Article

An investigation into the effectiveness of various professionals and behavior modification programs, with or without medication, for the treatment of canine aggression

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Abstract

In this follow up study we investigate a subset of 963 dogs whose owners (n = 800) described as having at least one form of aggressive behavior. We were particularly interested in learning which types of professionals, if any, were sought for assistance for the presenting behavior. Owners were also asked to indicate the resolutions employed, including training methods and equipment, behavior modification programs, behavior modification and training techniques, medications, and forms of alternative medicine. Using a self-reported questionnaire, both cohesive and dispersive aggressive behaviors were investigated including conflict aggression (CA), interdog housemate aggression (HA), fear aggression toward people (FA), fear aggression toward dogs (FAD), and predatory aggression (PA). Fifty-three percent of dogs with reported aggressive behaviors were mixed breeds. The study sample was 56% male, a majority (91%) of which were neutered. Most commonly, the dogs with reported aggressive behaviors were the sole dog in the household. Fifty-six percent of dogs were brought to at least one professional for remedial assistance. Of the owners that sought help from a DACVB, a majority (81%) found the advice to be helpful for treating their dog's aggression. Fifteen percent of dogs brought to veterinarians for advice about behavior problems were found to have an underlying medical problem contributing to the dog's misbehavior. As far as training equipment was concerned, we found that anti-bark collars and muzzles decreased the probability for successful treatment of aggression. Thirty-six percent of dogs were exposed to behavior modification programs as a form of treatment and an association was found between employment of a systematic desensitization and counterconditioning for treatment of overall aggression. When employing behavior modification training techniques, response blocking was found to decrease probability for improvement when employed for treatment of fear aggression to other dogs and predatory aggression. Improved dog-owner communication, habituation, relaxation protocols, and short and frequent training sessions were the most consistently beneficial behavior modification techniques. At least one beneficial behavior modification technique was identified for each investigated form of aggression. Twenty-one percent of dogs received medication as a form of treatment for aggression. Surprisingly, we failed to find any significant associations between treatment response and the administration of specific medications. When investigating alternative medicines, we found nutraceuticals to be helpful when treating overall aggression.

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... When designed from a multidisciplinary perspective including cognition, ethology, welfare, and behavior analysis, interventions can modify interactions between animals and their conspecifics or humans [18][19][20][21], resolve unwanted behaviors [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37], temporarily increase enrichment usage, and expand the learner's behavioral repertoire [38] while ensuring good welfare. When an intervention's scope does not consider how the intervention impacts the learner, interventions focus on the elimination of behavior via punishment and aversive control [39], leading to outcomes that include fear, anxiety, pain, stress, aggression, and a negatively impacted dog-handler relationship [18,32,34,[40][41][42][43][44][45]. Effectiveness is important, especially as it pertains to social validity [46][47][48]. ...
... Some unwanted pet behaviors become stuck in a "sick social cycle" [113] with their owners' behaviors. Fear and anxiety are reported as increasingly common behavioral disorders in dogs [87,112], with a prevalence ranging from 26.2 to 44% [43,87,114,115]. Fear and anxiety disorders seriously compromise the welfare of dogs and may lead to chronic stress, relinquishment by the owner, and euthanasia [87,[116][117][118][119][120][121][122]. ...
... No relationship was found between cause of pain and the topography of aggressive behavior; however, dogs who were not aggressive prior to their painful condition showed aggression as a result of manipulation context more frequently. While [172] reported that pain-related aggression is a primary problem in only 2-3% of dogs who are referred to a behavioral specialist, Dinwoodie et al. [43] examined 963 dogs whose owner reported at least one aggressive response and reported 15% of dogs had an underlying medical problem. After reviewing 100 caseloads, Mills et al. [202] state a conservative estimate of behavior cases that involve pain to be 33-80% and postulate an under-reporting of the ways pain can be associated with problem behavior. ...
Article
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Simple Summary Pet dogs are more prone to exhibit challenging behaviors than ever before. Dog trainers are increasingly tasked with helping pet owners resolve behavior issues, not just teach their charges good manners. The interventions used by professionals to help ameliorate behavior complaints must be evidence-based and include the effectiveness of the intervention, how the intervention is perceived by the learner, and how the intervention affects the learner’s quality of life before, during, and after behavior intervention procedures. The objective of this paper is to review literature from multiple scientific disciplines and demonstrate how concepts from applied behavior analysis and the animal welfare sciences can be used together to ensure that the animal undergoing intervention experiences good welfare during the training process. Abstract Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client’s needs and preferences. The study of a learner’s welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look “under the skin” and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner’s perspective.
... In particular, legislation changes were often accompanied by education, 57 74 75 75 84 and studies on dog training methods often included medication as part of the strategy. 55 60 72 Studies were clustered by the predominant intervention. Five studies specifically mentioned implementing interventions from a One Health framework. ...
... Six studies investigated dog training methods for dogs with a history of behavioural issues, two of which also used concurrent medication. 55 60 72 73 76 85 Tortora in the high quality 1983 study of 36 household dogs with a history of aggression, showed reductions to near zero in a trainer-reported measure of dog aggression (using video footage of sessions with the dogs) over a 2.5-year intensive dog-training programme including the use of electric shock collars (p<0.001), with no improvement in the control group (p>0.05). 76 Dodman et al, in two lowquality studies in the USA, found an 8-week non-confrontational behaviour modification programme reduced owner-reported dog aggression in 9/10 dogs with a history of aggression in one study (p<0.05), ...
... Likewise, Dinwoodie et al, in their low-quality retrospective cohort study of 963 dogs in the USA, where the owner employed one of 21 different behavioural techniques with or without medication, found that 82% of owners felt there was some improvement in aggression. 55 This study was limited by asking owners retrospectively their view of a highly heterogenous group of interventions with no standardised outcome measure or control group for comparison. All located studies on dog-training were potentially influenced by financial gains from dog-behaviouralists undertaking studies of their own interventions. ...
Conference Paper
Background The prevention of dog bites is an increasingly important public health topic, as the incidence of serious injury continues to rise. Objectives To evaluate the effectiveness of interventions to prevent dog bites and aggression. Methods Online databases were searched (PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, and Google Scholar), using the search terms: dog/s, canine, canis, kuri, bite/s, bitten, aggression, attack, death, fatal, mortality, injury/ies, prevention, intervention, for studies between 1960–2021. All study designs were considered. Outcomes of interest were the incidence of dog bites or dog aggression. Non-English studies, and those without full-text access were excluded. Results Forty three studies met the review criteria, including 15 observational and 27 interventional studies. Fifteen studies investigating dog-control legislation, including leash laws, stray dog control and infringements indicated this can reduce dog bite rates. Breed-specific legislation had less of an effect. Six studies investigating sterilisation, showed while this may reduce dog bites through a reduction in the dog population, the effect on dog aggression was unclear. An alcohol reduction programme showed a significant reduction in dog bite rates in one study. Seven studies assessing educational approaches found that intensive adult-directed education may be effective, with one study showing child-directed education was not effective. Eight studies on dog training (two police-dog related), and six evaluating dog medication or diet were generally low quality and inconclusive. Conclusions Multiple strategies including effective engagement with indigenous communities and organisations will be required to reduce dog-bites and other incidents involving dog aggression. This review provides some evidence that legislated dog control strategies reduce dog bite rates. Available evidence suggests greater restrictions should be made for all dogs, rather than based on breed alone. Due to a burden of child injury, protection of children should be a focus of legislation and further investigations. Prevention strategies in children require redirection away from a focus on child-directed education and future research should investigate the effectiveness of engineering barriers and reporting strategies.
... In particular, legislation changes were often accompanied by education, 57 74 75 75 84 and studies on dog training methods often included medication as part of the strategy. 55 60 72 Studies were clustered by the predominant intervention. Five studies specifically mentioned implementing interventions from a One Health framework. ...
