Chapter

Sources of Stressors

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Abstract

In Chap. 2, we describe different sources of stressors: the person (e.g., perfectionist demands and high personal standards), the social environment (e.g., bullying), conflicting roles (e.g., parent vs. worker), the behavior setting (e.g., isolation or crowding), one’s working environment (e.g., noise), the work task (e.g., constant over- or underload), the organization (e.g., change processes), and cultural conditions (e.g., homesickness). We also present new sources of stressors resulting from digitalization and new forms of work. Stressors can also differ in the kind of demands they put on the person (overload, physical, emotional, cognitive demands), in their action-regulating character (challenge, hindrance), and in their magnitude (traumatic events, life changes, hassles). Knowledge of different sources of stressors can help individuals identify and avoid stressors and enable an early response.

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A B S T R A C T Background: The present study was designed to compare cultural stressors, psychological distress, and their interrelationships between recent Venezuelan immigrants in the United States and in Colombia. Cultural stress theory suggests that immigrant groups in receiving contexts that are more culturally similar to them would report less discrimination, and a less negative context of reception, compared to immigrant groups settling in countries that are more culturally dissimilar. We therefore hypothesized that recent Venezuelan immigrants in Colombia would report less cultural stress, and less psychological distress (depressive and anxiety symptoms), compared to recent Venezuelan immigrants in the US. Method: A sample of 647 Venezuelan immigrants (78% had migrated within one year prior to assessment) completed surveys assessing perceived discrimination, negative context of reception, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms. Results: Contrary to expectations, Venezuelan immigrants in Colombia reported significantly (p <.05) greater discrimination, a worse context of reception, and more depressive symptoms, compared to their counterparts in the US. Mediational models indicated that a negative context of reception was related to depressive and anxiety symptoms indirectly through experiences of discrimination. Conclusion: The mean differences contradict what cultural stress theory would predict, and suggest that mechanisms other than cultural similarity and dissimilarity may be responsible for the observed differences. However, the structural relationships among these factors are consistent with theory.
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with psychopathology-related and technology use measures. We carried out an internet-based survey with 296 undergraduate participants and administered self-report questionnaires of FOMO, frequency and type of smartphone use, problematic smartphone use (PSU), and scales of negative affectivity including depression, anxiety, stress, proneness to boredom, and rumination. The results demonstrated that FOMO was related to demographic characteristics (age, sex, race, and relationship status) but with small effect sizes. FOMO was related to all measures of negative affectivity, social use of a smartphone, as well as the severity of PSU. Tests of mediation indicated that each negative affectivity construct mediated the relationship between FOMO and PSU severity, and only rumination mediated relations between FOMO and smartphone use frequency. When reversing the predictor and mediating variables, FOMO mediated relations between negative affectivity and PSU severity. Finally, results demonstrated some support for a single-factor latent construct for FOMO, but male and female participants had a different pattern of factor loadings. Negative affectivity may be a key mechanism by which FOMO may drive PSU, but future research should clarify the directionality among these variables. Genderrelated social connectedness differences characterize FOMO.
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Background: Latino/a adolescents experience higher levels of depressive symptoms than Caucasian and African American adolescents. Many studies found that cultural stressors contribute to this disparity, but these findings have not been integrated into a cohesive picture of the specific cultural stressors that contribute to the development of depressive symptoms for Latino/a adolescents. Objective: The purpose of this integrative review is to identify cultural stressors that are associated with depressive symptoms in Latino/a adolescents. Design: Procedures outlined by Ganong were used to conduct the review. The results of 33 articles that met inclusion criteria were synthesized. Results: Discrimination, family culture conflict, acculturative and bicultural stress, intragroup rejection, immigration stress, and context of reception were identified as cultural stressors that are associated with depressive symptoms in Latino/a adolescents. Conclusions: Clinicians should employ strategies to help Latino/a youth cope with cultural stressors and advocate for policies that support the mental health of Latino/a youth.
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While research on conspicuous consumption has typically analyzed how people spend money on products that signal status, this article investigates conspicuous consumption in relation to time. The authors argue that a busy and overworked lifestyle, rather than a leisurely lifestyle, has become an aspirational status symbol. A series of studies shows that the positive inferences of status in response to busyness and lack of leisure time are driven by the perceptions that a busy person possesses desired human capital characteristics (e.g., competence and ambition) and is scarce and in demand in the job market. This research uncovers an alternative kind of conspicuous consumption that operates by shifting the focus from the preciousness and scarcity of goods to the preciousness and scarcity of individuals. Furthermore, the authors examine cultural values (perceived social mobility) and differences among cultures (North America vs. Europe) to demonstrate moderators and boundary conditions of the positive associations derived from signals of busyness.
