correctional rehabilitation programmes’ effectiveness: A phenomenological study of
recidivists in a South African setting
Ofhani P. Musekwa1 , Tshilidzi M. Mulaudzi1 , James F Takalani1 and Lufuno Makhado2*
1Department of Psychology, School of Health Sciences, University of Venda, South Africa
2Department of Public Health, School of Health Sciences, University of Venda, South Africa
*Correspondence: lufuno.makhado@univen.ac.za
This study sought to explore correctional rehabilitation effectiveness in a South African setting. Using a phenomenological
approach, we interviewed ten parole recidivists who have been convicted more than twice on their rehabilitation service
experiences. Interpretive phenomenological analysis of the data indicated that the recidivists perceived attitudinal,
behavioural, and programmes’ insufficiency as barriers to benefiting from correctional rehabilitation. For enhanced
effectiveness, correctional services programs’ designs should consider personal recidivists’ experiences, as well as their
ability and willingness to receive correctional services.
Keywords: effectiveness, experiences, incarceration, parole, recidivism, rehabilitation
Correctional rehabilitation programmes’ effectiveness 103
understanding of the correctional rehabilitation influences
on their likelihood to not re-offend. We aimed to meet the
goal of this study by addressing the following research
question: How do South African ex-offenders perceive
their experiences of the correctional rehabilitation they
received?
Method
Research design
Applying an interpretive phenomenological research
design (Smith & Shinebourne, 2012), we aimed to capture
the essence of the participants’ subjective experience of
the phenomena (correctional rehabilitation programmes).
This approach is helpful for a person-centric view of
correctional rehabilitation.
Participants and setting
Twenty parole recidivists (male = 20, age range = 25 to
50 years) from the Vhembe District, Limpopo province,
South Africa, were identified as possible participants.
Only male participants were included due to availability
and the snowball method. Among the possible participants,
prevalent offences included mostly personal crimes (i.e.,
violent crimes that harm another individual mentally
or physically, including homicide and sexual offence),
and property crimes (i.e., crimes that damage or target
another’s material property such as theft). The least was
statutory and inchoate crimes. Statutory crimes include
alcohol related crimes, drug crimes, and identity theft.
Inchoate crimes are crimes that were initiated but never
concluded (Thotakura, 2011; Justia, n.d). Inclusion criteria
were that they would have undergone psychological, social,
and religious rehabilitation. Additionally, participants had
to be recently released (0 month to 2 years) and on parole.
Of the initial 20 eligible participants, we recruited a
convenience sample of 10 participants (age range 20 to 50
years old) who were interviewed. The excluded participants
either dropped out of the study and revoked their
commitment to participate, or were not available during
arranged sessions and eventually refused participation,
while others lost interest when researcher indicated
that there will be no remuneration for participation. As
indicated in Table 1, nine participants were high school
dropouts. Six participants had less than three convictions,
while four had more than three convictions.
Data collection
The participants completed individual semi-structured
in-depth interviews regarding their experiences of the
rehabilitation programmes attended during their time of
incarceration. We pre-tested the interview guide for the
credibility and trustworthiness of the data. Additionally,
we kept field notes and used a voice recorder during the
interview.
Procedures
The study obtained ethical clearance from the University
of Venda ethics committee (ethics number SHS/17/
PSYCH/11/1108). Permission to conduct the study was
granted through the community royal councils (members
of the royal family within the region). The participants
consented to study. We informed the participants of
the voluntary nature of the study and of their right to
withdraw from the study at any given time without any
penalty. Furthermore, we assured the participants of the
confidentiality of their data. Most participants completed
the interviews at home, with two who were interviewed at
a neutral environment selected by them.
Data analysis
We followed the Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
(IPA) steps as recommended by Wilson and MacLean
(2011) The initial stages of the analytical process involved
transcribing (capturing both spoken and unspoken language
communications as well as infusing recorded data to notes).
Thereafter, the researcher read the transcripts about 4 times
to become familiarised with the texts. The researcher did
this while taking side notes of things that stood out, new
and repeating experiences, feelings/emotions, and even
common or uncommon expressions. Through this process,
themes emerged. The researcher then analysed the themes
to find similarities and differences which made it easy to
create clusters and helped when reviewing the data and
connecting the themes. We then found two major themes
from the connections made for reporting.