... Six studies investigated dog training methods for dogs with a history of behavioural issues, two of which also used concurrent medication. 55 60 72 73 76 85 Tortora in the high quality 1983 study of 36 household dogs with a history of aggression, showed reductions to near zero in a trainer-reported measure of dog aggression (using video footage of sessions with the dogs) over a 2.5-year intensive dog-training programme including the use of electric shock collars (p<0.001), with no improvement in the control group (p>0.05). 76 Dodman et al, in two lowquality studies in the USA, found an 8-week non-confrontational behaviour modification programme reduced owner-reported dog aggression in 9/10 dogs with a history of aggression in one study (p<0.05), ...
... Likewise, Dinwoodie et al, in their low-quality retrospective cohort study of 963 dogs in the USA, where the owner employed one of 21 different behavioural techniques with or without medication, found that 82% of owners felt there was some improvement in aggression. 55 This study was limited by asking owners retrospectively their view of a highly heterogenous group of interventions with no standardised outcome measure or control group for comparison. All located studies on dog-training were potentially influenced by financial gains from dog-behaviouralists undertaking studies of their own interventions. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background The prevention of dog bites is an increasingly important public health topic, as the incidence of serious injury continues to rise. Objectives To evaluate the effectiveness of interventions to prevent dog bites and aggression. Methods Online databases were searched (PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase and Google Scholar), using the search terms: dog/s, canine, canis, kuri, bite/s, bitten, aggression, attack, death, fatal, mortality, injury/ies, prevention, intervention , for studies between 1960 and 2021. All study designs were considered. Outcomes of interest were the incidence of dog bites or dog aggression. Non-English studies, and those without full-text access were excluded. Results Forty-three studies met the review criteria, including 15 observational and 27 interventional studies. Fifteen studies investigating dog-control legislation, including leash laws, stray dog control and infringements indicated this can reduce dog bite rates. Breed-specific legislation had less of an effect. Six studies investigating sterilisation, showed while this may reduce dog bites through a reduction in the dog population, the effect on dog aggression was unclear. An alcohol reduction programme showed a significant reduction in dog bite rates in one study. Seven studies assessing educational approaches found that intensive adult-directed education may be effective, with one study showing child-directed education was not effective. Eight studies on dog training (two police-dog related), and six evaluating dog medication or diet were generally low quality and inconclusive. Conclusions Multiple strategies including effective engagement with indigenous communities and organisations will be required to reduce dog-bites and other incidents involving dog aggression. This review provides some evidence that legislated dog control strategies reduce dog bite rates. Available evidence suggests greater restrictions should be made for all dogs, rather than based on breed alone. Due to a burden of child injury, protection of children should be a focus of legislation and further investigations. Prevention strategies in children require redirection away from a focus on child-directed education and future research should investigate the effectiveness of engineering barriers and reporting strategies.
... In the study with the largest sample size so far, the reported success rate for noise recordings was 54.5% and thus lower than for other training approaches, counterconditioning (to real-life noise) and relaxation training [25] (see below). On one hand, the time and expertise needed for successful desensitisation may represent an obstacle [73]; on the other hand, recordings do not display the full frequencies of the actual noise, and lights and other sensory stimuli that are associated with fireworks or thunderstorms are missing [74]. Even under optimal acoustic conditions, some dogs that react fearfully to real-life noise events show no reaction to recordings [74]. ...
... On one hand, the time and expertise needed for successful desensitisation may represent an obstacle [73]; on the other hand, recordings do not display the full frequencies of the actual noise, and lights and other sensory stimuli that are associated with fireworks or thunderstorms are missing [74]. Even under optimal acoustic conditions, some dogs that react fearfully to real-life noise events show no reaction to recordings [74]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Simple Summary Fear of loud noises is the most common behavioural problem in pet dogs. This manuscript provides an overview of treatment options for noise fears in dogs and describes the current scientific evidence for their effectiveness. Therapy for noise-sensitive dogs involves a combination of management and behavioural training, as well as the potential use of anti-anxiety medication to safeguard dogs’ welfare and prevent worsening of the fear. Providing rewards (food/play) to create positive associations with noises (counterconditioning) is one of the most effective training methods and may change dogs’ emotional responses to noise. Additionally, relaxation training and training with audio recordings can improve noise fears in dogs. While a variety of products to alleviate fear in dogs are on the market, to date, evidence indicates that most “alternative” remedies, such as nutraceuticals, herbal remedies, pheromones, homeopathy, Bach flowers, and essential oils, are not powerful enough to help dogs overcome serious fears. In contrast, the effectiveness of several types of anti-anxiety medications has been demonstrated. Noise fears in puppies and adults can be prevented by creating positive associations with sudden noises. Abstract Noise fears represent the most common behavioural problem in dogs. This manuscript provides an overview of diverse approaches for alleviating fear of noises in dogs and the supporting evidence. In the treatment of noise fears, both short-term solutions to prevent trauma or the deterioration of fear during unavoidable noise events and longer-term training need to be considered. Environmental management, the provision of incentives (food/play) during noise exposure, and, when indicated, anxiolytic medication, can safeguard dogs’ welfare during noise events. Most “alternative” products (such as nutraceuticals, herbal remedies, pheromones, homeopathy, Bach flowers, and essential oils) are unlikely to be sufficient as monotherapy for noise fears, whereas there is good evidence for the efficacy of several anxiolytic medications. In the longer term, counterconditioning to real-life noises, relaxation training, and desensitisation/counterconditioning using noise recordings have been shown to improve fear of noises in dogs. Preventative training appears to be highly effective in preventing the development of noise fears in puppies and adult dogs.
... Moreover, it is argued that the use of shock collars is seen as a "quick fix" for undesirable behaviors when a more thoughtful approach better aligning with learning theory and dog behavior might allow for a more effective and welfare-compatible resolution of undesirable behavior [31,35]. A great deal of research and many welfare organizations discourage the use of shock collars due to their negative welfare implications [31,36]. Currently, the usage of electric shock devices is prohibited in a number of European nations [31,37] but not in the UK [38]. ...
... However, in this study, a number of respondents supported the use of shock collars in specific contexts, such as by a qualified trainer to teach dogs to find but not harm kiwi. Studies have shown that the usage of shock collars corrects "self-rewarding" behaviors by penalizing undesirable behavior in a time-appropriate manner [36,39]. In addition, shock collars are indicated to aid the trainer in teaching dogs alternate behavioral responses, and the usage of these devices has a lower risk of long-term welfare issues than other forms of punishment [35]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Simple Summary This research aimed to explore cat and dog owners’ attitudes towards various pet care practices in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ). An online survey was conducted from January to March 2019, and 2358 people responded to the pet care questions. The study revealed that almost all respondents felt that providing adequate housing, regular worming and flea treatments, microchipping, and vaccinations were important pet care practices. Fewer respondents felt that regular veterinary clinic visits were important, and some did not appear to understand that breeding for certain looks causes health problems for animals. Characteristics of pet owners, such as gender, ethnicity, age range, having children, having a rural upbringing, and place of residence, were associated with particular attitudes towards the various practices. Knowing about these factors will help develop strategies that ensure everyone understands what pet care practices are important for responsible pet ownership. Our findings emphasize some of the complexities that underlie NZ pet owners’ attitudes and opinions towards various pet care practices. The findings underscore the need for additional research, culturally appropriate and effective educational resources, and customized strategies to encourage responsible pet care to ensure animals, along with their owners, live good lives. Abstract This research aimed to explore cat and dog owners’ attitudes and opinions towards various pet care practices in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ), and determine what factors were associated with them. An online survey composed of both closed and open-ended questions was administered from January to March 2019. A total of 2358 respondents answered the questions on pet care practices. Of these, 37.5 percent (n = 885) were both dog and cat owners, 28.0 percent (n = 652) were cat owners, and 26.0 percent (n = 609) were dog owners, while 9% (n = 212) of respondents did not own a cat or dog at the time of taking the survey. The study revealed that most respondents (>90%) acknowledge the importance of providing adequate housing, regular worming and flea treatments, microchipping, and vaccinations for their pets. Notably, demographic factors such as gender, ethnicity, age range, having children, having a rural upbringing, and place of residence influenced owners’ attitudes, with those towards cat care practices varying more than those for dogs. The study highlights the need for responsible pet ownership interventions considering these demographic factors. The study identifies a knowledge gap among pet owners concerning the importance of regular veterinary visits and the impact of breeding for certain looks on animal welfare. The use of shock collar devices provoked varying opinions on their usage for training and behavior modification. The study suggests that enhancing pet owners’ knowledge is pivotal for responsible pet ownership. Overall, the findings emphasize the need for tailored interventions that account for demographic variations for promoting responsible pet ownership and animal welfare. The findings underscore the importance of improving access to veterinary health care teams, especially in rural areas, and of providing culturally appropriate education resources for both pet owners and veterinary health care teams.