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Two studies generated profiles of cyberbullying/cyberincivility and traditional bullying/incivility in adults, particularly within the workplace. In Study 1, 20% of 3,699 participants had the majority of cyberbullying victimization and 7.5% had the majority of traditional bullying victimization occur in adulthood, with 30% saying they were bullied at work. Relationships between bullying and negative outcomes were found. Because of the clear evidence of bullying and cyberbullying in the workplace in Study 1, Study 2 addressed the relationship of these constructs to workplace incivility. Workplace face-to-face incivility and bullying were related among 321 participants, as were workplace cyberbullying and cyberincivility. Face-to-face incivility was more common than online incivility, face-to-face bullying, or online bullying, yet all four behaviors were associated with negative outcomes. Differences in intentionality, acceptability, and severity were observed, with workplace face-to-face bullying perceived as the most severe and having the greatest intentionality to harm. These results emphasize the importance of studying bullying among adults, and highlight the conceptual independence of bullying and incivility. Correlates of workplace aggression are discussed using job demands-resources theory.
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We conducted a metal-analysis of correlations between role ambiguity and job performance and role conflict and job performance. Previous meta-analyses of these role constructs and performance relationships (e.g., Jackson & Schuler; 1985) were limited by small sample sizes and sparse reporting of reliability estimates in primary studies. The present study used a comprehensive database with a larger sample size and a distribution of interrater reliabilities to extend the previous findings. We also tested moderator hypotheses proposed but not conducted by Jackson ann Schuler: Results revealed a negative relationship (rho = -.21) between role ambiguity and job performance with moderating influences due to job type and rating source. A negligible relationship (rho = -.07) was observed for role conflict and job performance, a finding consistent across job types and rating sources. Conclusions were that role ambiguity ought not to Dr dismissed as an unimportant variable ill the job performance domain.
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In this study we employ two distinct lenses of emotional labor—EL as occupational requirements and EL as intrapsychic processes of surface acting—and examine their relationship with job satisfaction. In a large, occupationally diverse sample, results indicate that occupational EL requirements are positively related to job satisfaction, whereas surface acting is negatively related to job satisfaction. Additionally, occupational EL requirements have a cross-level moderation effect on the relationship between surface acting and job satisfaction. Nonlinear effects are also observed for surface acting: the initial negative relationship of surface acting with job satisfaction is exacerbated at high levels of surface acting. Overall, this study enriches current research findings by incorporating the role of the occupational context, and provides insight into alternative evaluations of EL.
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Research on workplace bullying, which has just recently passed the 20 year mark, has grown significantly over this duration of time. We provide an extensive review of the extant literature, with a focus on the antecedents and consequences of workplace bullying. We organize our review of the extant literature by level of analysis, which allows us to understand workplace bullying from each major level of analysis, while simultaneously identifying those levels at which research has been sparse. We then develop a conceptual model based on our review that similarly depicts theoretical and/or empirical findings from the extant literature, but in a succinct manner. Based on our review and conceptual model, we identify and highlight a number of key avenues for future research that will help extend the current workplace bullying literature.
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While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.
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This article describes briefly the Hofstede model of six dimensions of national cultures: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Long/Short Term Orientation, and Indulgence/Restraint. It shows the conceptual and research efforts that preceded it and led up to it, and once it had become a paradigm for comparing cultures, research efforts that followed and built on it. The article stresses that dimensions depend on the level of aggregation; it describes the six entirely different dimensions found in the Hofstede et al. (2010) research into organizational cultures. It warns against confusion with value differences at the individual level. It concludes with a look ahead in what the study of dimensions of national cultures and the position of countries on them may still bring.
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Although it has been suggested that a poor work environment can be related to the incidence of bullying, little work with robust research designs has been conducted on the matter. By drawing on the concept of hindrance stressors and using a longitudinal research design, we investigated whether role conflict and role ambiguity predicted being a victim of bullying twelve months later, over and above personal vulnerability factors. With a parallel analysis we also investigated whether the same role stressors predicted the enactment of bullying. The sample consisted of 234 employees of a National Health Service agency in Italy, including medical, nursing and administrative staff. The results indicated that role conflict positively affected both being bullied and bullying enactment, with personal vulnerability (reporting a doctor's diagnosis of depression at baseline) affecting only the first of the two outcomes. However, some evidence also emerged of reciprocal relationships between role stressors and bullying. Directions for future research on the relations between working conditions and bullying are discussed.
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This article aims at analyzing the content and structure of managers' conceptions of negative leadership. Using semi-structured interviews, 42 managers were asked about their conceptions of negative leadership, its antecedents and consequences. Results show that the concept of negative leadership is associated with eight behavioural categories: insincere, despotic, exploitative, restrictive, failed, laissez-faire, and active- and passive-avoiding leadership. Negative leadership was causally attributed to the environment of the leader, especially the followers, the immediate working field, as well as organizational processes, structures, and resources were seen as potential sources for negative leadership. The main factors regarded as its consequences included negative follower feelings and attitudes, destructive follower behaviour, and devastating organizational results. An analysis of the relationship between the leadership categories revealed two underlying dimensions of human- versus task-orientation and passive versus active behaviour. Limitations of the present approach, implications for future research and organizational practice are discussed.