Results
The study yielded two major themes, namely: attitudinal
and behavioural change influences, and (in)sufficiency of
rehabilitation programmes. We present theses themes by
components, citing the evidence for our claims.
Table 1. Socio-demographic data (n = 10)
Items Category Participants
Race Black 10 (100%)
Sex Male 10 (100%)
Age 25 years – 35 years 3 (30%)
36 years – 50 years 7 (70%)
Education Higher education qualification 1 (10%)
High school drop-out 9 (90%)
Number of convictions Less than 3 6 (60%)
More than 3 4 (40%)
Parole duration during the time of interview Less than 2 months 2 (20%)
More than 2 months, less than 1 year 7 (70%)
More than 1 year 1 (10%)
Musekwa et al.
104
Theme 1. Attitudes and behavioural change influences
From the participants 70% expressed a sense of
dissatisfaction with the correctional rehabilitation
programs. They also indicated that they only attended
the programmes to fulfil the requirements. The following
statements are illustrative:
Those things are useless, they don’t work. There’s
nothing you can do in there that when you come out
you’llndyourselfusing,you’ll justdowhat you
know. (PF, number of incarcerations: 2)
Social workers teach us stuff. Isn’t it that you
have to attend, or you don’t get bail, so you
attend because they record when you attend those
things…no, those things don’t work. (PC, number
of incarcerations: 3)
However, 30% of the participants found the
rehabilitation programs a delight. These participants
expressed their interest and enthusiasm as follows:
All the programmes I was told to attend, I attended,
and they helped me to see things differently in life.
(PD, number of incarcerations: 2)
I liked them. They felt like you’re back at school,
but they were more interesting because you are
being taught about real life, your life and trained
how to do it better. … I think the more I attended
the programme the better I became. I didn’t change
muchthersttimebut thesecondtimeIam sure
I will not be committing another crime and I just
see the past crimes as mistakes and I didn’t know
any better than to be like that. (PE, number of
incarcerations: 2)
The programmes helped me…. (PI, number of
incarcerations: 3)
Attending those services mostly helped me in
getting hope and not having a desire to get arrested
again. It helped me not to want to go back in there.
(PG, number of incarcerations: 2)
Sub-theme 2: (In)sufficiency of rehabilitation
programmes
The timing of services was important to the participants as
delays would be disadvantageous. One participant reported
that the only time they saw a social worker was when they
were waiting in a trial. One participant said:
When you’re convicted, it’s not often that social
workers come. They often come to those that are
still suspected of a crime, those that await trial the
most than those that are incarcerated. (PF, number
of incarcerations: 2)
The participants did not differentiate between
psychological and social interventions. However, those
who attended religious programmes were able to classify
their involvement in the programme. For example, one
participant said:
On my second time though I did anger
management, a new beginning, economic crime. I
only did the church programme because the pastor
knew me, so he called me to come and join and
the other programmes, I was told I have to do so
I attended them. (PA, number of incarcerations: 2)
Participants also highlighted that other programmes
were not compulsory for individuals who have committed
felonies with short sentencing, hence they attended
religious/ spiritual gatherings more during their rst
arrests. Even with religious gatherings, the inmates
themselves would sometimes facilitate the gatherings in
the absence of a religious pastor/leader:
The Christians in prison are better convicts, I used
to run the meetings every Sunday in there with
this other pastor that was arrested. (PI, number of
incarcerations: 3)
My sentences were too short to do other
programmes but I went to church every Thursday.