... Frequently mentioned were separation anxiety, anxiety at the vet clinic, car rides, and new or unfamiliar environments. Dinwoodie et al. [76] came to similar conclusions. Neuters of both sexes had significantly more fear or anxiety and also showed more escaping or running away. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study investigates the behavioural differences between neutered and intact dogs. A total of 230 questionnaires of neutered (n = 115) and intact (n = 115) mixed-breed male dogs were collected. Small, medium, large, and giant dogs were analysed to investigate a possible influence of body size. The results showed neuters were significantly more stressed than intacts (multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.001). In terms of stress by influences (such as separation anxiety and anxiety at car rides), neutered small, medium, and large dogs were more stressed than giant dogs (multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.05). Neuters were also found to be more aggressive in general (multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.04) and more aggressive on the walk (multinomial logistic regression, p = 0.02). In addition, personality questionnaires revealed significant differences in all characteristics. Neuters were less emotionally calm (multiple ordinal regression, p = 0.03), less trainable and less sociable (each multiple ordinal regression, p < 0.001). They also scored lower on extraversion (multiple ordinal regression, p = 0.04). These findings highlight the importance of further research into the behavioural effects of neutering dogs, as well as the need for evidence-based guidelines for neutering practices.
... High level of frustration among the individuals has a potential to increase Road rage behaviour. Hypothesis 1. Frustration level has relationship with individual road rage behavior.In social psychology, aggression can be explained any behaviour(Dinwoodie, Zottola, & Dodman, 2021) or act expected at harming any person or animal or detrimental physical property. For instance, aggressiveness include; physical violence, shouting, swearing, along with the harsh language. ...
Article
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The purpose of this study is to investigate the antecedents of road rage in Bangkok, Thailand. To identify the antecedents of road rage in Bangkok, this study proposed four factors effecting antecedents of road rage. These factors include; frustration level, aggressive behavior, personality disorder and cultural norms. For this purpose, data collection is made by conducting a survey in Bangkok, Thailand. The 5-point Likert scale is used for data collection among the people involved in road rage. Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) is employed for data analysis. It is found that; aggressive behavior of the people leads to the individual road rage behavior. Furthermore, personality disorder also causes to increase the intention of individual road rage behavior. It is also observed from the results, culture norms also have the potential to promote individual road rage behavior. However, frustration level of an individual has no effect. Thus, this study identified that; aggressive behavior, personality disorder and cultural norms are the major antecedents of individual road rage behavior in Bangkok, Thailand.
... In addition, it is possible that the reported UBs were found to be caused by other health problems, which were detected by their veterinarian, and treatment of which also treated the UB. A study in the USA recently reported that 15% of dogs presented with an UB for veterinary care had an underlying medical problem that potentially contributed to the UB [65]. The role of pain-related health problems as a cause of UBs is increasingly reported, including noise phobias [66] and aggression [67]. ...
Article
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Undesirable behaviours (UBs) in dogs are common and important issues with serious potential welfare consequences for both the dogs and their owners. This study aimed to investigate the usage of drug therapy for UBs in dogs and assess demographic risk factors for drug-prescribed UBs within the dog population under primary-care veterinary care in the UK in 2013. Dogs receiving drug therapy for UB were identified through the retrospective analysis of anonymised electronic patient records in VetCompass™. Risk factor analysis used multivariable logistic regression modelling. The study population comprised 103,597 dogs under veterinary care in the UK during 2013. There were 413 drug-prescribed UBs recorded among 404 dogs. The prevalence of dogs with at least one UB event treated with a drug in 2013 was 0.4%. Multivariable modelling identified 3 breeds with increased odds of drug-prescribed UB compared with crossbred dogs: Toy Poodle (OR 2.75), Tibetan Terrier (OR 2.68) and Shih-tzu (OR 1.95). Increasing age was associated with increased odds of drug-prescribed UB, with dogs ≥ 12 years showing 3.1 times the odds compared with dogs < 3 years. Neutered males (OR 1.82) and entire males (OR 1.50) had increased odds compared with entire females. The relatively low prevalence of dogs with at least one UB event that was treated with a drug in 2013 could suggest that opportunities for useful psychopharmaceutical intervention in UBs may be being missed in first opinion veterinary practice. While bodyweight was not a significant factor, the 3 individual breeds at higher odds of an UB treated with a behaviour modifying drug all have a relatively low average bodyweight. The current results also support previous research of a male predisposition to UBs and it is possible that this higher risk resulted in the increased likelihood of being prescribed a behaviour modifying drug, regardless of neuter status.
Article
Background Leash pulling is a commonly reported problem behavior for dog owners, as a result, a variety of leash equipment types are offered to mitigate pulling force. We were particularly interested in prong collars as their inherently aversive design has made their use a subject of debate. Though banned in certain countries and widely available in others, to date, there is no research comparing them to other leash walking equipment. Methods We compared four types of leash walking equipment: a martingale (flat collar as baseline measure), a front-connection harness, a polymer prong-style collar (Starmark), and a standard metal prong collar. Twenty-three dogs were walked on all four types of equipment for 5-min each. Equipment was attached to a leash which was connected to a battery-powered strain gauge to measure the dog’s pulling force. All walks were video recorded for behavior analysis. Results There were statistically significant differences among the leash equipment types in pulling impulse (Newtons × seconds), (χ ² (2) = 30.6, p < 0.001). Post-hoc analysis revealed significant differences in impulse between the martingale and the other equipment: harness (Z = −3.69, p < 0.001), Starmark collar (Z = −3.62, p < 0.001) and prong collar (Z = −3.92, p < 0.001). No other differences among equipment types were significant. Fifteen behaviors were examined as welfare indicators but only three: looking at the handler, lip licking, and sniffing occurred across all dogs and all walks. There was a statistically significant difference in frequency of lip licking behavior across the four types of leash-equipment (χ ² (2) = 8.17, p = 0.04) and post-hoc analysis showed a difference between the martingale and the harness (Z = −2.65, p = 0.008). While our research did not provide any clear evidence of poorer welfare due to equipment type, we caution the generalizability of these findings and recommend further assessment of these items of leash-walking equipment in real-life scenarios.
