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Coping with COVID-19-induced threats to self
Abstract
Whereas the COVID-19 pandemic induces in people both uncertainty and angst, the latter may not be a direct consequence of uncertainty as such, but rather of the possible negative outcomes whose subjective certainty increased under the pandemic. From this perspective, we discuss the psychological determinants of people’s reactions to the pandemic and their modes of self-affirmation in response to pandemic-implied threats. Those reactions are guided by value-oriented narratives that may variously drive people’s pro- and anti-social behaviors during the pandemic.
... Uncertainty can create anxiety and trigger specific fears (Brashers, 2001). Kruglanski et al. (2021) reason that, in the context of Covid-19, two classes of threats prevail: threats to health and well-being and threats to economic security. These threats and the related fears trigger different processes. ...
... Economic threats, in contrast, trigger agency, rivalry, and competition; others are perceived as opponents (Kruglanski et al., 2021). People who are mainly afraid of the economic and societal consequences of lockdowns and other restrictions might thus turn away from established legacy media and instead turn to alternative media on which they encounter conspiracy theories. ...
... Prior work has found differential relationships between the two types of fears and vaccination acceptance or adherence to other preventive measures, but these differential effects were often not predicted or even opposite to the predictions (Bendau et al., 2021;Bruder & Kundert, 2022;Sobkov et al., 2020). By building on Kruglanski et al. (2021) and uncertainty management (Brashers (2001), we developed a model that proposes that fears are related to media consumption and avoidance. We provide first empirical evidence that fears focusing on health threats were positively related to vaccination acceptance via the consumption of newspapers and Covid-19 quality media and a reduced consumption of alternative media, whereas fears focusing on economic and societal threats were negatively related to vaccination acceptance via the consumption of general and Covid-19 specific alternative media. ...
Although research showed that media consumption during Covid-19 is related to preventive behaviours, we know less about why people turn to quality or alternative media in the first place. We focus on the role of different fears. More specifically, we assumed that fears focusing on health threats were positively associated with the consumption of quality media and negatively with the consumption of tabloids and alternative media. We expected the opposite pattern for fears focusing on economic and societal threats, and that media consumption mediated the relationship between fears and vaccination acceptance. A survey among a representative sample of Germans (N = 1080) showed that the fears correlated as expected positively with the consumption of the respective media type. However, the predicted negative relationships with the other media type often turned out as non-significant. The fears were differentially related to vaccination acceptance via media consumption, indicating the theoretical and practical value of differentiating between different types of fears.
... However, the links from uncertainties to distress and then to impulsive buying have not always been supported empirically. In fact, it was reported that people might even enjoy the uncertainty because they had time then for other activities or start new relationships (e.g.: Kruglanski et al., 2021). Thus, not all kinds of uncertainties might lead to distress. ...
... Firstly, regarding self uncertainty, individuals facing the disruption may question different domains of the selves and would validate their significance including life goals, worldviews (Pyszczynski et al., 2021), and the meaning of life (Seidel et al., 2022). As a result, the disruption may induce one's feeling of threat and self-doubt to his or her sense of selfworth (Kruglanski et al., 2021), lack of control (Mittal & Griskevicius, 2014), or existential threat (Menzies & Menzies, 2020). The disruption, thus, cause one's self identity uncertainty or self-uncertainty (Breakwell & Jaspal, 2021). ...
... In particular, on the one hand, empirical evidence seemed to show that the uncertainties did not always cause negative psychological symptoms. In fact, in some situation, people might even enjoy self uncertainty as it was time for them to play sports, gambling, and movies, or start new relationships (Kruglanski et al., 2021). The pandemic might also bring people the opportunities to increase the caring of their health and families (Li et al., 2020). ...
This study develops a theoretical model to explain the impacts of uncertainty events such as Covid-19 pandemic on consumers’ distress and the resulting impulsive buying behavior. Different from the extant perspective, two types of uncertainties are theorized to impact on distress differently. Moreover, two key moderators which are culture- and religiousness-related including mindfulness and afterlife belief are examined on the process toward the impulsive buying behavior. This can be considered as an important answer to the call by scholars to understand the roles of cultural and religious beliefs in defining consumer behaviors. A data sample of 410 consumers in Vietnam collected provides support for the hypotheses. Thus, our study contributes to the current literature related to the cultural and religious view on consumer behavior. Practical implications are also discussed. Finally, recommendations for further research are provided.
... During the COVID-19 pandemic, fear and uncertainty have dominated the social landscape and jeopardized the capacity of young people to envision a positive future and maintain purpose in their lives (1,2). Mounting evidence points to the negative consequences of the pandemic on adolescent and young adults' mental health (3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8). ...
... The present study aimed to examine the association of one's positive identity (i.e., future orientation, presence, and search of meaning in life) with support for VR in a sample of college students in Quebec (Canada) during the COVID-19 pandemic in a PYD perspective. The pandemic is responsible of high levels of uncertainty and life restrictions (e.g., lockdown, social distancing) which have been associated with increasing feelings of helplessness and hoplessness as well as with increased psychological distress worldwide, especially among young people (1,2). In this context, restoring a meaning in life and positive vision of the future may represent two promising ways to support young people and help them face the challenging uncertainty and losses brought about by the pandemic (69). ...
... Adolescents and early adults are among the age groups that have suffered the most during the pandemic in terms of mental health and social adjustment. Preliminary findings indicate that the pandemic has jeopardized young people's vision of the future and sense of purpose (1,2). In line with a PYD perspective, we must help students realign their personal assets with their rapidly evolving social contexts, which are presently characterized by fear and uncertainty. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has increased levels of uncertainty and social polarization in our societies, compromising young people's capacity to envision a positive future and maintain a meaningful sense of purpose in life. Within a positive youth development framework, the present study investigates the associations of a positive future orientation, presence of and search for meaning in life, and support for violent radicalization (VR) in a diverse sample of Canadian college students. In addition, we investigate the moderating role of future orientation in the association between presence of and search for a meaning in life and support for VR. A total of 3,100 college students in Québec (Canada) (69% female; Mage = 18.57, SDage = 1.76) completed an online survey during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Results from linear mixed-effects models indicate that a positive future orientation and a higher presence of a meaning in life were negatively and independently associated with support for VR. Search for meaning in life was not associated with support for VR. The magnitude of the negative association between presence of a meaning in life and support for VR was greater among students with a more positive future orientation. Schools and colleges are in a privileged position to implement preventive interventions to support a positive future orientation and the presence of a meaning in life among young people during these challenging and uncertain times and reduce the risk of violence related to extreme ideologies in our rapidly changing society.
... Threats concerning health and material welfare were thus accompanied by the crumbling of shared worldviews concerning the way things work. As a result, feelings of fear and uncertainty were raised [4]. ...
... . Pensando all'emergenza coronavirus, se dovessi provocare un d sentirei in colpa per il male arrecato.4. Pensando al coronavirus, quando vedo qualcuno che soffre prov In che misura ritiene ingiustifica governo italiano per fronteggiare l'em Le seguenti affermazioni riguardano la sua opinione circa il vaccin La preghiamo di indicare il suo grado di accordo con ciascuna di e 1. Sono preoccupato dei potenziali effetti collaterali del vaccino an 2. Mi sento incerto sulla sicurezza del vaccino anti COVID-19. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic represents an event that unsettled the social and economic life of many people. When individuals are faced with shocking events, they may need to find plausible explanations for such events to restore control and make sense of reality. The adoption of conspiracy beliefs may represent a functional strategy for this purpose. The present study investigated whether the endorsement of conspiracy beliefs may be associated with the degree to which an upsetting event (i.e., the COVID-19 pandemic) is perceived as incoherent with individuals’ general set of expectations about the world functioning (i.e., the natural order of things). Analyzing data from a community sample of 565 Italian participants, a path analysis model highlighted a mediation pattern where the natural order of things was negatively related to the adoption of conspiracy beliefs and, thus, was indirectly and positively related to support for the norms aimed at containing the spread of COVID-19, feelings of guilt about neglecting such norms, and intentions to be compliant with COVID-19 vaccination. Moreover, the natural order of things was indirectly and negatively related to attitudes focused on economic issues rather than public health and to negative attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccines through reduced beliefs in conspiracies.
... Data shows that containment measures have had, on average, a loss of about 15 percent in industrial production over a 30-day period following their implementation (Deb et al., 2020). The lockdowns and restrictions are inflicting a historic hit on the world's economy, and tens of millions of people are losing jobs, factories and small business are shuttered, many never to reopen (Kruglanski et al., 2021). So, try to get the economic recovery and normalization under encouraging people to "accentuate the positive" possibilities (Kruglanski et al., 2021) is very important. ...
... The lockdowns and restrictions are inflicting a historic hit on the world's economy, and tens of millions of people are losing jobs, factories and small business are shuttered, many never to reopen (Kruglanski et al., 2021). So, try to get the economic recovery and normalization under encouraging people to "accentuate the positive" possibilities (Kruglanski et al., 2021) is very important. Japanese government conducted different soft lockdown policies in different periods based on quantifying use SIR Macro model to examine infection from COVID-19 and economy (Kubota, 2021). ...