It’s just that church is a church and I didn’t want to
get into trouble so I would go there to kill time. (PJ,
number of incarcerations: 4)
In addition to this, during parole, the programme
designed for sustaining change was reported to include
attending regular meetings as scheduled with a social
worker to give a report on life. After parole, participants
indicate that there is no follow-up system in place for
ex-convicts. Furthermore, according to the participants,
rehabilitation does not last long, it merely results in a
temporary change. For example, one participant said:
I was still the same person in these streets and
programmes are just there for you to learn a couple
of things you wouldn’t think of like the results of
your actions, the effect that has on other people so
you feel regret for hurting others and you consider
that in your process of wanting to change, but
sometimes we forget those things. (PA, number of
incarcerations: 2)
On the other hand, seven participants reported that
the programmes are not effective or sufcient to initiate
and sustain the process of change until one has decided
to personally engage in the change process. Participants
showed that the awareness of life and choices beside crime
do not generate enough motive for change until there is
another motivation for change. For example, participants
said:
The programmes are eye-opening, and they teach
you a thing you didn’t think of in the past but before
I was ready to change those guys were just hitting
a wall because I didn’t see anything wrong with my
life. (PB, number of incarcerations: 2)
Some are pastors in there that get angry one day
and just nd themselves killing someone but not
because they are criminals, but they just made
a mistake, people like that change easier…The
people who change usually are those that have
been wrongfully arrested or those that have short
sentences. (PF, number of incarcerations: 2)
Discussion and conclusion
Overall, the participants perceived the correctional
services unhelpful in terms of community re-integration.
This is similar to previous findings (see also Gerace &
Correctional rehabilitation programmes’ effectiveness 105
Day, 2010; Gona et al., 2014). As revealed by this study,
those who found correctional rehabilitation helpful had
a predisposition towards turning their lives around. This
suggests that personal experiences, ability, and willingness
to receive correctional services should guide correctional
services in designing services for achieving the necessary
change among ex-offenders.
Thinane (2010) proposed a need for customising
an individual inmate’s level of responsivity toward
interventions. Our ndings suggest that poor social
reintegration and parole support programmes would lead
to re-offending. Gona and colleagues (2014) highlighted
that in most cases inmates struggle during their process of
adjusting to the society due to the stigma attached to ex-
prisoners. Nonetheless, Rom (2013) observed successful
rehabilitation systems to consider religion and include
psychological services and family members in the process
of rehabilitation (see also Bahr et al., 2010; Thinane, 2010).
Both the in-prison and external to prison relationships
matter to successful offender rehabilitation (Leban et
al., 2016; Paat et al., 2017). Thus, holistic correctional
rehabilitation programmes that address personal needs
and release contexts are critical to the safe community
reintegration of offenders (Mutiuk & Nafekh, 2021).
Rehabilitation alone is insufcient and there is a need to
strengthen its effectiveness through the full involvement
and willingness of the individual inmate.
Limitations and future recommendations
Our small sample size from only one South African district
would not allow for findings to generalise to other South
African ex-offenders. Finally, only males participated in
the study and females may have different experiences. We
suggest a need for future studies to replicate and extend
our findings.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the University of Venda
Research Publication grant and NRF/DAAD Scholarship
(DAAD160721180853) for funding this study as well as
the University of Venda Health Research Ethics Committee
providing ethical clearance. The authors acknowledge the
Department of Correctional Services for providing us with
permission to conduct the study. Lastly, we acknowledge all
recidivists who agreed to participate in this study and to share
their experiences regarding the effectiveness of rehabilitation.
ORCIDs
Ofhani Prudance Musekwa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6422-6004
Tshilidzi M. Mulaundzi http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2941-4728
James F. Takalani http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7492-8413
Lufuno Makhado http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1689-9308
References
Auty, K. M., Cope, A., & Liebling, A. (2017). Psychoeducational
programs for reducing prison violence: A systematic review.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, 33, 126–143. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.01.018
Bahr, S. J., Harris, L., Fisher, J. K., & Harker Armstrong, A.
(2010). Successful reentry: What differentiates successful
and unsuccessful parolees? International Journal of Offender
Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 54(5), 667–692.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X09342435
Curlewis, L. G. (2016, July 22). Understanding Parole – An
in-depth Discussion Continued. De Rebus. Retrieved from
http://www.derebus.org.za/understanding-parole-depth-
discussion-continued/.Retrieved
Gerace, A., & Day, A. (2010). Criminal rehabilitation: The
impact of religious programming. Journal of Psychology and
Christianity, 29(4), 317–325.
Gilfillan, L. (2017). Fallen Walls: Prisoners of Conscience in
South Africa and Czechoslovakia. Routledge.
Gona, S., Mugari, I., & Zondayi, M. (2014). Effectiveness
of correctional programmes in curbing reoffending.
International Journal of Innovative Research and
Development, 3(13), 109–118.
