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Journal of Psychology in Africa
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rpia20
Does perceived chess skills mediate the
relationship between fluid intelligence and
academic performance?
Qiyang Gao, Yayi Feng, Wei Chen & Xianjie Ping
To cite this article: Qiyang Gao, Yayi Feng, Wei Chen & Xianjie Ping (2021) Does perceived
chess skills mediate the relationship between fluid intelligence and academic performance?,
Journal of Psychology in Africa, 31:1, 56-60, DOI: 10.1080/14330237.2020.1871220
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2020.1871220
Published online: 08 Mar 2021.
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Journal of Psychology in Africa is co-published by NISC (Pty) Ltd and Informa UK Limited (trading as Taylor & Francis Group)
Journal of Psychology in Africa, 2021
Vol. 31, No. 1, 56–60, https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2020.1871220
© 2021 Africa Scholarship Development Enterprize
Introduction
Academic achievement predicts future professional
career success (Creed et al., 2007), attainment of social
status (Malecki & Demaray, 2006), and individual well-
being (Sijtsema et al., 2014). Therefore, any experience
that could potentially improve academic achievement
deserves careful study. Chess is a great example of a game
that is also an intellectual activity (Bilalić et al., 2007a).
Several authors have argued that chess is an ideal game
for educational purposes (Bart, 2014; Jerrim et al., 2016),
and some school systems now provide chess instruction
as academic enrichment (Binev et al., 2011). Chess skills
likely transfer to academic performance in ways yet to
be clarified. It could be that chess skills tap into fluid or
general intelligence. Fluid or general intelligence is a well-
known predictor of academic achievement (Bart, 2014;
Deary et al., 2007). However, the research evidence of
the influences of chess skills on academic achievement
is mixed. For instance, some studies reported that chess
instruction enhances academic performance of primary
and middle school students’ (Trinchero & Sala, 2016),
specifically mathematical skills (Barrett & Fish, 2011;
Berkman, 2004; Rosholm et al., 2017; Sala & Gobet, 2016;
Trinchero, 2013). However, one study found no evidence
of chess instruction influencing mathematics performance
in children (Jerrim et al., 2016). We aimed to clarify this
relationship in a sample of school children with chess
training.
Chess skills and intelligence
Intelligence scores reliably predict academic performance
(Colom et al., 2007; Furnham et al., 2003). Previous
literature also reported chess skills to be associated with
intelligence (Bart, 2014; Charness, 1992; Horgan &
Morgan, 1990; Sala et al., 2017; Sala & Gobet, 2017).
Chess players outperformed non-chess players on several
cognitive skills (Aciego et al., 2012; Grabner et al.,
2007; Sala & Gobet, 2017), while young chess players
had high fluid intelligence (Burgoyne et al., 2016; de
Bruin et al., 2014). For example, Aciego and colleagues
(2012) conducted a quasi-experimental study, examining
the effects of chess training on IQ. The experimental
group (170 students, aged 6 to 16 years) received chess
instructions while the control group (40 students in a
similar age range) participated in extracurricular sports
(e.g., soccer or basketball). After adjusting for pre-test
scores, the experimental group showed significantly higher
post-test scores on five of nine subtests on a measure of
intelligence, as compared to the control group. These
findings provide empirical support for the relationship
between chess skills and intelligence.
However, the positive relationship between chess
skills and intelligence does not necessarily guarantee
that participation in chess leads to gaining intelligence.
An alternative explanation for the positive association
between intelligence and chess skills is that if intelligence
is relatively high, individuals will be more likely to engage
in and excel at the game of chess, and chess skills would
lead to small improvements in uid intelligence scores
(Aciego et al., 2012; Joseph et al., 2018).
Intelligence and academic performance
Children with a higher intelligence quotient (IQ) generally
have better academic achievement (Deary et al., 2007;
Karbach et al., 2013; Kuncel et al., 2004; Primi et al.,
2010). The average correlation between intelligence and
academic achievement is estimated to be 0.50 (50%:
Strenze, 2007; Ullstadius et al., 2002). In terms of fluid
intelligence specifically, a meta-analysis of 419 primary
school studies found that the correlation between fluid
intelligence and school performance was 0.40 (40%:
Postlethwaite, 2011). Furthermore, the observed magnitude
of the correlation between academic performance and fluid
intelligence varies for different school subjects (Gliga &
Flesner, 2014; Kazemi et al., 2012; Lu et al., 2011; Sala
& Gobet, 2016). For instance, fluid intelligence better
Does perceived chess skills mediate the relationship between fluid intelligence and academic
performance?
Qiyang Gao1,2 , Yayi Feng2, Wei Chen1,2* and Xianjie Ping1,2
1Center for Brain, Mind and Education, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, People’s Republic of China
2School of Teacher Education, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, People’s Republic of China
*Correspondence: anti-monist@163.com
We analysed the association between chess skills and academic performance in primary school students. Additionally, we
tested the potential mediating effect of fluid intelligence on this association. The sample consisted of 255 primary school
students (48.2% girls), aged between 10 and 12 years, who had received instruction in chess. The students completed fluid
intelligence measures and self-reported their chess play abilities. For the academic achievement measure, we accessed
the students’ school records. Following mediation analysis, results indicated fluid intelligence to mediate the relationship
between chess skills and academic performance in that students with high self-reported chess skills also had higher
academic grades. We conclude that chess skills might be a reliable proxy measure of student academic achievement and
fluid intelligence.