Since the outbreak of COVID-19, it became urgent to deal with the relationship between the prevention and control of the epidemic and the resumption of work and production. The purpose of this study is to observe and describe which approach seemed more important for the Chinese government and people, and how this trend evolved through time. To this end, a game model of resuming production and preventing the epidemic is constructed, using the evolutionary stable strategy (ESS). By combing China’s measures on epidemic prevention and resuming production during critical periods of epidemic outbreak, it is clarified that the present stage is considered a period of equal emphasis on both epidemic prevention and resuming production. Based on the dynamic between these two strategies and further theoretical research, present policies should equally focus on both preventive and controlling measures as well as on the socioeconomic development for most countries in the world.
... Previous studies on infection outbreaks and recent ones on the current COVID-19 pandemic have shown that pathogens like the coronavirus not only pose medical health problems, but also elicit a vast amount of anxiety and mental stress Robillard et al., 2020;Kruglanski et al., 2021). In line with current theorizing, we argue that anxiety is the central emotion in the response of an individual to the pandemic and, thus, influences how people respond to the threat of becoming contaminated (Van Bavel et al., 2020a,b). ...
... Various theories on intergroup threats (e.g., Stephan and Stephan, 2000;Neuberg and Cottrell, 2002), existential threats (Rosenblatt et al., 1989;Greenberg et al., 1997), or personal threats (Hogg, 2012) have also suggested that anxiety may elicit anger responses. The uncertainty that is characteristic of such threats has broader implications, bringing about threats to the self-esteem, life goals, or social relevance of an individual and thus motivating the restoration of the sense of self and significance in life of these individuals (Kruglanski et al., 2021). One of the ways in which this restoration can take place is by blaming others, who are seen as responsible for the negative outcomes in the lives of these individuals (e.g., Greenberg et al., 1997;van Prooijen, 2019). ...
The current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic elicits a vast amount of anxiety. In the current study, we investigated how anxiety related to COVID-19 is associated with support for and compliance with governmental hygiene measures, and how these are influenced by populist attitudes, anger at the government, and conspiracy mentalities. We conducted an online survey in April 2020 in four different countries (Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and the UK; N = 2,031) using a cross-sectional design. Results showed that (1) anxiety related to COVID-19 is associated with conspiracy beliefs, anger at the government, and populist attitudes, and (2) support for and compliance with hygiene measures are both positively predicted by anxiety related to COVID-19; however, (3) support for hygiene measures is also predicted by populist attitudes and negatively by conspiracy mentalities, whereas compliance with hygiene measures is more strongly predicted by anger at transgressors (anger at people transgressing the hygiene measures). Consequently, although anxiety related to COVID-19 concerns the health of individual people, it also has political and social implications: anxiety is associated with an increase in anger, either at transgressors or the government.
... Second, we focus on intergroup inequality -how the pandemic has exacerbated gender inequality (Fisher & Ryan, 2021) and ageism (Swift & Chasteen, 2021), influenced xenophobia and attitudes toward immigration (Esses & Hamilton, 2021), and encouraged greater awareness of racial inequality (Marshburn et al., 2021). Third, we turn to worldviews during COVID-19, examining the flourishing of conspiracy theories (Douglas, 2021) and science skepticism (Rutjens et al., 2021), and threats to the self, presented by the pandemic (Kruglanski et al., 2021). Finally, we focus on the pandemic's impact on behaviors, looking at how a move to virtual working has impacted group processes in the workplace (Blanchard, 2021), how it has influenced engagement with social activism (Grant & Smith, 2021), issues of social ostracism and wellbeing in the virtual world (Hales et al., 2021), and differing reactions to conformity and deviance (Packer et al., 2021). ...
... The authors highlight the domainspecific nature of anti-science beliefs, and predict an association between COVID-19 science skepticism and right-leaning political ideologies, due to the restrictions to personal and economic freedoms that responses to the pandemic present. Finally, (Kruglanski et al., 2021) explore COVID-19-induced threats to the self, and how acts of self-affirmation and significance restoration, actions determined by group identity and the shared reality of the ingroup, can influence the endorsement of conspiracy theories and anti-science beliefs. Together, these articles suggest that COVID-19 has had a powerful impact on how we view the world and our place in it, which in turn could influence our ability to manage the spread of the virus. ...
The impact of COVID-19 on our way of life is yet to be fully understood. However, social psychology theory and research offer insights into its effect on social attitudes and behaviors, and here we gather the views of a unique group of experts in group processes and intergroup relations. Group processes and intergroup relations are major factors in social resilience and change arising from the COVID-19 pandemic. This special issue was developed to foreground the crucial role of group processes and intergroup relations in the COVID-19 pandemic. This article provides an overview of the areas explored in the special issue. First, we focus on the impact on societies, covering the evolution of intergroup processes during the pandemic, leadership, social connectedness, cultural differences in responses, and social development. Second, we turn to intergroup inequality and focus on gender inequality, ageism, xenophobia, and racial bias during COVID-19. Third, we explore worldviews during the pandemic, specifically conspiracy theories, science skepticism, and existential threat. Finally, we focus on the pandemic’s impact on behaviors, covering virtual working, social activism, virtual ostracism, and conformity and deviance. We finish with a discussion of the value of social psychology in helping us understand the impact of COVID-19 on social attitudes and behavior. As this special issue shows, group processes and intergroup relations are central to the ways that individuals and society is dealing with the challenges of this pandemic.
... Previous studies on infection outbreaks and recent ones on the current COVID-19 pandemic have shown that pathogens like the coronavirus not only pose medical health problems, but also elicit a vast amount of anxiety and mental stress Robillard et al., 2020;Kruglanski et al., 2021). In line with current theorizing, we argue that anxiety is the central emotion in the response of an individual to the pandemic and, thus, influences how people respond to the threat of becoming contaminated (Van Bavel et al., 2020a,b). ...
... Various theories on intergroup threats (e.g., Stephan and Stephan, 2000;Neuberg and Cottrell, 2002), existential threats (Rosenblatt et al., 1989;Greenberg et al., 1997), or personal threats (Hogg, 2012) have also suggested that anxiety may elicit anger responses. The uncertainty that is characteristic of such threats has broader implications, bringing about threats to the self-esteem, life goals, or social relevance of an individual and thus motivating the restoration of the sense of self and significance in life of these individuals (Kruglanski et al., 2021). One of the ways in which this restoration can take place is by blaming others, who are seen as responsible for the negative outcomes in the lives of these individuals (e.g., Greenberg et al., 1997;van Prooijen, 2019). ...
The current COVID-19 pandemic elicits a vast amount of collective anxiety, which may also have broader societal and political implications. In the current study, we investigate the individual and social impact of this anxiety. We conducted an online survey in four different countries (Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and the UK; N=2031), examining whether anxiety about the Coronavirus leads to more approval of and compliance with hygiene measures deployed in those countries, and what role political beliefs play at this. We found significant differences between the four countries, with Spain marking highest anxiety as well as approval of and compliance with hygiene measures. Furthermore, three linear regressions showed that one’s anxiety is not only predicted by proximity to sources of infection (age, country, oneself or friends being infected), but also by political views (populist attitudes, anger at the government). Importantly, people who are anxious are also angry, at transgressors of hygiene rules or at their government. Thus, anger does not reduce one’s fear, but fear leads to more anger, especially in countries with the highest infection rates. Anxiety also leads to more approval of and compliance with hygiene measures, but again anger and political beliefs play a role in this relation. Whereas behavioral compliance is more predicted by fear and anger at others who transgress the rules, approval of the measures is better predicted by anxiety about the impact of Coronavirus and anger at the government.
... Существует множество теорий заговора, связанных с COVID-19, например, нарративы о том, что пандемия является фальсификацией, результатом умышленного распространения вируса Китаем или позволяет усилить контроль за населением со стороны «мировой закулисы» [van Mulukom et al., 2022;Latkin et al., 2022]. Особенно активно такие сюжеты распространялись в начале пандемии, когда уровень неопределенности был высок и людям требовались какие-то когнитивные инструменты для совладания с тревогой и обретения чувства контроля [Архипова 14 и др., 2020; Kruglanski et al., 2021]. Впрочем, вера в теории заговора и ковид-скептицизм -это пересекающиеся, но не тождественные явления: многие согласны с тем, что COVID-19 -это реальное заболевание, и не поддерживают конспирологические идеи, но тем не менее сомневаются в опасности вируса. ...