Article
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Canine behavioral disorders have become one of the most common concerns and challenging issues among dog owners. Thus, there is a great demand for knowledge about various factors affecting dogs’ emotions and well-being. Among them, the gut–brain axis seems to be particularly interesting, especially since in many instances the standard treatment or behavioral therapies insufficiently improve animal behavior. Therefore, to face this challenge, the search for novel therapeutic methods is highly required. Existing data show that mammals’ gut microbiome, immune system, and nervous system are in continuous communication and influence animal physiology and behavior. This review aimed to summarize and discuss the most important scientific evidence on the relationship between mental disorders and gut microbiota in dogs, simultaneously presenting comparable outcomes in humans and rodent models. A comprehensive overview of crucial mechanisms of the gut–brain axis is included. This refers especially to the neurotransmitters crucial for animal behavior, which are regulated by the gut microbiome, and to the main microbial metabolites—short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). This review presents summarized data on gut dysbiosis in relation to the inflammation process within the organism, as well as the activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis. All of the above mechanisms are presented in this review in strict correlation with brain and/or behavioral changes in the animal. Additionally, according to human and laboratory animal studies, the gut microbiome appears to be altered in individuals with mental disorders; thus, various strategies to manipulate the gut microbiota are implemented. This refers also to the fecal microbiome transplantation (FMT) method, based on transferring the fecal matter from a donor into the gastrointestinal tract of a recipient in order to modulate the gut microbiota. In this review, the possible effects of the FMT procedure on animal behavioral disorders are discussed.
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Simple Summary Problem behaviours are a leading cause of relinquishment and euthanasia of young dogs. Previous research has identified associations between owner-reported problem behaviours and risk factors, including how dogs were acquired as puppies, early socialisation experiences, and owners’ experience levels. Puppies acquired during the UK COVID-19 pandemic (“Pandemic Puppies”) were exposed to many of these risk factors; however, consequences for their adult behaviours are, as yet, unexplored. This study aimed to explore the impact of these early-life risk factors, in addition to owner management strategies (including training methods), upon owner-reported problem behaviours in a UK cohort of n = 985 Pandemic Puppies aged 21 months. Overall, 96.7% of owners reported their dog exhibited at least one problem behaviour by this age, and almost one third had displayed separation-related behaviours. Owners reporting more problem behaviours were more likely to use aversive training techniques (e.g., physical punishment), the use of which was high in this population (82.3%). Almost one third of owners had underestimated how hard training their dog would be; this view was more likely among first-time owners. Urgent efforts are required to support this vulnerable population of dogs, including providing owner education regarding humane training techniques, to improve their emotional health and avoid future relinquishment and/or behavioural euthanasia. Abstract Problem behaviours are a leading cause of relinquishment and euthanasia of young dogs. Previous research has identified associations between owner-reported problem behaviours and risk factors, including how dogs were acquired as puppies, early socialisation experiences, and owners’ experience levels. Puppies acquired during the 2020 phase of the UK COVID-19 pandemic (“Pandemic Puppies”) were more likely to be exposed to many of these risk factors compared to puppies acquired in 2019; however, consequences for their adult behaviour are, as yet, unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the impact of these early-life and provenance-based risk factors, in addition to owner management strategies (including training methods) into early adulthood, upon adult dog behaviour aged 21 months. An online longitudinal cohort study of n = 985 Pandemic Puppies was conducted, recruited from a cohort of n = 4369 puppies originally surveyed in November–December 2020, which included data on how and why they were acquired and their socialisation/habituation experiences <16 weeks of age. Nearly all owners (96.7%) reported that their dog had exhibited at least one problem behaviour up to 21 months of age (median: 5; IQR: 3–7). Almost one third of dogs (30.9%) were reported to have displayed separation-related behaviours. Multivariable linear regression modelling revealed that owners reporting more problem behaviours were more likely to use multiple aversive training techniques (e.g., physical punishment), the use of which was notably high in this population (82.3%) compared to previous studies. Attendance at online puppy classes was the sole protective factor against owner use of aversive training methods. Almost one third of owners had underestimated how hard training their dog would be; this view was more likely among first-time owners. Urgent efforts are required to support this vulnerable population of dogs, including providing owner education regarding humane training techniques, to improve canine emotional health and avoid future relinquishment and/or behavioural euthanasia.
Chapter
From a “microbiota-gut-brain axis” perspective, animal models suggest that gut microbiota affects aggression. Behavioral studies using germ-free mice indicate that maintaining a healthy gut microbiota early in development can subsequently mitigate aggressive behavior in the host. Mice pups, whose gut microbiota was affected by antibiotics from gestation through weaning, exhibited aggression; hamsters whose maternal gut microbiota was disturbed by antibiotics were similarly affected. However, few clinical or animal studies have reported targeting aggression through gut microbiota intervention. Based on animal models, probiotic and prebiotic supplementation and fecal microbiota transplantation are hypothesized as possible therapeutic options to reduce aggression. Therapeutic efficacy may be greatest if intervention occurs early in development. In addition, stabilizing the maternal gut microbiota may prevent or reduce future aggression in offspring. This chapter reviews the effects of the gut microbiota on host aggression, focusing on animal studies.
Chapter
From a “microbiota-gut-brain axis” perspective, animal models suggest that gut microbiota affects aggression. Behavioral studies using germ-free mice indicate that maintaining a healthy gut microbiota early in development can subsequently mitigate aggressive behavior in the host. Mice pups, whose gut microbiota was affected by antibiotics from gestation through weaning, exhibited aggression; hamsters whose maternal gut microbiota was disturbed by antibiotics were similarly affected. However, few clinical or animal studies have reported targeting aggression through gut microbiota intervention. Based on animal models, probiotic and prebiotic supplementation and fecal microbiota transplantation are hypothesized as possible therapeutic options to reduce aggression. Therapeutic efficacy may be greatest if intervention occurs early in development. In addition, stabilizing the maternal gut microbiota may prevent or reduce future aggression in offspring. This chapter reviews the effects of the gut microbiota on host aggression, focusing on animal studies.
Article
In this follow up study, we investigate a subset of 1,308 dogs whose owners (n = 1,048) described as having at least one form of fearful/anxious behavior. Using a self-reported questionnaire, owners were also asked to indicate the resolutions employed, including training methods and equipment, behavior modification programs, behavior modification and training techniques, medications, and forms of alternative medicine. Owners sought professional help for 50% of the fearful or anxious dogs. Nearly a quarter of the dogs were brought to a veterinarian for help; 15% of which were diagnosed with a medical condition contributing to the dog's misbehavior. Overall, reward-based training, mental stimulation, and habituation were associated with increased odds of improvement. For the specific fear/anxiety-based problems, various consultants and techniques or treatments were found beneficial. Inanimate fears benefited from the use of benzodiazepines, herbal remedies, and dietary changes. Animate fears had increased odds of improvement if the dog was brought to a behavior consultant, use of a relaxation protocol, and systematic desensitization. Situational fears benefitted from mental stimulation, a relaxation protocol, and short, frequent training sessions. Generalized anxiety had increased odds of improvement with nutraceutical therapy and enrollment in dog sporting activities. Negative odds of improvement were found if the dog had pre-existing aggression in conditions involving inanimate fears, situational anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Neutering (male or female) reduced odds of improvement for animate fears, as did consultation with a veterinarian or non-veterinary behaviorist and the use of benzodiazepines. Changes in management had a negative effect on treatment of situational fear/anxiety. Consulting a trainer and hormone therapy reduced odds of improvement with generalized anxiety disorder. Paradoxically, odds of improvement for post-traumatic stress disorder were reduced when increasing a dog's exercise level was employed in treatment.
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Behaviour problems and anxieties in dogs decrease their quality of life and may lead to relinquishment or euthanasia. Considering the large number of pet dogs and the commonness of these problematic behaviours, a better understanding of the epidemiology and related molecular and environmental factors is needed. We have here studied the prevalence, comorbidity, and breed specificity of seven canine anxiety-like traits: noise sensitivity, fearfulness, fear of surfaces and heights, inattention/impulsivity, compulsion, separation related behaviour and aggression with an online behaviour questionnaire answered by dog owners. Our results show that noise sensitivity is the most common anxiety-related trait with a prevalence of 32% in 13,700 Finnish pet dogs. Due to the high prevalence of noise sensitivity and fear, they were the most common comorbidities. However, when comparing the relative risk, the largest risk ratios were seen between hyperactivity/inattention, separation related behaviour and compulsion, and between fear and aggression. Furthermore, dog breeds showed large differences in prevalence of all anxiety-related traits, suggesting a strong genetic contribution. As a result, selective breeding focusing on behaviour may reduce the prevalence of canine anxieties. Anxious animals may suffer from chronic stress and thus, modified breeding policies could improve the welfare of our companion dogs.