Keywords: academic performance, chess skill, mediating effect, primary school
Fluid intelligence and chess skill 57
predicts performance in mathematics than language
(Lu et al., 2011). In short, the evidence indicates that
general intelligence is an important factor for academic
achievement, and the magnitude of the impact would vary
somewhat by school subject.
Goal of the study
We sought to explore the role of fluid intelligence in
the relationship between chess skills and academic
achievement in a sample of primary school students. The
first goal was to investigate the relationship between chess
skills, intelligence, and academic achievement. The second
goal was to explore whether fluid intelligence mediated the
association between chess skills and academic achievement
(chess skill →intelligence → academic performance).
Method
Participants and setting
We sampled 255 primary school students from a school
located in the city of Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province, China,
where chess is taught as part of the school’s curriculum
(48% girls; mean age of 11.2 years; SD = 2.2 years). At
the school, the students are taught how to play chess,
beginning in Grade one, and every student plays chess for
approximately 45 minutes each week.
Measures
Fluid intelligence
The students completed the 60-item Chinese version of
the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices Questionnaire
(SPM: Raven, 2003; Zhang & Wang, 1989) a non-verbal
measure of fluid intelligence. Each item is scored as pass
or fail, with a maximum score of 60. In the present study,
the internal consistency for scores from the SPM was 0.91.
Self-perceived chess skill
Similar to a previous study (Bilalić et al., 2007b), the
students self-reported their chess skills on the question:
“How good at chess are you in comparison with your
peers?”. They self-rated based on a five-point scale ranging
from 0 = low, to 4 = high.
Academic performance
In the Chinese school system, teachers evaluate their
students using pencil and paper tests. Children’s school
achievement was based on the average test scores of their
mid-term and end-term examinations for Chinese and
mathematics. These mid-term and end-term examinations
are the two most important tests for school children in
China. These two subjects are usually referred by teachers
as critical indicators to infer the quality of learning, and a
privileged source of information concerning the level of
academic achievement of each student.
Procedure
The Research Ethics Committee of the Shaoxing
University approved this study (IRB-AF-050-1.0). The
school authorities granted permission for the study and the
student’s parents consented to the study. Moreover, the
students assented to the study after we briefed them of the
aims and that their participation was voluntary. We assured
the students of the confidentiality of their responses.
Statistical analysis
We analysed the data in three stages. First, we calculated
a series of partial correlations to confirm the relationships
between chess skills, fluid intelligence, and academic
performance indicators while controlling for sex and
age. Thereafter, we conducted regression analyses to
predict academic achievement from fluid intelligence and
chess skills. Lastly, we tested whether fluid intelligence
mediated the association between chess skills and
academic achievement. In the present study, we used 5 000
resamples to estimate 95% confidence intervals. For this
method, when zero is not present in the 95% confidence
intervals, it can be concluded that the indirect effect is
significantly different from zero at p< 0.05 (Preacher &
Hayes, 2008). The Pm (%), or how much of the total effect
was explained by the mediation, was calculated using the
following formula: (indirect effect/total effect) × 100.
All analyses were performed using IBM SPSS
Statistics for Windows version 22.0, and the SPSS macro-
PROCESS (Bolin, 2014). We set the level of signicance
to p < 0.05.
Results
Table 1 shows the partial correlations among the
study variables after controlling for age. There was a
significant positive correlation between chess skills and
fluid intelligence, academic performance, Chinese, and
mathematics (r = 0.17–0.92, p < 0.001).
Table 2 includes the results of three regression analyses
for each academic area (i.e., mathematics and Chinese).
Models 1 and 2 used intelligence and chess skills as the
sole predictors of academic achievement, whereas Model
3 used both intelligence and chess skills. Intelligence
alone explained 6% of the variance in school achievement
for Chinese and 14.7% for mathematics. Chess alone
explained 4.9% of the variance in Chinese and 3.4% in
mathematics. The multiple regression analysis (Model 3)
indicated that intelligence and chess together explained
a signicantly greater portion of the variance in school
Table 1. Partial correlations
Variables MSD 1 2 3 4
1. Chess 2.80 0.72 –
2. Intelligence 45.98 7.31 0.17*** –
3. Academic performance 0.08 1.76 0.22*** 0.34*** –
4. Chinese 0.02 1.00 0.26*** 0.25*** 0.92*** 1
5. Mathematics 0.05 0.94 0.20*** 0.38*** 0.91*** 0.66***
Note. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; ***p < 0.001
Gao et al.
58
achievement than either predictor alone (R2 = 0.095 for
Chinese and R2 0.163 for mathematics).