В ходе пандемии COVID-19 многие люди, в том числе в России, не воспринимали угрозу, исходящую от нового вируса, всерьез и игнорировали базовые меры предосторожности, такие как ношение масок и соблюдение социальной дистанции. В силу очевидной опасности, которую подобные взгляды и провоцируемое ими безответственное поведение представляют для других людей, феномен ковид-скептицизма стал объектом пристального интереса социологов и специалистов в сфере общественного здоровья. Однако большинство научных работ по теме фокусируются на установлении коррелятов ковид-скептицизма в статической, кросс-секционной перспективе. Настоящее исследование направлено на выявление социально-демографических и личностных факторов изменчивости индивидуальных установок по отношению к коронавирусу в российском контексте и пытается ответить на вопрос, какие характеристики отличают тех, кто перестает быть ковид-скептиками с течением времени, от тех, чьи установки меняются в обратном направлении. Для этого используются данные двух волн российской части лонгитюдного международного онлайн-опроса «Ценности в кризисе» (июнь 2020 г. и апрель — май 2021 г.). Доля скептиков среди участников опроса, принявших участие в обеих волнах, чуть менее чем за год сократилась с 37,4% до 31,6%. Среди повторно опрошенных 15,4% перестали быть ковид-скептиками, а 9,6% стали ими. Те, кто отказывается от скептической позиции, старше тех, кто ее принимает, имеют более высокий доход, больше тревожатся по поводу здоровья — как собственного, так и близких. Кроме того, бывшие скептики в большей степени (по сравнению с новыми) поддерживают ценности равенства и выбора (подвиды эмансипативных ценностей К. Вельцеля). Переход из группы нескептиков в группу скептиков (равно как и наоборот) также тесно ассоциируется со снижением (ростом) институционального доверия. Благодарность. Статья подготовлена в рамках гранта, предоставленного Министерством науки и высшего образования Российской Федерации (№ соглашения о предоставлении гранта: 075-15-2022-325).
... The findings in Italy are in line with research suggesting that those who believe in conspiracy theories are also characterised by an undervaluation of the COVID-19 risk perception (McCarthy et al., 2022;Romer & Jamieson, 2020). This negative association between COVID-19 health threat and conspiracy beliefs can also be theoretically interpreted in light of the proposition by Kruglanski et al. (2021) that COVID-19 health threat enhances a sense of fragility or weakness that heightens people's dependency on and need for trusting others for safety and support. Consistent with this reasoning, in the Italian sample we found COVID-19 health threat to be negatively linked to conspiracy beliefs, presumably because of such a tendency Lemay et al., 2021). ...
Theory and research suggest that threats aroused by a given crisis lead to conspiracy beliefs. Although crises involve
the arise of multiple threats (e.g., economic, safety, etc.) diversely affecting various needs and outcomes (i.e.,
cognition, emotion and behavior), no research has yet focused on specific relations that different threats may have with
the endorsement of conspiracy beliefs. In this study, we distinguished between health and economic threats aroused by the COVID-19 pandemic, and we tested their associations with conspiracy beliefs. Findings from two correlational studies
conducted in Italy and Argentina showed thatwhileCOVID-19’s economic threat was positively and consistently related to
conspiracy beliefs, the relationship between COVID-19’s health threat and conspiracy beliefs was negative and significant
in the Italian sample and non-significant in the Argentinian sample. Results are discussed within the context of the effects
of multiple threats elicited by crises on conspiracy beliefs.
... Positive measures like hope (Germann et al., 2015;Snyder et al., 1991), well-being (Medvedev & Landhuis, 2018), and morale (Shaban et al., 2017) reflect effective adversity management and are expected to correlate positively with one another. On the other hand, negative indicators are anxiety and depression symptoms (Cullen et al., 2020), a pervasive sense of danger (Kimhi et al., 2021), and perceived threats (Kruglanski et al., 2021), which collectively reflect challenges in coping with distressing situations such as war. ...
Objective: This study assesses the resilience of Israeli society during the ongoing Israel-Gaza conflict and pinpoints factors that influence this resilience in prolonged national crises.
Methods: A longitudinal study was carried out with two surveys, both using the same questionnaire to gauge societal, community, and individual resilience levels, along with hope, morale, distress, perceived threats, and government support. The initial survey was administered five days after the war escalated, and the second one month later.
Results: The study's results reveal a decline in societal resilience over time. The regression analysis identified four major associations at both resilience measurement points. The key variables are community resilience and hope, both contributing positively. Attitudes towards government support (specifically being a government supporter versus an opponent) also played a role. Additionally, there was a negative association with levels of religiosity, particularly distinguishing between ultra-orthodox and secular individuals. In the temporal analysis predicting future resilience, Societal Resilience at the first measurement was the strongest forecaster of its resilience at the second measurement.
Conclusions: The research suggests that the initial unifying effect of the conflict, similar to a 'Rally around the flag' phenomenon, may be short-lived. The study underlines the importance of community strength, hope, government support, and religious considerations in shaping societal resilience in the face of conflict.
... The uncertainty that characterizes such threats has broader implications and brings about threats to one's self-esteem, one's goals in life, or one's social relevance, and motivates the restoration of one's sense of self and significance in life (Kruglanski et al. 2021). One of the ways this restoration can occur is through blaming others who are seen as responsible for the negative outcomes in one's life (e.g., Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynski, 1997;van Prooijen, 2019). ...
In April 2020, only a few weeks after the COVID-19 pandemic had erupted, we conducted an online survey and collected data from 2031 individuals in four European countries (Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom) using a cross-sectional design. Participants recruited on Cint completed new and pre-existing measures of socio-political and populist attitudes perceived threats, appraisals (anger at the government, anger at transgressors of hygiene measures, anxiety about coronavirus via the appraisals of health-related threats), conspiracy mentality, moral reasoning, threat estimation (coronavirus, climate, symbolic material/safety), news consumption, support for and compliance with governmental hygiene measures, subjective social status and demographics. The dataset is stored on figshare repository. It can be used to study social-psychological, emotional, socio-political and socio-economic factors of the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Though each of these three indicators represents a different area of society's ability to cope with adversity, we would expect to get positive correlations among these indices. The three negative coping indicators include anxiety and depressive symptoms (Cullen et al., 2020), a sense of danger , and perceived threats (Kruglanski et al., 2021). ...
The study examined the resilience and coping of samples from Ukraine and five nearby countries during the war in Ukraine. The research focused on (1) the levels of community and societal resilience of the Ukrainian respondents compared with the populations of five nearby European countries and (2) commonalities and diversities concerning coping indicators (hope, well-being, perceived threats, distress symptoms, and sense of danger) across the examined countries. A cross-sectional study was conducted, based on data collection through Internet panel samples, representing the six countries' adult populations. Ukrainian respondents reported the highest levels of community and societal resilience, hope, and distress symptoms and the lowest level of well-being, compared to the population of the five nearby European countries. Hope was the best predictor of community and societal resilience in all countries. Positive coping variables, most notably hope, but also perceived well-being are instrumental in building resilience. While building resilience on a societal level is a complex, multifaceted task, various dimensions must be considered when planning actions to support these states. It is essential to monitor the levels of resilience, during and following the resolution of the crisis, both in Ukraine and in the neighboring countries.
... A large number of studies conducted during the COVID-19 outbreak have outlined the importance of individual predispositions and worldviews in regulating people's responses to pandemic challenges (e.g., Bonetto et al., 2021;Kruglanski et al., 2021;Tu et al., 2021;Wolf et al., 2020). Increasing attention has been dedicated to prosociality and its predictors, conceived as a collective remedy to protect individual wellbeing, safeguard communities, and recover societies from the negative impacts of the pandemic (Jordan et al., 2021;Ramkissoon, 2022;Zagefka, 2022). ...
Unlabelled:
Prosociality is often considered as quintessential in coping with the threats of health emergencies. As previous research has suggested, prosocial behaviors are shaped by both dispositional factors and situational cues about the helping situation. In the present research, we investigated whether "bonding" types of prosociality, helping directed towards close others within one's social network, and "bridging" types of prosociality, helping directed towards vulnerable people across group boundaries, are predicted by basic individual values and threat appraisals concerning COVID-19. During the pandemic, we conducted a cross-sectional study in the US and India (Ntotal = 954), using the Schwartz value inventory and a multifaceted measure of threat assessment to predict prosocial helping intentions. After controlling for other value and threat facets, self-transcendence values and threat for vulnerable groups uniquely predicted both bonding and bridging types of prosociality. Furthermore, threat for vulnerable groups partially mediated the effect of self-transcendence on prosocial helping intentions: People who endorsed self-transcendent values were particularly concerned by the effect of the pandemic on vulnerable groups, and thus willing to engage in prosocial behaviours to help those in need. Our findings support the idea that prosociality is stimulated by empathic concerns towards others in need and underline the importance for future research to consider the broad spectrum of threats appraised by people during health emergencies.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-023-04829-1.
... Another reason may be the time period of the survey. This study was performed during COVID-19, which may undermine the ability of youths to envision a positive future (Kruglanski et al., 2021;Lind et al., 2022). Highly uncertainty about the future enables youth to prefer immediate rewards, which may lead to small effects. ...
