ArticlePDF Available

Nanoemulsions of Chamomile and Cumin Essential Oils: As an Alternative Bio-rational Control Approach against the Red Flour Beetle, Tribolium castaneum

Authors:
J. of Plant Protection and Pathology, Mansoura Univ., Vol 12 (1):11 - 17, 2021
Journal of Plant Protection and Pathology
Journal homepage: www.jppp.mans.edu.eg
Available online at: www.jppp.journals.ekb.eg
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ashashem2014@gmail.com
DOI: 10.21608/jppp.2021.149515
Nanoemulsions of Chamomile and Cumin Essential Oils: As an Alternative
Bio-rational Control Approach against the Red Flour Beetle, Tribolium
castaneum
Hashem, A. S. 1* and Marwa M. Ramadan2
1 Stored Product Pests Research Department, Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Sakha, Kafr El-
Sheikh, Egypt
2Economic Entomology Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
Cross Mark
ABSTRACT
Essential oil (EO) nanoemulsion is a new approach to formulate and convey insecticides and to
minimize some of the common shortcomings associated with the conventional formulations of synthetic
insecticides and also of essential oils. The aim of the present was to develop an oil-in-water (O/W)
nanoemulsion of the essential oils of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum
L.), and assess their lethal and sublethal toxicity to the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (Hersbt). The
nanoemulsions of EO were characterized by droplet sizes of 341.4 and 387.1 nm for the chamomile and
cumin, respectively. The polydispersivity (PDI), viscosity (cP), zeta potential (mV) and conductivity (mS/cm)
of the nanoemulsions were also characterized. The cumin nanoemulsion exhibited higher lethal toxicity to the
flour beetle, besides of compromising the insect weight gain while impairing their food consumption and
conversion rate in sublethal exposure. Cumin EO nanoemulstion also sparked anti-feeding activity, reduced
progeny production and prevented grain weight loss by the red flour beetle indicating its potential for stored
product protection.
Keywords: Essential oils; Nanopesticides; Stored product beetles; Insecticidal activity
INTRODUCTION
Food production is key to food security and thus
issues concerning pest management are crucial. This has
become more so as the world is trying to produce more food
to feed a growing population (Hagstrum and Phillips, 2017).
One of the main ways to increase food production is to
improve pest control and management minimizing potential
adverse environmental and human health impacts (Lusk and
McCluskey 2018). Nowdays alternative control methods are
received more attention than conventional synthetic
pesticides (Athanassiou et al., 2018). Among these methods,
biopesticides, and more particularly naturally occurring
insecticides that obtained from plants, are targets of particular
attention (Walia et al., 2017).
Large quantities of cereal crops are yearly lost in
temperate (510%) and tropical regions (> 20%) by pest
infestations in the stone (Rajendran, 2002). The red flour
beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera:
Tenebrionidae), is one of the most cerious insects of stored
grains. Both adults and larvae of the red flour beetle feed on a
wide variety of stored products, including milled cereal
products and causing extensive losses in both the quality and
quantity of these products (Rees, 2004). Besides losses due to
grain consumption, the infestations also resulted in elevation
of temperature and moisture conditions leading to mold
development, including that of toxigenic species (Magan et
al., 2003).
The necessary management of the red flour beetle is
usually achieved with the use of traditional grain protectants
and fumigants, which are cost-effective in many storage
systems and also against several insect pest species (Boyer et
al., 2012). However, the use of these compounds does impose
intrinsic risks to environmental and human health (Abbassy
et al., 2014). In addition, stored-grain insects and the red flour
beetle, in particular exhibit widespread problems of
insecticide resistance (Opit et al., 2012). Therefore, the
demand for alternative control methods with improved safety
profile is in high demand for stored product protection.
In recent years, natural plant products have been a
focus of intensive research as environmentally safer pest
control materials (Saad et al., 2018). Further, their low
mammalian toxicity, and insect selectivity and resistance
profiles are promising frequently requiring longer time and
larger populations for the development of insecticide
resistance (Jindal et al., 2013). Essential oils from higher
plants are considered one of the most efficient alternative bio-
rational control methods against stored product insects
(Regnault-Roger et al., 2012). These natural compounds are
active against a wide range of pests like mites, insects,
nematodes, weeds, and fungi (Çalmaşur et al., 2006). They
also exhibit a wide range of distinct modes of action leading
to divergent expression of toxicity (Mossa, 2016). These
characteristics reinforce the perception of the potential of
essential oils as pest management tools, particularly for
organic farming (Adil et al., 2015). However, the field use of
essential oils requires suitable formulations to allow the
expression of their potential (Benelli et al., 2017).
Nanotechnology is currently considered a novel
approach in diverse fields of research and also has potential
Hashem, A. S. and Marwa M. Ramadan