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Fear is an emotion needed to survive, but when prolonged and frequent, causes suffering in both humans and animals. The most common forms of canine anxiety are as follows: general fearfulness, noise sensitivity, and separation anxiety are responsible for a large proportion of behavioral problems. Information on the prevalence and comorbidity of different anxieties is necessary for breeding, veterinary behavior, and also for behavioral genetic research, where accurate information of the phenotype is essential. We used a validated owner-completed questionnaire to collect information on dogs' fearfulness (toward unfamiliar people, dogs, in new situations), noise sensitivity, separation anxiety, as well as aggressive behavior. We received 3284 answers from 192 breeds. The prevalence estimate for noise sensitivity was 39.2 %, 26.2% for general fearfulness, and 17.2% for separation anxiety. The owner reported the median onset age for noise sensitivity to be 2 years and varied between 8 weeks and 10 years (N = 407). High comorbidity was observed between different anxieties: fearful dogs had a significantly higher noise sensitivity (P < 0.001) and separation anxiety (P < 0.001) compared with nonfearful dogs. Fearful dogs were also more aggressive compared with nonfearful dogs (P < 0.001). Prevalence estimates of fearfulness, noise sensitivity, and separation anxiety are in agreement with earlier studies. Previous studies have suggested early onset of noise sensitivity during the first year of life; however, we found a later onset with large variation in the onset age. High comorbidity between anxieties suggests a genetic overlap. Fearful personality may predispose to specific anxieties such as noise sensitivity or separation anxiety.
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Historically, pet dogs were trained using mainly negative reinforcement or punishment, but positive reinforcement using rewards has recently become more popular. The methods used may have different impacts on the dogs’ welfare. We distributed a questionnaire to 364 dog owners in order to examine the relative effectiveness of different training methods and their effects upon a pet dog’s behaviour. When asked how they trained their dog on seven basic tasks, 66% reported using vocal punishment, 12% used physical punishment, 60% praise (social reward), 51% food rewards and 11% play. The owner’s ratings for their dog’s obedience during eight tasks correlated positively with the number of tasks which they trained using rewards (P < 0.01), but not using punishment (P = 0.05). When asked whether their dog exhibited any of 16 common problematic behaviours, the number of problems reported by the owners correlated with the number of tasks for which their dog was trained using punishment (P < 0.001), but not using rewards (P = 0.17). Exhibition of problematic behaviours may be indicative of compromised welfare, because such behaviours can be caused by—or result in—a state of anxiety and may lead to a dog being relinquished or abandoned. Because punishment was associated with an increased incidence of problematic behaviours, we conclude that it may represent a welfare concern without concurrent benefits in obedience. We suggest that positive training methods may be more useful to the pet-owning community
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A survey was conducted of 67 cases of human-directed, canine fear-related aggression presented to the Matthew J. Ryan Veterinary Hospital at the University of Pennsylvania between 3 September 2003 and 21 September 2004 to examine the effect of two different types of follow-up. Clients either received structured follow-up in which they were instructed verbally and in writing at the time of the initial appointment to contact the Behavior Clinic at 10, 30 and 60 days regardless of whether or not they needed help or they received unstructured follow-up in which they were not given a follow-up schedule, but instead were encouraged verbally and in writing to contact the Behavior Clinic whenever they needed help. The survey was conducted 6–16 months after the initial appointment. Clients were contacted by telephone or e-mail by a blinded interviewer. Participants were asked about bite incidence, aggressive behavior, anxious and fearful behavior, their perception of accessibility of the Behavior Clinic staff, whether accessibility affected outcome, and preference of contact schedule, mode of communication, contact person, satisfaction and willingness to return.Clients in the structured follow-up group were significantly more likely than clients in the unstructured group to say that their dog's aggressive, anxious and fearful behavior had improved, that the staff of the Behavior Clinic were accessible after the initial appointment, that such accessibility affected their dog's outcome in a positive way, that they were satisfied and that they were willing to return if needed. There was no difference between the two groups in incidence of biting after the initial appointment.Results of this study show that a structured program of clinic-initiated follow-up can significantly affect client perceptions in a positive way and improve the perceived outcome of cases of human-directed, canine fear-related aggression.
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The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of fluoxetine, diazepam, and behavior modification for the treatment of a variety of anxiety disorders in dogs of different breeds, ages, and sexes that presented to a university veterinary behavior clinic. Forty dogs were enrolled in the study, and 34 completed it. The dogs were grouped into 2 major diagnostic categories, aggressive and anxious, according to the presenting signs. Moreover, the dogs further subdivided into 4 groups: neutered, intact, juveniles, and adults. Diazepam was administered orally, at a dosage of 0.3mg/kg once a day for 4 weeks; fluoxetine was administered orally at a dosage of 1mg/kg once a day for 10 weeks. The drugs were started simultaneously. The owners were given a behavior modification plan for their dogs that started from the first week of therapy. The behavior of the subjects was evaluated at 3 points in time. Clinical response was assessed by the supervising veterinarian and the owners. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) between the groups studied in relation to the improvement achieved. There was a positive correlation (r > 0.44) between owner compliance with the treatment and the values obtained for the improvement achieved for each period. Clinical signs largely improved or were eliminated in 13 dogs (38%), 8 dogs (26%) showed moderate improvement, 5 dogs (12%) were slightly improved, and there were 8 dogs (24%) with no changes in clinical signs.
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To analyze factors associated with interdog household aggression and determine treatment outcomes. Retrospective case series and survey. Animals-38 pairs of dogs with interdog household aggression. Each pair of dogs was considered 1 case. Records of dogs with interdog household aggression that were examined during initial or follow-up consultations at a veterinary teaching hospital from December 5, 2006, to December 5, 2007, were analyzed for clinical features. Data regarding outcome, owner compliance, and efficacy of recommended treatments obtained by use of a follow-up survey were evaluated. Most cases (30/38 [79%]) of interdog household aggression involved same-sex pairs; 26 of 38 (68%) cases involved 1 female or a pair of females. Instigators and recipients of aggression were clearly identified in 27 of 38 (71%) cases; most instigators were the younger of the pair (20/27 [74%]) or were newer additions to the household (19/27 [70%]). Fight-eliciting triggers included owner attention, food, excitement, and found items. Some dogs had risk factors for behavior problems such as a history of living in multiple households (21/51 [41%]), adoption after 12 weeks of age (20/51 [39%]), or being acquired from a shelter (17/51 [33%]). Effective treatment recommendations included implementing a so-called nothing-in-life-is-free program, giving 1 dog priority access to resources, and administering psychotropic medication. Frequency and severity of fighting were significantly reduced after consultation. Owners reported a 69% overall improvement following treatment. Most treatment strategies were considered effective. Consistency and predictability of social interactions are essential in resolving interdog household aggression.