Based on the self-regulation theory, this study aims to examine the relationship between youths’ future orientation and judgment of their own immoral behaviors. A moderated mediation model was constructed to investigate the mediating role of moral disengagement and moderating role of self-control. Six hundred and twenty-eight Chinese youths, with an age range from 16 to 34 years (M = 23.08, SD = 2.65), were recruited to take part in an anonymous survey about future orientation, moral disengagement, self-control, and moral judgment. Results revealed that youths with high future orientation judged their own moral transgressions more harshly and that moral disengagement partially mediated the relationship between the two. Moderated mediation analysis further demonstrated that self-control moderated the relationship between future orientation and moral disengagement and the indirect effect between future orientation and youths’ judgment of their own immoral behaviors. To be specific, the indirect effect was much stronger for youths with high levels of self-control. These findings not only enrich the research about how future orientation affects youths’ judgment of their own immoral behaviors, but also reveal the underlying mechanisms between future orientation and moral judgment, which can provide practical guidance for implementing measures that effectively enhance youths’ moral character and cultivate their ability to think positively about the future.
... Consistent with the uncertainty-reduction function of informational influence, people also rely on norms to a greater extent during uncertain times to determine how to best behave in the situation (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004;Gelfand & Harrington, 2015). Both the salience and the uncertainty arguments suggest that norms might be especially potent during the COVID-19 pandemic (Kruglanski et al., 2021), because of the the continual emergence of new behaviours that quickly became normative (mask-wearing, social distancing and so on) and the multiple sources of uncertainty (about where the virus was coming from, how dangerous it really is, how it transmits, how to best limit the spread, etc.), respectively. ...
A growing volume of work suggests a positive impact of descriptive norms on health-protective behaviour in the COVID-19 pandemic. However, past work has often been correlational and has rarely compared the effect of different group norms. In the present paper, we present the results of a longitudinal study (N=1051) that addresses these gaps by testing the cross-sectional and cross-lagged effects of norms, and directly compared three different norms (close circle, neighbourhood, and country) on compliance with COVID-19 regulations. Results revealed a positive effect of the close circle norm (associated with more compliant behaviour both cross-sectionally and longitudinally), no effect of the neighbourhood norm, and a negative effect of the national norm (associated with less compliant behaviour). Compliant behaviour also led to a greater close circle norm longitudinally, suggesting that both feed into each other. We discuss the challenges but also the chances this research highlights for norm-based interventions.
... There is a demand to adapt to the circumstances that have been significantly changed (Bhasin, Gupta, & Malhotra, 2021). There is also ignorance that influences behavior patterns based on a person's knowledge (Kruglanski, Molinario, & Lemay, 2021). The pandemic has various interpretations that can be identified from social phenomena that refer to the current situation (MacGregor, Wilkinson, Leach, & Parker, 2020). ...
During the COVID-19 pandemic, abnormal conditions potentially lessened community partnerships in school-based management (SBM), such as democratic erosion at the decision-making or policy-making levels at school. To address these issues, this study aimed at investigating the implementation of SBM at an Islamic elementary school in Indonesia. In this study, a mixed-method research design was used, with 510 participants surveyed for quantitative data and 50 participants interviewed for qualitative data. During the pandemic, it was discovered that SBM did not perform as expected. Moreover, school principals had to make a majority of important decisions regarding the organization of school activities. They were also in charge of putting decisions and policies into action. These findings indicate that democratic principles were violated in the implementation of SBM during the pandemic. In other words, the principals and school committee partnership did not run well since the headmaster dominated the policy making on any activities without considering the voice of the school committee. Through these findings, it can be recommended that the government conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the implementation of SBM at the Islamic school level during the pandemic, and bring together principals and school committees in intense joint meetings.
... It continued in three main waves and substantially receded at the beginning of 2021, following a successful vaccination campaign. By April 19 th , 2021, 88% of individuals the age of 50 years or higher were vaccinated with two vaccine doses [6]. By June 21 Israel faced the fourth wave of morbidity which led to a decision to inoculate the adult population with a third (booster) vaccination. ...
Background
Varied populations may react differently to similar crises, depending on their social, cultural, and personal backgrounds; conversely, the same populations may respond differently to varied adversities. The current study aimed to examine three types of resilience (individual, community, and societal resilience) predicting six coping mechanisms (sense of danger, anxiety and depressive symptoms, well-being, hope, and morale) among the same sample of people that faced across two different adversities—COVID-19 and an armed conflict.
Methods
Two repeated measurements of the same Israeli sample (N = 593) were employed, through an internet panel. The research variables were examined through a structured, quantitative questionnaire that consisted of nine scales, based on validated and reliable questionnaires.
Results
Results indicated that: (a) respondents reported more difficulties in coping with the COVID-19 crisis, compared to the armed conflict, in all variables but morale. (b) similar patterns of correlations among the study variables were found in both measurements. (c) path's analysis indicated similar patterns of prediction of distress and well-being by individual and societal resilience. Use of the coping mechanism varied depending on the perception of the threat: COVID -19 is perceived as a less familiar and predictable adversity, which is harder to cope with, compared with the more familiar risk – an armed conflict, which is a recurrent threat in Israel. The correlations between the investigated psychological responses and the impacts of resilience on the coping and distress mechanism were similar in both adversities.
Conclusions
The results indicate that respondents tend to react in a similar pattern of associations among resilience, distress, and well-being across different adversities, such as COVID and armed conflict. However, individuals tend to regard unfamiliar, less predictable adversities as more complex to cope with, compared to better-known crises. Furthermore, respondents tend to underestimate the risks of potential familiar adversities. Healthcare professionals must be aware of and understand the coping mechanisms of individuals during adversities, to appropriately design policies for the provision of medical and psychological care during varied emergencies.
... This theory asserts that individuals are motivated to maintain their self-integrity, which includes being a good group member. Thus, a threat to self-integrity, such as a pandemic, may result in a defensive state that increases motivation to help one's society in order to help one's self [99]. Hence, in our case, altruism is found to be a self-integrity mechanism which leads to higher behavioral engagement. ...
The purpose of this study is to establish which message appeal is more effective in generating consumer engagement with social media posts of small and medium-sized agri-food businesses that promote direct-to-consumer sales during a COVID-19 type crisis. Using quantitative content analysis, 1024 posts from 48 Israeli farmers' Facebook brand pages were categorized into altruistic messages (ethnocentric, toward farmers, toward the environment, and maintaining public health) and egoistic messages (economic, emotional, functional, and hedonic values). The effectiveness of the message appeals was determined by consumer behavioral engagement (comments, shares and likes) with the posts. The results show that farmers used more egotistic arguments (mainly functional and hedonic motives) than altruistic arguments during the three stages of the crisis. However, a one-way ANOVA test revealed that posts with altruistic messages (specifically, altruism toward farmers) or posts that combine altruistic and egoistic motivations equally yielded significantly more consumer behavioral engagement. Practical recommendations regarding agri-food communications in times of crisis are given.
... When the external environment becomes unpredictable and unstable, the individual's sense of self-certainty decreases and the motivation for group identification increases (Hogg, 2007). The pandemic and the related restrictions formed an unstable and unpredictable environment which affected people's lives within groups, their sense of belonging to them and, consequently, their social identity (see also Kruglanski et al., 2021, for threats towards the self). ...
COVID-19 pandemic had a profound negative impact on people’s personal and social life. In this chapter, after some conceptual clarifications, we provide insights into the effects of ostracism on people’s well-being as individuals, partners, and group members. Specifically, we explore (a) individual- and personality-based risk factors of ostracism (intrapersonal level); (b) deprivation of social touch, disruption of empathy and social stigmatization in interpersonal relations (interpersonal level); and (c) disruption of social identity, social stigmatization and rise in prejudiced, discriminatory, and xenophobic tendencies within groups (intergroup level). The contribution of this chapter lies in proposing an interplay among intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intergroup dimensions of identity, that is, a multi-level conceptualization of ostracism during the covidian era. By integrating theoretical arguments and research findings, we support the view that personal identity commitment and identification with social groups have similar roots, both based on the individual’s need to formulate meaningful connections to the world and, thus, cope with as well as prevent ostracism. The implications of the interplay between personal and social identity for the measurement of ostracism are also discussed. Next, strategies for tackling ostracism during the pandemic or similar widespread crises are proposed. Finally, avenues for future research are suggested.
... Moreover, it has been shown that endorsement of a variety of unrelated conspiracy theories is associated with negative attitudes toward vaccination (Jolley and Douglas, 2014;Lewandowsky et al., 2015). In the last 15 years many studies have investigated broader conspiratorial theories and found that they respond to at least three individual sorts of needs: epistemic needs, reflecting the desire to satisfy curiosity and to avoid uncertainty in understanding individuals' environment; existential needs, as the desire to restore a threatened sense of security and control (see Kruglanski et al., 2021); social needs, including the desire to maintain a positive image of the self and the social group (see Douglas, 2021 for a review). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has greatly impacted individual’s life and society, and such an emergency has increased the likelihood of recurring conspiratorial thinking. There is much research on broader conspiratorial thinking and studies on COVID-19-related conspiratorial thinking has been growing worldwide, moreover, the negative consequences of COVID-19 specific conspiratorial beliefs for people’s health are clear. However, person-centered research aiming at identify groups of individuals who share patterns of relations between COVID-19 specific conspiratorial beliefs and other psychological features is still scarce. A sample of 1.002 people (18–40 years old, M = 23; SD = 5.19) responded to a questionnaire administered online. The aim was to identify groups of individuals based on their beliefs about COVID-19 conspiracy theories and to compare the groups identified in terms of psychological characteristics associated such as automatic defense mechanisms, coping strategies, powerlessness, emotions, emotional regulation, attitudes toward the COVID-19, social distancing discontent, perceptions of COVID-19 severity and temporal perspective. A k-mean cluster analysis identified the groups of Believers (22.26%), Ambivalent believers (34.3%), and Non-believers (43.21%). The three groups differ particularly in terms of defense mechanisms, and time perspective. Results suggested the need to tailor interventions for individuals believing in COVID-19 conspiratorial theories based on differences in the psychological characteristics among the three groups.