Guse, T., & Hudson, D. (2014). Psychological strengths and
posttraumatic growth in the successful reintegration of South
African ex-offenders. International Journal of Offender
Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 58(12), 1449–1465.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X13502299
Jacobson, J., Heard, C., & Fair, H. (2017). Prison: evidence
of its use and over-use from around the world. Retrieved
from https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/18378/1/global%20
imprisonment%20web%20FINAL.pdf
Jonker, D. C. (2011). The Role of the Department of Correctional
Services in the Rehabilitation of Child Molesters
[Unpublished Masters thesis]. University of South Africa.
Justia (n. d). Types of criminal offences. Retrieved from https://
www.justia.com/criminal/offenses/#:~:text=Personal%20
crimes%20are%20those%20that,homicide%20and%20
other%20violent%20crimes.
Leban, L., Cardwell, S. M., Copes, H., & Brezina, T. (2016).
Adapting to Prison Life: A Qualitative Examination of the
Coping Process among Incarcerated Offenders. Justice
Quarterly, 33(6), 943–969. https://doi.org/10.1080/074188
25.2015.1012096
Liebmann, M. (2014). Restorative Justice in Prisons: An
International Perspective. Retrieved from http://foresee.hu/
uploads/media/MarianLiebmann_text_01.pdf
Macquet, R. J. (2014). The State of South African Prisons.
Retrieved from http://press.nicro.org.za/images/PDF/Public-
Education-Paper-The-State-of-South-African-Prisons-2014.
pdf
Motiuk, L., & Nafekh, M. (2001). Using reintegration potential
at intake to better identify safe release candidates. In
Forum on corrections research (Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 11–13).
CORRECTIONAL SERVICE OF CANADA.
Murhula, P. B. B., Singh, S. B., & Nunlall, R. (2019). A Critical
Analysis on Offenders Rehabilitation Approach in South
Africa: A Review of the Literature. African Journal of
Criminology and Justice Studies: AJCJS, 12(1), 21–43.
Newsome, J., & Cullen, F. T. (2017). The Risk-Need-
Responsivity Model Revisited: Using Biosocial
Criminology to Enhance Offender Rehabilitation. Criminal
Justice and Behavior, 44(8), 1030–1049. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0093854817715289
Paat, Y. F., Hope, T. L., Lopez, L. C., Zamora, H., Jr., & Salas, C.
M. (2017). Hispanic Ex-convicts’ Perceptions of Challenges
and Reintegration. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 56(2),
87–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2016.1268233
Petersilia, J. (2000). Sentencing and Corrections: Issues
for the 21st century: When Prisoners Return to
the Community: Political, Economic and Social
Consequences, Washington, DC: Government Printing
Office. Office of Justice Programs. National Institute of
Justice. Die Rehabilitation, 56(2), 87–109.
Rom, S. A. (2013). ‘Extremist’ Rehabilitation: A Fundamental
Misunderstanding? Divergent Micro and Macro-Level
Narratives Regarding Motivations of Former Guantanamo
Bay ‘Extremists’ Participating in the Saudi Arabian
De-Radicalization and Rehabilitation Program. British
Journal of International Studies, 10, 144–186.
Musekwa et al.
106
Schoeman, M. (2010). Recidivism: A Conceptual and Operational
Conundrum. Acta Criminologica, Special Edition 1,
80–94. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marelize_
Schoeman/publication/331704105_RECIDIVISM_A_
CONCEPTUAL_AND_OPERATIONAL_CONUNDRUM/
links/5c88e8c5a6fdcc38174fd554/RECIDIVISM-A-
CONCEPTUAL-AND-OPERATIONAL-CONUNDRUM.
pdf
Smith, J. A., & Shinebourne, P. (2012). Interpretative
phenomenological analysis. American Psychological
Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13620-005
South African government White paper 8. (2016). Retrieved
from http://www.dcs.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/
WHITE-PAPER-8.pdf
Thinane, T. S. (2010). The Institutionalisation of Effective
Rehabilitation Programmes at Groenpunt Maximum Security
Prison [Unpublished partial Masters thesis] North-West
University.
Thotakura, S. (2011). Crime: A Conceptual Understanding.
Indian Journal of Applied Research, 4(3). 196–198.
Wilson, S., & MacLean, R. (2011). Research Methods and Data
Analysis for Psychology. McGraw-Hill. http://www.dcs.gov.
za/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/WHITE-PAPER-8.pdf