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Researchers have demonstrated the neighbor effect for affiliative and agonistic neighbor vocalizations in captive chimpanzees. We extend the investigation of the neighbor effect to New World monkeys, Callithrix jacchus. We collected data on vocalizations and behaviors of 31 focal individuals and concurrent neighbor vocalization within three behavioral categories: intragroup and intergroup aggression and intragroup affiliation. We investigated whether there was an influence of neighbor vocalizations on focal behavior within the same behavioral category. For data analysis we used approximate randomization of paired-sample t-tests. We found that marmosets performed intergroup aggressive behavior (bristle, anogenital present for neighbor loud shrill only) for significantly longer, and emitted significantly more intergroup agonistic vocalizations (twitter, loud shrill), at a high frequency of intergroup agonistic neighbor vocalizations (twitter, loud shrill) than at low. The marmosets were also significantly more likely to engage in bristle behavior immediately after hearing a neighbor intergroup aggressive call (twitter, loud shrill) than directly beforehand. High neighbor intragroup agonistic calls (chatter) were associated with significantly longer spent in related behavior (composite of: attack, chase, steal food). Affiliative behaviors (share food, grooming invite) were engaged in by marmosets for significantly longer at higher frequencies of affiliative neighbor chirp calls than at low. Marmosets were also significantly more likely to perform food sharing and active affiliative contact immediately after rather than before hearing a neighbor chirp call. Our findings suggest that neighbor vocalizations influence marmoset behavior through social contagion and indicate that the neighbor effect for affiliation and aggression generalizes to the marmoset.
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Aggression toward unfamiliar dogs and people is a common problem arising most commonly from fear and territoriality. A number of factors contribute to its development, including socialization deficits, hormones, and genetic and neurophysiologic components. These factors are discussed in this article, as are management and behavior modification approaches for controlling aggression.
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To evaluate fluoxetine for the treatment of owner-directed dominance aggression in dogs. Prospective study. 9 dogs of various breeds, ages, and either sex determined to have owner-directed dominance aggression. Placebo and fluoxetine (1 mg/kg of body weight) were compared for the treatment of owner-directed dominance aggression in a single-blind crossover study. Owners were instructed to record aggressive and nonaggressive responses of their dogs daily on a canine-overt aggression chart for the 5-week duration of the study. Total aggression scores (linear and geometric) were calculated for each week of the study. The frequency of individual responses was also analyzed independently. Fluoxetine resulted in a significant (P = 0.01) reduction in owner-directed dominance aggression after 3 weeks of treatment. No particular aggressive response accounted for the overall reduction in aggression. Fluoxetine may be useful in the management of dominance aggression in dogs.
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This study was undertaken to characterize 20 cases of dominance aggression seen at Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine and to investigate the efficacy of our non-confrontational behavior modification program for 8 weeks. The 20 cases included 18 pure breed and 2 mixed breed dogs. Thirteen of the dogs were male. The dogs' ages ranged from 7 to 84 months (mean 32.1 +/- 22.64 SE). There was no correlation between the severity of dominance aggression and the signalment of the dogs. At the conclusion of the eight week follow up period, 14 dogs (70%) were reported to have responded to the treatment to some degree. Six dogs did not demonstrate any noticeable reduction in aggressive behavior or became more aggressive. The results of the study is powerful evidence of the efficacy of the non-confrontational behavior modification program.
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Most guide and service dog organizations would benefit from the development of accurate methods for the early evaluation of canine temperament traits. This paper describes the development and validation of a novel questionnaire method for assessing behavior and temperament in 1-year-old guide dogs. Volunteer puppy-raisers scored a total of 1097 prospective guide dogs on a series of 40 semantic differential-type, behavioral rating scales. Principle components factor analysis of these scores extracted eight stable and interpretable common factors: stranger-directed fear/aggression, non-social fear, energy level, owner-directed aggression, chasing, trainability, attachment, and dog-directed fear/aggression. Three of these eight factors exhibited moderate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha>/=0.72), while the reliabilities of the remaining factors were relatively low (Cronbach's alpha=0.53-0.61). The eight factors were then validated against the guide dog school's own criteria for rejecting dogs for behavioral reasons. The results of this analysis confirmed the construct validity of the puppy raisers' questionnaire assessments of their dogs, and suggested that such methods can provide a useful and accurate means of predicting the suitability of dogs for guiding work. Various modifications to the original questionnaire are proposed in order to enhance its overall reliability.
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Although response blocking can decrease problem behavior, one potential adverse side effect is the induction of aggression. In the current study, we report on a young adult who engaged in high rates of pica maintained by automatic reinforcement. Blocking pica, however, led to aggression. When redirection to an alternative preferred food item was added to an intervention consisting of response blocking, pica was effectively treated without increasing aggression.
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Two groups of 42 dogs which were aggressive towards their owners were enrolled into a study designed to compare the efficacy of remote consultations with direct personal consultations for the treatment of the aggressive behaviour. The level of aggression of the dogs was assessed before and after programmes designed to modify their behaviour. Both programmes resulted in a significant reduction in the aggressive behaviour of the dogs towards their owners, and there was no significant difference between the effectiveness of the recommendations, whether they were made without having seen the dog or during a personal consultation with the dog and its owner.
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To investigate the validity of remote consultation for treatment of canine separation anxiety, this study compared the efficacy of 2 types of behavioral services offered by Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine (TCSVM): (a) "PetFax," a remote consultation service in which dog caregivers (owners) and a certified applied animal behaviorist correspond via fax or email and (b) in-person clinic consultation, which requires that owners bring their dogs to the Animal Behavior Clinic at TCSVM to consult with a board-certified veterinary behaviorist, a veterinary behavior resident, or a certified applied animal behaviorist. The study tested 4 variables for significant differences between PetFax users and clinic visitors: (a) pre- and posttreatment anxiety scores; (b) owner-reported improvement; (c) percentage of rehomed dogs, dogs relinquished or euthanized because of separation anxiety; and (d) clarity of communication with owners. The study found no significant differences between the groups. Difference scores and owner reports demonstrated substantial reduction in separation anxiety in both groups. Results indicate remote consultation is a valid way for behavioral professionals to share behavior modification advice with owners regarding canine separation anxiety.
Article
The objectives of this retrospective descriptive study were to compare the efficacy of fluoxetine in conjunction with a behavior modification plan for the treatment of common canine behavioral disorders, and to compare the effects of other factors, including patient sex, fluoxetine dosage, and concurrent drug administration. Owners of all dogs prescribed fluoxetine through the Animal Behavior Clinic at the Cornell University Hospital for Animals in Ithaca, NY, between June 15th, 2012, and December 31st, 2016, were queried regarding their dogs’ behavior after prescription of fluoxetine. Behavioral diagnosis, fluoxetine dosage, concurrently administered psychoactive medications, sex, and response to fluoxetine for each dog were recorded. Of the 134 owners contacted, 93 responded. Eighty-eight dogs met inclusion criteria and were included in the study. Overall, 59% of owners reported that their dogs showed improvement, 32% reported no appreciable response, and 9% reported negative responses. Behavioral diagnoses were grouped into three categories: “Anxiety”, “Aggression”, and “Other” (which included compulsive/obsessive-compulsive behavior and self-mutilation). Most dogs in each category of diagnosis responded positively to treatment: 69% of dogs diagnosed with “Anxiety”, 55% of dogs diagnosed with “Aggression”, and 50% of dogs with a diagnosis of “Other”. A negative response to treatment was reported in 0% of dogs with a diagnosis of “Anxiety”, 13% of dogs diagnosed with “Aggression”, and 0% of dogs with a diagnosis of “Other”. More dogs prescribed fluoxetine at a daily dose of 0.5–0.99 mg/kg and 1.0–1.49 mg/kg responded positively to treatment (63% and 64%, respectively) than did dogs prescribed fluoxetine at 1.5–1.99 mg/kg daily (31%). Sixty-seven percent (N = 14/21) of dogs prescribed only trazodone in addition to fluoxetine and 63% (N = 5/8) of dogs prescribed only clonidine concurrently with fluoxetine responded positively to treatment, as compared with 59% (N = 23/39) of dogs prescribed fluoxetine as the sole agent. However, this difference was not significant. There was no significant effect of sex on treatment efficacy (Pearson chi square; [χ² = 0.000; P = 0.999]). Sixty-eight percent (N = 19/28) of spayed females responded positively to treatment and 14% (N = 4/28) responded negatively, whereas 55% (N = 31/56) of castrated males responded positively and 9% (N = 5/56) responded negatively, a nonsignificant difference (Pearson chi square; (χ² = 2.990; P = 0.224). Limitations of this study included its retrospective nature, number of owners who responded (N = 93; 66%) owner recall bias, and lack of control group (i.e., dogs with the same behavioral disorders that were not prescribed fluoxetine).