... Moreover, evidence is emerging that home isolation of children may result in increased loneliness, anxiety, depression and possibly even post-traumatic stress disorder, self-harm and suicide (e.g., Cullen, Gulati, & Kelly, 2020;Kumar & Nayar, 2020). These detrimental impacts may extend to learning, educational underachievement, and reduced cognitive and emotional health (e.g., Kruglanski, Molinario, & Lemay, 2021;Orgilés et al., 2021), leading Schwalb and Seas (2021) to ask: what went wrong in Perú? ...
Most of the literature that has emerged about the impacts of home isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic suggests it causes mildly to acutely adverse psychosocial and physiological responses, particularly in children. Such responses relate to the separation children experience from their normal routine, including loneliness, anxiety, and depression, and adversities associated with school performance.
In this case study, we explore the intersection between three phenomena in Perú: (1) practice of Transcendental Meditation by school students at a (2) provincial school during (3) home isolation. The study conducted semi-structured interviews at a school in Puno with seven students, three parents, and two teachers. A proto-theoretical model of stress, the stress response, and outcomes in three psychosocial categories—cognitive, affective, and conative—guide the research. Findings suggest the practice had a salutary effect on student experience and academic achievement, including multifactorial benefits related to learning, calmness, anxiety, and grades.
... Overall, study findings reflect a reciprocal interaction of older adults' personal and environmental systems (Moos & Holahan, 2003) to support their coping, although their environmental systems seemed to be highly influential over the long-term. Indeed, this premise has been supported wherein people who prioritize pro-social and communal interactions to promote unity and fight divisiveness supported their coping with COVID-19 related challenges (Kruglanski et al., 2021). ...
Objectives: The objective of this study is to longitudinally examine the coping strategies used by older cancer survivors (≥60 years of age) during COVID-19. Methods: An interpretive descriptive approach was used to collect and analyse qualitative data collected via 1:1 telephone interviews at three timepoints: June/July 2020, January 2021, and March 2021. Main Findings: Coping strategies used by older adults reflected the resources available to them, and their agency in self-triaging and deciding on resources to support their coping. These decisions were impacted by pandemic-imposed restrictions and necessitated readjustment over time. Three themes were developed to describe coping strategies (including any changes): adapting means and methods to connect with others; being intentional about outlook; and taking actions toward a brighter future. Conclusion: Older adults used a variety of coping strategies, though their reliance on resources beyond themselves (e.g., family/friends) indicates a need to add tailored resources to existing professional services.
... Furthermore, the number of Israeli confirmed cases of the pandemic, as well as the overall mortality and morbidity was much higher, compared with the victims of the last armed conflicts. Consequently, the level of uncertainty due to the COVID-19 pandemic is much higher, compared with the armed conflicts that Israel has been involved with in the past decades [42]. In this context, we assume that a sense of hope is more crucial in coping with the COVID-19 pandemic than with the ongoing security issues. ...
Coping with adversities has been explained by two major theories: the fear appeal theory and the hope theory. The predictability of hope with that of fear of threats as variables explaining coping with two major adversities, the COVID-19 pandemic and an armed conflict, was compared. Participants were approached via an internet panel company in two different times: (1) January 2021 (N = 699; age range: 18–82; 330 women), during the third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Israel and (2) May 2021 (N = 647; age range: 19–83; 297 women), during an armed conflict between Israel and Hamas. Participants self-reported on hope, four perceived threats (health, economics, security, and political), well-being, individual resilience, societal resilience, and distress symptoms (anxiety and depression symptoms) were collected. Hope was found as a more consistent and stronger predictor of the following expressions of coping: well-being, individual and societal resilience, depression, and anxiety. It can be concluded that hope is a better and more consistent predictor of coping, as well as coping suppressing expressions, compared with fear of threats, in the face of the current adversities. The innovative nature of these findings, the importance of hope as a coping supporter, and the need for replicating these innovative results are discussed and elaborated.
... In a crisis such as a global pandemic caused by a new virus, everything becomes less predictable and stable, and one's group identity can become vulnerable (Abrams et al., 2021). When one's group identity is threatened (here, by an unstable and unpredictable pandemic situation), members will identify more with their in-group but also differentiate themselves more from out-groups (and even more when the out-groups can be identified as a possible origin of the threat), and thus express more prejudice (Kruglanski et al., 2021). ...
Recent research has extensively investigated how the current COVID-19 pandemic can affect
intergroup relations. Much less is known about the impact of COVID-19 on economic and trade
decisions. Could the intergroup effects of this pandemic shape support for international economic
policies? The aim of this study was to examine the support for restrictive economic policies towards
countries with very high levels of COVID-19 contamination (China and Italy) during the first
lockdown period (March - April 2020). The survey was conducted in Romania (N = 669) and included
measures of COVID-19 vulnerability, prejudice, and support for economic restrictive policy (e.g., to
reduce international trade; to set higher taxes). Results showed that higher support for restrictive
policies toward China was associated with greater perceived vulnerability to COVID-19 and this link
was partially mediated by prejudice toward China. In contrast, support for economic restrictive
policies toward Italy was greater when perceived vulnerability to COVID-19 was high, but this
relationship between variables was not explained by negative attitudes towards Italy. Practical and
theoretical implications are discussed.
... Without rehashing the realities and ramifications of this worldwide event, as this has already been documented by scholars interested or operating within perhaps almost every national and disciplinary context (Kruglanski et al., 2021;MacMullin et al., 2020;Marciano, 2021;Yohannes, 2021;Zahra, 2020), in this article I would like to engage with the notion of the pandemic raising more pertinent issues regarding the pre-pandemic discourse on technology use, particularly in higher education, as having a 'salvific role in universally elevating education standards' (Felix, 2021, p. 2). In previous work, I have both discussed and alluded to this utopiantype discourse, especially as an underlying technological determinism is often present with technology-based and technology-focused initiatives, particularly in higher education (Felix, 2019b). ...
This disruptive nature of the COVID-19 pandemic has created a large-scale scramble to translate offline modes of instruction to online teaching. Furthermore, this massive shift in teaching and learning in general and higher education, in particular, has seen those digital technologies being used for teaching and learning offer convergent modalities for synchronous and asynchronous classroom delivery. The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on education globally indicates that while the affordances of digital technologies provide interesting opportunities for teaching and learning, in no way has it definitively proven to be as emancipatory or revolutionary as some proponents of educational technology have argued before the pandemic occurred. Also, rather than merely reflect, highlight, or exacerbate inequalities, divisions, and conflicts in the real world, the social phenomenon of online teaching en masse due the pandemic serves to demonstrate the importance of multimodal communication and the very social nature of university learning and formal education more broadly. Arguably, the digital identity of both students and teachers have been in constant negotiation since the start of this pandemic has occurred, as online teaching moved from being a marginal pedagogical practice to a widespread social phenomenon. At this juncture in world history, it is worth considering the viability of higher education and the social production of teachers and learners under the unstable and disruptive conditions brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. The implications of this critical intervention pertain to the evolving role of the social institution of the academy itself, the nature of disciplinarity, and the activity that occurs within higher education institutions.
... Lastly, Model 3 tested the conjoint sequential effect [103] of empathy and clarity in fully mediating the effect of fear of COVID-19 on hopelessness. These findings suggest that negative feelings due to an external/contextual situation (such as fear of COVID-19) might activate a "need for cognitive closure" [120][121][122] towards the "outside", which might lead the patient to perceive the doctor's communication as less empathic and/or clear [64][65][66][67][68] and to experience greater levels of hopelessness [123,124]. Instead, when intense feelings of fear of COVID-19 are not experienced, the "need for cognitive closure" would not be activated, leading the patient to perceive the doctor's communication as more empathic and/or clear [69,125,126]. In other words, these findings show that a PCC characterized by empathy and clarity would buffer the adverse effects of fear of COVID-19 on hopelessness. ...
Background:
COVID-19 represents a threat both for the physical and psychological health of oncological patients experiencing heightened distress levels to which the fear of the virus is also added. Moreover, fear of COVID-19 could lead oncological patients to experience feelings of hopelessness related to their medical care. Patient-centered communication may act as a buffer against the aforementioned variables. This study aimed to test the role of doctor-patient communication in the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and hopelessness.