Mediation of chess skills and academic performance by
fluid intelligence
Based on previous statistical analyses, we tested fluid
intelligence as a potential mediator of the association
between chess and academic performance, controlling
for sex and grade (Figure 1). Chess skills was associated
with academic performance, and the change from low
to high chess skills was associated with an increase in
academic performance, ranging from 0.24 points to 0.74
points. In addition, chess skills was positively associated
with fluid intelligence (Path a; p < 0.05). Additionally,
fluid intelligence was positively associated with academic
performance (Path b; all p < 0.05). The mediating effect
of fluid intelligence on the relationship between chess
skills and academic performance was significant for all
indicators (academic performance Pm = 28.38%; Chinese
Pm = 16.13%; Math Pm = 29.17%).
Discussion and conclusion
Similar to previous studies (Berkman, 2004; Rosholm et
al., 2017), we found a positive association between fluid
intelligence and academic performance in young chess
players. As with previous research (Lu et al., 2011),
this relationship varies by subject. Specifically, our
study showed a large difference between mathematics
and Chinese. Specifically, almost one-and-a-half times
more variance was explained by fluid intelligence in
mathematics (36.4%), as compared to Chinese (18.7%).
The data are also consistent with previous studies that
showed a positive relationship between chess skills and
intelligence in young chess players (de Bruin et al., 2014).
The current results suggest that intelligence might play a
role early in acquiring chess skills (Vaci & Bilalić, 2017).
We found uid intelligence to mediate the association
between chess skills and academic performance. This
nding may be explained by the fact that individuals
with a higher uid intelligence are efcient in learning
a new skill, increasing their potential for achieving
success in chess activities (Ren et al., 2015) and academic
achievement (Strenze, 2007; Ullstadius, et al., 2002).
Limitations and future recommendations
This study has some limitations that should be considered.
First, the proposed causal relationship between chess
skills, fluid intelligence, and academic performance cannot
be proven by the cross-sectional nature of this study. The
correlation design of this study does not provide evidence
for causal connections between the students’ self-perceived
chess skills, intelligence, and performance in school.
Longitudinal studies with more detailed observations
should be conducted to understand the dynamic interplay
between chess skills and academic achievement. Second,
this study examined chess skills using a single self-report
question. Therefore, it did not objectively measure the
chess performance of young chess players. Future research
is needed using a variety of assessments. Finally, other
factors, not examined in the current study, may have
affected the relationship. For example, chess skill was
positively correlated with cognitive abilities, such as fluid
Note: AP = average midterm and end-of-term test scores for Chinese and math; Gf = SPM test scores; CN = Chinese; β = indirect effect; [LLCI;
ULCI] = lower and upper levels for the 95% confidence intervals of the indirect effect between chess skill and academic performance; a, b, c, and c′ =
regression coefficients; notation = effect of chess skill on Gf; b = the effect of Gf on AP/Math/CN; c = total effect of chess skill on AP/Math/CN; cP =
direct effect of chess skill on AP/Math/CN. ***p< 0.001
Figure 1. Chess refers to self-perceived Chess skill
Table 2. Regression analyses of academic performance on fluid intelligence and chess skill
βT p R R2ΔF(df)Δp
Chinese
Model 1 SPM 0.034 4.04 < 0.001 0.246 0.060 16.28 (1,253) < 0.000
Model 2 CHESS 0.308 3.62 < 0.001 0.222 0.049 13.12 (1,253) < 0.000
Model 3 SPM 0.030 3.58 < 0.001 0.309 0.095 13.26 (2,253) < 0.000
CHESS 0.262 3.11 0.002
Math
Model 1 SPM 0.049 6.61 < 0.001 0.384 0.147 43.65 (1,253) < 0.000
Model 2 CHESS 0.240 2.98 0.003 0.184 0.034 8.90 (1,253) 0.003
Model 3 SPM 0.047 6.24 < 0.001 0.440 0.163 13.26 (2,253) < 0.000
CHESS 0.167 2.20 0.029
Note: SPM = Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test scores; CHESS = self-perceived Chess skill; Chinese = mean standardised scores of two
examinations; math = mean standardised scores of two examinations.
Fluid intelligence and chess skill 59
intelligence, processing speed, short-term and working
memory (Burgoyne et al., 2016). Future research is needed
to determine the relative importance of these cognitive
variables, in addition to intelligence, to the relationships
between chess instruction and academic performance.
Conclusion
In sum, the current study is the first to reveal a mediating
effect of fluid intelligence on the association between
chess skills and academic performance. Our results
suggest that chess skills and academic achievement share
common underlying cognitive skills, which might explain
the relationship found in the current study (see Sala &
Gobet, 2016). These findings suggest that self-rated chess
skills assessment by students could be a reliable indicator
of both their fluid intelligence and academic potential
in mathematics and Chinese. Educational policy should
encourage the use of chess in schools as an educational
enrichment tool.
Funding
This work was supported by the Youth Foundation of
Social Science and Humanity, China Ministry of Education
(No. 20YJCZH033) and The Major Support Project for the
Emerging Cross-Discipline of Philosophy Social Science
Foundation of Zhejiang Province (No. 21XXJC05ZD).
The funding agencies were not involved in the study
design, the collection, analysis and interpretation of data,
the writing of the report, or in the decision to submit the
article for publication.
Declaration of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that
could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
ORCID
Qiyang Gao http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5927-0361
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