Article
Periodic canine population studies establish essential frames of reference for analyzing trends in demographics and the prevalence of problematic behaviors. An understanding of the correlations between individual behavior problems can shed light on the pathogenesis and comorbidity of various conditions. It is our hope that the results of this substantial study will help to confirm those of previous studies, provide new data about behavior problems, and, by association, help establish their etiology. In this study, we hosted a public, online questionnaire to capture up-to-date demographic and behavior problem metrics. Surveyed problematic behaviors include fear/anxiety, aggression, jumping, excessive barking, coprophagia, obsessive-compulsive/compulsive behaviors, house soiling, rolling in repulsive materials, overactivity/hyperactivity, destructive behavior, running away/escaping, and mounting/humping. The study sample consisted of 4114 dogs, spanning mixed and pure breeds, submitted by 2480 dog owners. Male and female dogs were equally represented, a majority of which were neutered. The prevalence of canine behavior problems was 85%. We found sex, neuter status, origin, and lineage to have a notable effect on the prevalence of behavior problems. We also found age, neutered status, origin, and lineage to have a notable effect on the number of behavior problems per dog. Owners were asked to provide details of any behavior problem they reported such as intensity, frequency, and situation in which the behavior problem occurred. We examined the problematic behaviors in terms of their overall prevalence, and characteristics, and computed correlations between the various behavior problems. The findings from our study provide insight into the magnitude of owner-reported canine behavior problems encountered by owners and hopefully will encourage veterinarians to further incorporate aspects of behavior problem management into their daily work.
Article
The objective of our research was to identify pet-, owner-, and environment-related risk factors for euthanasia or rehoming of dogs presenting to a veterinary behavioral service. In this retrospective clinical study, we examined 302 patient records for dog and owner demographics, presenting complaints, clinical diagnoses, home environment, behavioral and medical history, and disposition of the patient at 3 and 6 months after visit. Data were analyzed for the association of pet-, owner-, and environment-related factors with (A) owners having considered euthanasia before the behavioral consultation; (B) owners having considered either rehoming or euthanasia before the consultation; (C) owners having rehomed or euthanized the dog up to 3 months after the consultation; (D) owners having rehomed or euthanized the dog 6 months after the consultation. In order to individuate the risk factors for rehoming and euthanasia, logistic regression analysis was conducted on pet-, owner-, and environment-related factors significantly associated (P < 0.05) with A, B, C, and D. Canine variables associated with a greater risk of rehoming or euthanasia and/or the owners considering rehoming or euthanasia included heavier weight; mixed breed; aggression to familiar people over resources, resting places, or when groomed/medicated; aggression to unfamiliar people during interactions; a history of biting; and living in a family with children aged 13-17 years. Associated owner variables included the use of punishment-based training and previous consultation with a nonveterinary behaviorist or trainer. Several pet-, owner-, and environment-related factors, other than the behavioral problem itself, can increase the likelihood of rehoming and euthanasia. These findings can provide an indication to closely follow-up with owners after the behavioral consultation to minimize the likelihood of actual rejection of the dog.
Article
Aggression in dogs is a safety concern both for humans and animals, and can lead to decreased animal welfare in affected dogs due to potential abuse, neglect, relinquishment or euthanasia. We examined risk factors associated with stranger-directed aggression in dogs using the previously validated, Canine Behavioural Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). Results are based on participant reports of dog behaviour. Data were analyzed using mixed logistic regression, with participant ID and country as random effects. Dogs (n = 14,310) were more likely to demonstrate stranger-directed aggression if the participant rated them as mildly or severely fearful of strangers, or mildly, but not severely, fearful in non-social situations, when compared to dogs with no fear. There was an interaction between sex and neuter status, with neutered males being more likely to be aggressive than any other group. Furthermore, adult dogs were more likely to be aggressive compared to adolescents or seniors, and dogs were less likely to be aggressive if acquired as an adult when compared to being acquired as a puppy or adolescent. The random effects for country and participant were significant (p. <. 0.001) with ICCs of 0.01 (CI: 0.00-0.08) and 0.40 (CI: 0.35-0.46), respectively, indicating that there was some correlation in behaviour among dogs within the same country and owned by the same person. The moderate effect of participant suggests that household effects need to be examined further. When looking only at dogs categorized as aggressive towards strangers (n = 11,240), dogs were significantly more likely to be categorized as having severe aggression if they were male, and if the owner rated them as mildly or severely fearful of strangers, or mildly, but not severely, fearful in non-social situations, when compared to dogs with no fear. Breed group and where the dog was acquired also had an association with severe aggression. The random effects for country and participant were significant (p. <. 0.001) with ICCs of 0.06 (CI: 0.02-0.15) and 0.34 (CI: 0.22-0.48), respectively, indicating once again that there was some correlation in behaviour among dogs within the same country and owned by the same person. These results suggest that variables related to the environment, owner experience and the dog's level of fearfulness are associated with aggressive behaviour towards strangers in dogs. Therefore, it might be possible to identify dogs at risk of developing stranger-directed aggression and implement plans to prevent behavioural issues from developing.
Article
The purpose of this paper is to review a series of studies (N= 17) regarding the effects of using various methods when training dogs. The reviewed studies examined the differences between training methods (e.g., methods based on positive reinforcement, positive punishment, escape/avoidance, etc.) on a dog’s physiology, welfare, and behavior towards humans and other dogs. The reviewed studies included surveys, observational studies, and interventions. The results show that using aversive training methods (e.g., positive punishment and negative reinforcement) can jeopardize both the physical and mental health of dogs. In addition, while positive punishment can be effective, there is no evidence that it is more effective than positive reinforcement-based training. In fact, there is some evidence that the opposite is true. A few methodological concerns arose from the reviewed studies. Among them are small sample sizes, missing data on effect size, possible bias when coding behavior in observational studies, and the need to publish case reports of bodily damage caused by aversive training methods. In conclusion, those working with or handling dogs should rely on positive reinforcement methods, and avoid using positive punishment and negative reinforcement as much as possible.
Article
Behavioural effects of the use of a shock collar during guard dog training of German shepherd dogs were studied. Direct reactions of 32 dogs to 107 shocks showed reactions (lowering of body posture, high pitched yelps, barks and squeals, avoidance, redirection aggression, tongue flicking) that suggest stress or fear and pain. Most of these immediate reactions lasted only a fraction of a second. The behaviour of 16 dogs that had received shocks in the recent past (S-dogs) was compared with the behaviour of 15 control dogs that had received similar training but never had received shocks (C-dogs) in order to investigate possible effects of a longer duration. Only training sessions were used in which no shocks were delivered and the behaviour of the dogs (position of body, tail and ears, and stress-, pain- and aggression-related behaviours) was recorded in a way that enabled comparison between the groups. During free walking on the training grounds S-dogs showed a lower ear posture and more stress-related behaviours than C-dogs. During obedience training and during manwork (i.e. excercises with a would-be criminal) the same differences were found. Even a comparison between the behaviour of C-dogs with that of S-dogs during free walking and obedience exercises in a park showed similar differences. Differences between the two groups of dogs existed in spite of the fact that C-dogs also were trained in a fairly harsh way. A comparison between the behaviour during free walking with that during obedience exercises and manwork, showed that during training more stress signals were shown and ear positions were lower. The conclusions, therefore are, that being trained is stressful, that receiving shocks is a painful experience to dogs, and that the S-dogs evidently have learned that the presence of their owner (or his commands) announces reception of shocks, even outside of the normal training context. This suggests that the welfare of these shocked dogs is at stake, at least in the presence of their owner.