Methods:
During the COVID-19 pandemic, a sample of 90 oncological outpatients was recruited (40 males (44.4%) and 50 females (55.6%), mean age = 66.08 (SD = 12.12)). A structured interview was developed and used during the pandemic to measure the patients' perceived (A) fear of COVID-19, and (B) feelings of hopelessness, and (C) physicians' use of empathetic and (D) clear language during the consultation. A multiple mediation model was tested, and the effects between males and females were also compared.
Results:
Empathetic and clear doctor-patient communication buffered the adverse effect of the fear of COVID-19 on hopelessness through a full-mediation model. The effects did not differ between males and females in the overall model but its indirect effects.
Discussions:
Patient-centered communication using empathy and clear language can buffer the adverse effect of the fear of COVID-19 and protect oncological patients from hopelessness during the pandemic. These findings might help to improve clinical oncological practice.
... This is indicative of a strategy to protect the self from negative information, such as stereotypes about ageing (Weiss & Lang, 2012) and the threat of COVID-19, by feeling younger (Terracciano et al., 2020). For older adults, psychologically distancing themselves from their age could protect them from threats to their identity, but it could also mean they do not recognize themselves in the descriptive language used by the media or policymakers, because the descriptions do not conform to how they view themselves (see Kruglanski et al., 2021, for discussion of threats to self during . This, in turn, could influence engagement in preventative behaviours to reduce the transmission of COVID-19 if they are not deemed relevant to the self. ...
In this article, we outline how the response to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has the potential to fundamentally change how we think and feel about our own age, and how we think and feel about other age groups. Specifically, we outline how discourse surrounding the pandemic has strengthened the homogeneous view of older adults as vulnerable, has socially stigmatized being an older adult, and has exacerbated hostile and benevolent expressions of ageism. We explore the impact of these changing dynamics on intergenerational cohesion and relations, and propose that understanding theories of ageism will be essential for how we handle future pandemics in order to reduce the potential negative impact of crises on individuals as well as on communities and societies.
... One goal may be to protect the group's positive image and reputation, which can be threatened when an ingroup member violates an important norm (see Kruglanski et al., 2021, for discussion of COVID-19-induced threats to self). There are multiple routes to reduce this threat, which include derogating the transgressor (black sheep effect), but also finding ways to justify their behavior (intergroup hypocrisy). ...
We have seen massive global behavioral change as billions of people radically altered their ways of life in response to COVID-19. Here, we review how research on conformity and deviance can inform understanding of and effective responses to the pandemic. Group identities are critical for understanding who is influenced by whom, as well as how partisan divisions can obstruct cohesive and coordinated action. We identify several questions highlighted by the pandemic, including when people will react more harshly to ingroup members who violate health-protective norms (black sheep effect) or to outgroup members violating the same norms (intergroup hypocrisy). As a working hypothesis, we propose a goal-based approach, positing that differentially negative reactions to ingroup and outgroup deviants are likely influenced by the relative salience of goals to protect ingroup image, enforce group norms, maintain intergroup boundaries, and seek justice for potential victims put at risk by norm-violating behavior.
... SARS-CoV-2 is a global societal threat. By societal threat, we mean a natural or human-caused threat that can adversely affect a large portion of a human population (see Kruglanski et al., 2021, for discussion of COVID-19-induced threats to self). Infecting more than 46 million in 235 countries and regions worldwide according to the World Health Organization (2020; as of November 4, 2020), the COVID-19 pandemic is truly global in scale, and its impact is not limited to the health of the current human generation. ...
The COVID-19 global pandemic has brought into sharp focus the urgency of tackling the question of how globalized humanity responds to a global societal threat, which can adversely affect a large portion of the human population. Changing geospatial distribution of COVID-19 morbidity paints a gloomy picture of cross-national differences in human vulnerabilities across the globe. We describe the dynamic nexus among societal – particularly pathogen – threat, social institutions, and culture, and discuss collectivism (ingroup favouritism and outgroup avoidance) and tightness (narrow prescription of behaviours and severe punishment of norm violations) as potential cultural adaptations to prevalent pathogen threats. We then sketch out a theoretical framework for cultural dynamics of collective adaptation to pathogen threats, outline a large number of theory- and policy-relevant research questions and what answers we have at present, and end with a call for renewed efforts to investigate collective human responses to societal threats.
... If the external environment becomes less stable and less predictable, self-certainty is likely to become more focal but also more vulnerable. Uncertainty about one's self and identity motivates stronger group identification and it also increases people's quest for positive group and intergroup outcomes associated with their ingroup memberships (Hogg, 2007(Hogg, , 2012; see also Kruglanski et al., 2021, for further discussion on threats to self). ...
COVID-19 is a challenge faced by individuals (personal vulnerability and behavior), requiring coordinated policy from national government. However, another critical layer—intergroup relations—frames many decisions about how resources and support should be allocated. Based on theories of self and social identity uncertainty, subjective group dynamics, leadership, and social cohesion, we argue that this intergroup layer has important implications for people’s perceptions of their own and others’ situation, political management of the pandemic, how people are influenced, and how they resolve identity uncertainty. In the face of the pandemic, initial national or global unity is prone to intergroup fractures and competition through which leaders can exploit uncertainties to gain short-term credibility, power, or influence for their own groups, feeding polarization and extremism. Thus, the social and psychological challenge is how to sustain the superordinate objective of surviving and recovering from the pandemic through mutual cross-group effort.
Purpose: The purpose of this study is to develop the Theory of Uncertainty on COVID-19 using the strategy of theory derivation. Methods: Theory derivation was carried out in the following steps: review the literature to explore the phenomena related to uncertainty on COVID-19; select a parent theory that provides valuable concepts and a useful structure for derivation, and identify the concepts and structure of the parent theory to use in derivation; modify and redefine the concepts and structure of the parent theory to create a derived theory. In the literature review process, relevant findings were synthesized to support the propositions of the derived theory. Results: The Theory of Uncertainty on COVID-19 was derived from the Uncertainty in Illness Theory to make it relevant and applicable to a specific aspect of uncertainty on COVID-19, health-related uncertainty perceived by a person who has not contracted COVID-19. It is a middle-range theory targeting the general population and consists of a linear and unidirectional model centered on three themes: antecedents of uncertainty, appraisal of uncertainty, and coping with uncertainty. Conclusion: The Theory of Uncertainty on COVID-19 will be able to contribute to efforts to manage perceived uncertainty on pandemic diseases and improve individual biopsychosocial health in the future.
The denotation and use of us and them have been used in various political discourses to either assimilate or alienate groups of people. Numerous political leaders have used both pronouns in their online narratives throughout different social media platforms in an effort to gain political mileage. This study aims to explore the notion of positive self-representation of us and the negative representation of them with the focus on the lexicon “kita” and “mereka” that influences public perception. The study is a phenomenological qualitative study that applied van Dijk’s critical discourse analysis method and the theory of ideological square. Samples were taken from Tan Sri Muhyiddin bin Md Yassin’s online live Wesak Day speech on May 6, 2020, and a speech by Dato’ Sri Ismail Sabri bin Yaakob in the 14th Parliamentary seating on July 18, 2022. The study applied a micro-level analysis of both lexicons. It can be concluded that both speeches have extremely different connotations and interpretations that are both favourable and unfavourable to both politicians.
Identities related to age, language (ESL), religion, and region are explored. Barriers to dismantling isms related to age, language, religion and region are discussed. The barriers (social dominance theory, systemic oppression/privilege, internalized oppression/privilege, unconscious and automatic activation of stereotypes, and prejudices) need to be deconstructed in order for action plans to work. The chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding concepts correctly since isms are different from prejudice, discrimination, and microaggression. Misunderstanding or inappropriate use of concepts interferes with developing effective action plans for equity and justice. For example, action plans for ageism involve working on changing or modifying laws, policies, or rules. However, discrimination against an older adult involves asking specific questions with civility to make sure both parties understand the problem correctly in order to develop effective action plans. The chapter also illustrates the intersectionality of the whole person’s identities (e.g., race, gender, sexual orientation, class, impairment/disability, age, language, religion, and region, etc.) enables an invisible or partially visible person to be totally visible. The chapter provides transformative learning activities immediately after discussing the relevant concept for readers to connect the concept to their lived experience which facilitates knowing their inner experience.
The COVID-19 pandemic is sometimes referred to as a pandemic of social isolation because it has a crucial effect on people’s social interactions, with potential social ramifications. Although social isolation and loneliness have existed even before the pandemic, the issue had never been so rampant until the government issued the stay-at-home directive, with quarantine effects on those infected with the disease. The Movement Control Order (MCO) imposed by the government had also caused social separations among families and friends. This inadvertently, showed that the pandemic had contributed to the erosion of relationships and social connections among people, to the extent that many families, colleagues, and friends became increasingly disconnected from each other. This chapter seeks to understand the individuals’ perception on the consequences of social isolation, and whether or not this was perceived to be a boon or bane. The chapter further explores the implications of the pandemic associated with social isolation, and the re-entry anxiety experienced by employees. As nations around the world transit to an endemic state, this chapter discusses the role of individuals and organisations in reducing the re-entry anxiety, primarily from the social relationship perspective.
The present research explored the influence of thinking style and the perception of threats to health and wealth on protective actions and well-being within the framework of the first wave of COVID-19 in Spain. We expected that an abstract (versus concrete) thinking style would be related to greater protective behaviours while maintaining a higher sense of well-being. Through an online questionnaire (N = 1,043), we explored these relationships and found that the most severe perceived threats to health and wealth and the highest degree of abstraction were associated with the greatest protective behaviours. Importantly, when people did not feel very threatened, those who thought abstractly reported more protective behaviours. Regarding well-being, when people perceived greater threats, those who had an abstract thinking style reported greater well-being. Against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic, the present research provides support indicating that an abstract thinking style is a protective factor against adversities because it is related to protective behaviours and increased well-being even when people perceive severe health and wealth threats.
The present study addresses creativity as an employee strategy adopted to deal with challenges and distinguishes between incremental creativity (i.e., minor modifications to existing practices) and radical creativity (i.e., major departures from current practices). We hypothesize that employee self-reported mindfulness and other-rated personal initiative relate to increases in incremental and radical creativity throughout the COVID-19 crisis. We also expect that while increases in incremental creativity relate to increases in employee development and wellbeing, increases in radical creativity only relate to increases in employee development. To test our expectations, we conducted a 2-wave survey study among 642 professionals (and their 245 coworkers) from different occupations in May 2020 (Time 1) and in September 2020 (Time 2), asking respondents to provide retrospective baseline behavior before COVID-19 (Time 0). Latent change score analyses revealed that respondents who increased their incremental creativity after COVID-19, also reported higher development and wellbeing. Respondents who increased their radical creativity, reported higher development. Mindfulness was unrelated to both types of creativity and, unexpectedly, personal initiative related to a T1-T2 decrease in incremental creativity. Additional analyses revealed that mindfulness positively related to T0-T1 change in incremental creativity when personal initiative was high, while this link was negative when personal initiative was low.
In this article, I engage with the notion of the COVID-19 pandemic raising more pertinent issues regarding the pre-pandemic discourse on technology use in higher education, often marked by deterministic thinking. Moreover, I will comment on the implications of the social ecosystem of the university, the nature of disciplinarity and knowledge production, and the social production of teachers and learners taking into account the unstable and disruptive conditions brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. This even saw innumerable higher education institutions across the globe make a dramatic shift to online learning with very uneven and perhaps precarious results overall. Digital technology in higher education is hardly a magic bullet to address the issue of the sector in light of the realities of the post-COVID world, while it can be leveraged to ensure that some progress is made, as is the case with online teaching moving from a marginal pedagogical practice to a widespread social phenomenon. Online teaching exclusively or even in hybrid mode teaching can present practical issues in terms of how disciplinarity is practiced in addition to how teaching and learning may be conducted. While the institutional reflexivity that is characteristic of late Modernity has led constituents to the higher education system to sector-wide reconsiderations of how tertiary-level study can the best possible social outcomes, there might no longer be the several concrete possibilities or futures to envisage, but rather ambiguous situations that require greater degrees of responsiveness to new information and realities that present itself as ‘new normals’.
Conspiracy theories started to appear on social media immediately after the first news about COVID-19. Is the virus a hoax? Is it a bioweapon designed in a Chinese laboratory? These conspiracy theories typically have an intergroup flavour, blaming one group for having some involvement in either manufacturing the virus or controlling public opinion about it. In this article, I will discuss why people are attracted to conspiracy theories in general, and why conspiracy theories seem have flourished during the pandemic. I will discuss what the consequences of these conspiracy theories are for individuals, groups and societies. I will then discuss some potential strategies for addressing the negative consequences of conspiracy theories. Finally, I will consider some open questions for research regarding COVID-19 conspiracy theories, in particular focusing on the potential impact of these conspiracy theories for group processes and intergroup relations.
We propose a new theoretical model depicting the compensatory relations between personal agency and social assistance. It suggests two general hypotheses, namely that (1) the stronger the individuals’ sense of personal agency, the weaker their motivation to utilize social assistance and the greater their consequent tendency to develop anti-social attitudes. Conversely, (2) the stronger the individuals’ reliance on social assistance, the weaker their motivation to be agentic, and the lesser their tendency to develop a strong sense of self. These relations are assumed to apply across levels of generality, that is, concerning agency and assistance within a single goal domain, as well as across domains where the source of agency (e.g., money, power) or assistance facilitates the attainment of multiple goals.
At the time of this writing, the world finds itself in the grip of an unprecedented calamity: the COVID 19 pandemic, the worst such outbreak in living memory. Starting at the Chinese city of Wuhan in December 2019, the virus spread quickly across the planet. Over 37 million persons, globally, have been infected so far and the worst may be yet to come. Over 7.6 million Americans were infected, and over 214,000 died as a consequence. Millions are expected to succumb to the plague, the world economy is taking a historic hit. People are losing jobs, some to be never recovered. Factories and small business are shuttered, many to never reopen. Health systems of the world’s nations are stretched to their limits, social services and functions (transportation, education, entertainment, leisure) are near paralysis. Millions are cooped up in their homes: lonely and disoriented, the structures of their daily routines in shambles. Nobody is exempt. All are vulnerable.
These somber circumstances induce a sense of fragility and helplessness in millions of individuals. Their sense of personal agency is severely threatened, their need for assistance and support is much magnified. And a fundamental question to psychological science is what impact this has on people’s social relations, their attachment to others, their interpersonal orientations, and their attitudes. In the present article, we address such questions by reviewing an extensive body of relevant empirical findings in the social psychological literature and proposing an integrative model that offers new perspectives on the phenomena at stake.
The current research examined the role of values in guiding people’s responses to COVID-19. Results from an international study involving 115 countries (N = 61,490) suggest that health and economic threats of COVID-19 evoke different values, with implications for controlling and coping with the pandemic. Specifically, health threats evoked prioritization of communal values related to caring for others and belonging, whereas economic threats predicted prioritization of agentic values focused on competition and achievement. Concurrently and over time, prioritizing communal values over agentic values was associated with enactment of prevention behaviors that reduce virus transmission, motivations to help others suffering from the pandemic, and positive attitudes toward outgroup members. These results, which were generally consistent across individual and national levels of analysis, suggest that COVID-19 threats may indirectly shape important responses to the pandemic through their influence on people’s prioritization of communion and agency. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
In this article, we outline how the response to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has the potential to fundamentally change how we think and feel about our own age, and how we think and feel about other age groups. Specifically, we outline how discourse surrounding the pandemic has strengthened the homogeneous view of older adults as vulnerable, has socially stigmatized being an older adult, and has exacerbated hostile and benevolent expressions of ageism. We explore the impact of these changing dynamics on intergenerational cohesion and relations, and propose that understanding theories of ageism will be essential for how we handle future pandemics in order to reduce the potential negative impact of crises on individuals as well as on communities and societies.
COVID-19 is a challenge faced by individuals (personal vulnerability and behavior), requiring coordinated policy from national government. However, another critical layer—intergroup relations—frames many decisions about how resources and support should be allocated. Based on theories of self and social identity uncertainty, subjective group dynamics, leadership, and social cohesion, we argue that this intergroup layer has important implications for people’s perceptions of their own and others’ situation, political management of the pandemic, how people are influenced, and how they resolve identity uncertainty. In the face of the pandemic, initial national or global unity is prone to intergroup fractures and competition through which leaders can exploit uncertainties to gain short-term credibility, power, or influence for their own groups, feeding polarization and extremism. Thus, the social and psychological challenge is how to sustain the superordinate objective of surviving and recovering from the pandemic through mutual cross-group effort.
What fuels radicalization? Is de-radicalization a possibility? The Three Pillars of Radicalization: Needs, Narratives, and Networks addresses these crucial questions by identifying the three major determinants of radicalization that progresses into violent extremism. The first determinant is the need: individuals’ universal desire for personal significance. The second determinant is narrative, which guides members in their “quest for significance.” The third determinant is the network, or membership in one’s group that validates the collective narrative and dispenses rewards like respect and veneration to members who implement it.
In this book, Arie W. Kruglanski, Jocelyn J. Bélanger, and Rohan Gunaratna present a new model of radicalization that takes into account factors that activate the individual’s quest for significance. Synthesizing varied empirical evidence, this volume reinterprets prior theories of radicalization and examines major issues in deradicalization and recidivism, which will only become more relevant as communities continue to negotiate the threat of extremism.