Article
Behavioral medications may be used to augment behavioral treatments for fear-based problems in dogs, particularly when the signs are severe or the feared stimulus is impossible to control. In some cases, a single pharmacologic treatment may not completely manage fear and thus multiple medications may be required. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of an alpha-2 agonist clonidine for PRN (pro re nata) treatment of fear-based behavior problems in dogs that are hyporesponsive to other pharmacologic strategies. A total of 22 dogs of various breeds, age, and both genders determined to have fear-based behavior problems were divided into 2 groups, A and B, on the basis of their primary behavioral diagnosis. In group A, the primary diagnoses were separation anxiety, noise phobia, storm phobia, or a combination of these conditions. In group B, the primary diagnoses were fear aggression or a combination of fear and fear-based territorial aggression. Dogs in both groups were treated with PRN dose schedule of clonidine as well as behavior modification. In group A, the clinical outcome was compared with previous pharmacologic treatments according to owner assessments. Similarly, in group B, the clinical outcome was compared with previous treatments. In both groups, the most effective PRN dose of clonidine and any adverse effects were noted. According to global assessment by owners, 7 of the 10 owners (70%) in group A reported that clonidine was more effective as compared with the previously given medications. Of the 12 owners (92%) in group B, 11 reported that clonidine reduced the intensity of aggressive response of the dogs during the drug’s active phase. Only one adverse effect was reported and that involved a noise phobic dog displaying increased sound sensitivity. The results suggest that PRN use of clonidine may be useful in addition to being well tolerated for the treatment of fear-based behavior problems in dogs. Further studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of clonidine in dogs.
Article
In a questionnaire survey of dog owners, 88% of respondents’ dogs had received some form of training. Training methods varied; 16% of owners said that they used only positive reinforcement, 12% used a combination of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, 32% used a combination of positive reinforcement and positive punishment, and the remaining 40% used a combination of all categories. Seventy-two percent of owners used some form of positive punishment. The mean number of potentially undesirable behaviors reported was 11.3 per dog. Attendance at formal training classes did not significantly affect the total number of potentially undesirable behaviors reported. However, dogs that had attended puppy socialization classes were less likely to show an undesirable reaction to dogs from outside the household, and owners who carried out informal training at home, but did not attend any form of formal training class, were more likely to report some form of aggression in their dog. The training method used by owners was also related to the total number of potentially undesirable behaviors shown by the dogs. When individual categories of potentially undesirable behavior were investigated, the type of training method used was also significantly associated with attention-seeking score, fear (avoidance) score, and aggression score. Other factors related to the overall number of potentially undesirable behaviors included the age and origin of the dog.
Article
Cooperative intergroup aggression provides an example of a costly cooperative behaviour whose benefits spill over to noncooperative animals as well. Consequently, investigating factors that promote individual participation in intergroup contests should prove useful for understanding how cooperation may persist in animal societies despite cheating. Here, we examined variables affecting individual participation in naturally occurring conflicts between groups of free-ranging dogs, Canis lupus familiaris. The overall proportion of cooperating group members decreased significantly with an increasing number of group members present. In one pack, the individual probability of active participation decreased significantly when this pack had a numerical advantage over opponents. Dogs belonging to the smallest pack tended to be more cooperative than those belonging to larger groups. Social prestige (measured as the number of submissions received during greeting) did not appear to be a consequence of cooperative behaviour. Individual participation increased with an increasing number of affiliative partners. Young and high-ranking dogs tended to cooperate more when their group was outnumbered by opponents but did not stay at the front of the pack during conflicts. These results emphasize the greater opportunity for cheating in larger groups and the complexity of dogs' behaviour. Cooperation appears to be conditional on both the ‘adversity of the environment’ (as measured by relative group size) and the identity/behaviour of companions.
Article
Dogs that are aggressive toward their owners have long been regarded as being dominant. This article presents scientific evidence that does not support this claim. Based on this evidence, the authors present an alternative explanation for canine aggression toward owners and outline a treatment plan.
Article
Social dominance is usually viewed from the perspective of intragroup competition over access to limited resources. The present paper, while not denying the importance of such competition, discusses the dominance concept among monkeys and apes in the context of affiliative bonding, social tolerance, and the reconciliation of aggressive conflicts. Two basic proximate mechanisms are supposed to provide a link between dominance and interindividual affiliation, namely, formalization of the dominance relationship (i.e., unequivocal communication of status), and conditional reassurance (i.e., the linkage of friendly coexistence to formalization of the relationship). Ritualized submission is imposed upon losers of dominance struggles by winners; losers are offered a "choice" between continued hostility or a tolerant relationship with a clearly signalled difference in status. If these two social mechanisms are lacking, aggression is bound to have dispersive effects. In their presence, aggression becomes a well-integrated, even constructive component of social life. In some higher primates this process of integration has reached the stage where status differences are strongly attenuated. In these species, sharing and trading can take the place of overt competition. The views underlying this "reconciled hierarchy" model are only partly new, as is evident from a review of the ethological literature. Many points are illustrated with data on a large semi-captive colony of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), particularly data related to striving for status, reconciliation behavior, and general association patterns. These observations demonstrate that relationships among adult male chimpanzees cannot be described in terms of a dichotomy between affiliative and antagonistic tendencies. Male bonding in this species has not been achieved by an elimination of aggression, but by a set of powerful buffering mechanisms that mitigate its effects. Although female chimpanzees do exhibit a potential for bonding under noncompetitive conditions, they appear to lack the buffering mechanisms of the males.
Article
A large body of evidence from studies in humans, in nonhuman primates, and in smaller laboratory animals has supported a role for serotonin in the modulation of aggressive behavior. The evidence shows that diminished serotonergic function can be linked to aggressive behavior and that treatments that increase serotonergic function reduce aggression. Embedded in this large body of data are studies done specifically with fluoxetine, a serotonin uptake-inhibiting antidepressant drug suggested by some individuals charged with criminal aggression and by their attorneys to cause aggressive violence. Contrary to those charges, extensive studies of fluoxetine in animals have shown that fluoxetine decreases aggressive behavior in various species and models of aggression. Clinical studies of fluoxetine in aggressive behavior have been more limited, but findings in those studies seem consistent with the anti-aggressive effects of fluoxetine found in animal studies.
Canine fear-related aggression toward humans
  • Radosta
Aggression towards unfamiliar people and other dogs: diagnosis and treatment
  • Fatjo
Fatjo, J., Manteca, X., 2003. Aggression towards unfamiliar people and other dogs: diagnosis and treatment. Eur. J. Comp. Anim. Pract. 13, 53-56.
Review of dog training methods: welfare, learning ability, and current standards
  • Makowska
Dog Training Standards, version 2 Prepared by the BC Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
  • I J Makowska
Makowska, I.J., 2018. Review of dog training methods: welfare, learning ability, and current standards. Dog Training Standards, version 2 Prepared by the BC Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, pp. 1-47 Vancouver, Canada.
Canine fear-related aggression toward humans. NAVC Clinician's Brief 20-22
  • L Radosta
Radosta, L., 2015. Canine fear-related aggression toward humans. NAVC Clinician's Brief 20-22 June 2015.
Comparison of 24 cases of canine fear-related aggression with structured, clinician-initiated follow-up and 42 cases with unstructured client-initiated follow-up. Current issues and research in veterinary behavioral medicine
  • L A Radosta-Huntley
  • I R Reisner
  • F S Shofer
Radosta-Huntley, L.A., Reisner, I.R., Shofer, F.S., 2005. Comparison of 24 cases of canine fear-related aggression with structured, clinician-initiated follow-up and 42 cases with unstructured client-initiated follow-up. Current issues and research in veterinary behavioral medicine. In: Presented at the 5th International Veterinary Behavior Meeting, pp. 42-47.