We outline a general psychological theory of extremism and apply it to the special case of violent extremism (VE). Extremism is defined as motivated deviance from general behavioral norms and is assumed to stem from a shift from a balanced satisfaction of basic human needs afforded by moderation to a motivational imbalance wherein a given need dominates the others. Because motivational imbalance is difficult to sustain, only few individuals do, rendering extreme behavior relatively rare, hence deviant. Thus, individual dynamics translate into social patterns wherein majorities of individuals practice moderation whereas extremism is the province of the few. Both extremism and moderation require the ability to successfully carry out the activities that these demand. Ability is partially determined by the activities’ difficulty, controllable in part by external agents who promote or oppose extremism. Application of this general framework to VE identifies the specific need that animates it and offers broad guidelines for addressing this pernicious phenomenon.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concepts of self-love (amour propre) and love of self (amour de soi même) are applied to the psychology of terrorism. Self-love is concern with one's image in the eyes of respected others, members of one's group. It denotes one's feeling of personal significance, the sense that one's life has meaning in accordance with the values of one's society. Love of self, in contrast, is individualistic concern with self-preservation, comfort, safety, and the survival of self and loved ones. We suggest that self-love defines a motivational force that when awakened arouses the goal of a significance quest. When a group perceives itself in conflict with dangerous detractors, its ideology may prescribe violence and terrorism against the enemy as a means of significance gain that gratifies self-love concerns. This may involve sacrificing one's self-preservation goals, encapsulated in Rousseau's concept of love of self. The foregoing notions afford the integration of diverse quantitative and qualitative findings on individuals' road to terrorism and back. Understanding the significance quest and the conditions of its constructive fulfillment may be crucial to reversing the current tide of global terrorism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
This article is about how people make sense of life and focuses on one core threat that may play a pivotal role in people’s lives as existential meaning makers: personal uncertainty. Personal uncertainty is defined as the aversive feeling that you experience when you feel uncertain about yourself. Drawing on an uncertainty management perspective, it is hypothesized that cultural worldviews may provide a means to cope with personal uncertainty and that this may explain why under conditions of personal uncertainty people may respond especially positively to events that bolster their cultural norms and values and particularly negatively to persons and events that violate these norms and values. Findings are reviewed that support the uncertainty management model’s predictions. Furthermore, the uncertainty management model may explain why terror management theory is not always about terror, but (at least partly) about personal uncertainty. Finally, conceptual implications, conflicting findings, and loose ends are noted, and testable hypotheses are formulated, which may further insight into the psychological processes pertaining to sense-making, worldview defense, and self-regulation.
The personality trait of neuroticism refers to relatively stable tendencies to respond with negative emotions to threat, frustration, or loss. Individuals in the population vary markedly on this trait, ranging from frequent and intense emotional reactions to minor challenges to little emotional reaction even in the face of significant difficulties. Although not widely appreciated, there is growing evidence that neuroticism is a psychological trait of profound public health significance. Neuroticism is a robust correlate and predictor of many different mental and physical disorders, comorbidity among them, and the frequency of mental and general health service use. Indeed, neuroticism apparently is a predictor of the quality and longevity of our lives. Achieving a full understanding of the nature and origins of neuroticism, and the mechanisms through which neuroticism is linked to mental and physical disorders, should be a top priority for research. Knowing why neuroticism predicts such a wide variety of seemingly diverse outcomes should lead to improved understanding of commonalities among those outcomes and improved strategies for preventing them.
In Studies 1-3, undergraduates with high self-esteem (HSEs) reacted to personal uncertainty-threats with compensatory conviction about unrelated issues and aspects of the self. In Study 1 HSEs reacted to salience of personal dilemmas with increased implicit conviction about self-definition. In Study 2 they reacted to the same uncertainty-threat with increased explicit conviction about social issues. In Study 3, HSEs (particularly defensive HSEs, i.e., with low implicit self-esteem; C. H. Jordan, S. J. Spencer, & M. P. Zanna, 2003) reacted to uncertainty about a personal relationship with compensatory conviction about social issues. For HSEs in Study 4, expressing convictions about social issues decreased subjective salience of dilemma-related uncertainties that were not related to the social issues. Compensatory conviction is viewed as a mode of repression, akin to reaction formation, that helps keep unwanted thoughts out of awareness.
Contemporary racial inequities rooted in historically biased systems (e.g., policing) have largely been confronted by those directly affected. We argue, however, that the U.S. response to the COVID-19 pandemic created a context that led many White Americans to recognize the direct impact that systems and structures have on individuals—particularly in the case of systemic anti-Black racism. This recognition was accompanied by large-scale confrontation actions (in the form of mass protests) throughout the U.S. The current paper uses the Confronting Prejudiced Responses (CPR) model to outline conditions that fostered White Americans’ shift in awareness surrounding racial inequity and the consequences of this perception change. Furthermore, we describe how reactions to confrontation efforts may depend on the messenger, message, modality and audience. Finally, we provide recommendations for individuals and organizations to support confrontation efforts aimed at reducing biased behavior and policies.
What makes us human? Why do humans deal with the world in the ways that we do? The usual answer is that it is our intelligence. When it comes to intelligence, we believe we are special. When it comes to motivation, we believe we are basically the same as other animals. But human motivation is also special. This book describes why human motivation is special and how it makes us who we are. Humans want to experience that their feelings, beliefs, and concerns are shared by others. They want to experience that what matters to them about the world, what objects, events, and issues are worthy of attention, also matters to other people. And what humans share with others is what they experience to be real . It is a shared reality . This book tells the story of how our shared reality motivation defines who we are. It makes us strong as individuals and as groups. It can also tear us apart. Different modes of shared reality emerge during human childhood, and emerged during human evolution, that determine our experience of the world around us and how we deal with it. Our motivation to create shared realities determines how we talk to each other and remember the events in our lives. The story of shared reality is the story of how we feel, what we know, our attitudes and opinions, our sense of self, what we strive for and how we strive, and how we get along with others.
The Radical’s Journey draws from interviews with former right-wing extremists in Germany to present a compelling account of life as a political extremist. Insights are provided into four distinct phases of an extremist’s lifecycle: joining a radical organization, involvement in and engagement with a violent movement, leaving extremism behind, and coping with the repercussions of once being an extremist and deviant in society. Analyses are derived from an empirically supported framework that emphasizes the importance of psychological needs, exposure to ideological narratives, and embeddedness within a social network as critical to involvement in extreme violence. Instead of focusing on the details of life within an extreme movement, space is devoted to understanding the social psychological processes and factors that help the reader understand, for instance, why one would choose an extremist lifestyle or why one would remain committed to a violent organization. Throughout, insight is provided into which aspects of this journey are unique to the German context and which aspects appear to be universal, no matter one’s country of origin or ideological subscriptions. Space is also devoted to understanding the German right-wing space, both in terms of the evolution of extremism and the evolution of the counter-extremism industry that has developed to address this expanding threat. The issues covered within should resonate with practitioners and scholars working within counter-extremism fields.
Optimism is a cognitive construct (expectancies regarding future outcomes) that also relates to motivation: optimistic people exert effort, whereas pessimistic people disengage from effort. Study of optimism began largely in health contexts, finding positive associations between optimism and markers of better psychological and physical health. Physical health effects likely occur through differences in both health-promoting behaviors and physiological concomitants of coping. Recently, the scientific study of optimism has extended to the realm of social relations: new evidence indicates that optimists have better social connections, partly because they work harder at them. In this review, we examine the myriad ways this trait can benefit an individual, and our current understanding of the biological basis of optimism.
Self-affirmation processes are being activated by information that threatens the perceived adequacy or integrity of the self and as running their course until this perception is restored through explanation, rationalization, and/or action. The purpose of these constant explanations (and rationalizations) is to maintain a phenomenal experience of the self-self-conceptions and images as adaptively and morally adequate—that is, as competent, good, coherent, unitary, stable, capable of free choice, capable of controlling important outcomes, and so on. The research reported in this chapter focuses on the way people cope with the implications of threat to their self-regard rather than on the way they cope with the threat itself. This chapter analyzes the way coping processes restore self-regard rather than the way they address the provoking threat itself.
UncertaintySelf-Categorization and Group IdentificationEntitativityExtremismConcluding RemarksReferences
This chapter provides an overview of self-affirmation theory. Self-affirmation theory asserts that the overall goal of the self-system is to protect an image of its self-integrity, of its moral and adaptive adequacy. When this image of self-integrity is threatened, people respond in such a way as to restore self-worth. The chapter illustrates how self-affirmation affects not only people's cognitive responses to threatening information and events, but also their physiological adaptations and actual behavior. It examines the ways in which self-affirmations reduce threats to the self at the collective level, such as when people confront threatening information about their groups. It reviews factors that qualify or limit the effectiveness of self-affirmations, including situations where affirmations backfire, and lead to greater defensiveness and discrimination. The chapter discusses the connection of self-affirmations theory to other motivational theories of self-defense and reviews relevant theoretical and empirical advances. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of self-affirmations theory for interpersonal relationships and coping.
A motivational analysis of suicidal terrorism is outlined, anchored in the notion of significance quest. It is suggested that heterogeneous factors identified as personal causes of suicidal terrorism (e.g. trauma, humiliation, social exclusion), the various ideological reasons assumed to justify it (e.g. liberation from foreign occupation, defense of one’s nation or religion), and the social pressures brought upon candidates for suicidal terrorism may be profitably subsumed within an integrative framework that explains diverse instances of suicidal terrorism as attempts at significance restoration, significance gain, and prevention of significance loss. Research and policy implications of the present analysis are considered.
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