for the development of improved insecticide formulations
through exhibiting small particle sizes ranging from 50 to 200
nm (Tadros et al., 2004). This interest in nanotechnology for
the development of pesticide formulations, including
nanoemulsions, is due to their promising applications in
material science, medicine, pharmacology and agriculture
(Singh et al., 2018). Nano-size materials show general and
biological properties that include large increase of
surface/area and hence increased ability to reach the target
site, in addition to fast penetration and selective accumulation
in various types of cells (Hashem et al., 2018; Madhyastha
and Daima, 2018). A nanoemulsion is an example of these
nanoformulations, which exhibits droplet sizes ranging from
20 to 200 nm (Sugumar et al., 2014).
An alleged advantage of nanoemulsions is their
solubility of natural pesticides such as essential oils without
using any organic solvent, which increases their
environmental safety profile (Wang et al., 2007). Therefore,
essential oil nanoemulsions seem to solve the inconvenient of
the rather frequent low water solubility of (organic) pesticides
(Fernandes et al., 2014). Here the development of
nanoemulsions of essential oils from two plant species - the
German chamomile and the cumin, which were prepared as
oil-in-water two-phase nanoemulsion formulations were
reported. The chemical components of the essential oils, the
nanoemulsion characterization and their lethal and sublethal
toxicity to the red flour beetle were also assessed and here
reported.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Insects The red flour beetles were obtained from stock
colonies that maintained at the laboratory of Stored Product
Insects of the Sakha Agricultural Research Station,
Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Egypt. Cultures were
kept at 28O ± 2O C, 65 ± 5% R.H., and 16: 8 (L:D)
photoperiod. The insects were reared in 250 ml jars and the
adults were obtained by sieving the feeding substrate. The
adult insects (unsexed; 4-7 days old) that sieved out of the
stock colony were used in the experiments on the following
day.
Essential oils
Essential oils of German chamomile (Matricaria
chamomilla L.) and cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) are
available in Egypt and were provided, as a gift, from Hashem
Brothers Company for Essential Oils and Aromatic Products
(Kafr-Elsohby, Kalyoubeya, Egypt).
Chemical constituents of the essential oils
Chemical components of essential oils were identified
with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) using
the HP5890 system with a HP column (60 meter X 0.25
millimeter, 0.25 μm film thickess) (Hewlett Packard, Palo
Alto, CA, USA). The oils were detected using flame
ionization detector (FID); nitrogen and hydrogen formed the
stationary phase. The initial temperature was 60 °C, the
maximum temperature was 250 °C, and the injector
temperature was 240 °C. The relative amounts of the oil
components were calculated from the total area of the
detected peak obtained using the equipment. All of the steps
of sample preparation, extraction and analysis procedures
were carried out in the Laboratory of the Hashem Brothers
Company (Abdel Moneim Riad St., Giza, Egypt).
Chemicals
Polysorbate 80 (Tween 80) and ethanol were obtained
from El-Gomhouria for Trading Chemicals and Medical
Appliances (Egypt).
Nanoemulsion preparation
Oil-in-water nanoemulsions of the two oils (14%)
were prepared according to Hamouda et al. (1999), which
were further detailed by Joe et al. (2012). Tween 80 was used
as a non-ionic surfactant. The oil phase of the nanoemulsion
consisted of the selected essential oil representing 14% of the
total emulsion; ethanol (3%) and biosurfactant (Surfactin,
Tween 80; final concentration 3%) representing 20% (v/v) of
the emulsion (Hashem et al., 2018). The oil phase was mixed
and kept for 1 h at 86 C, and subsequently mixed with
distilled water (80% v/v), kept for 3 min and finally
centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 15 min.
Nanoemulsion characterization
The nanoemulsion physicochemical properties the
average droplet size, viscosity (cP), polydispersivity (PDI),
zeta Potential (mV) and conductivity (mS/cm) were
characterized. The droplet size and viscosity were determined
by the dynamic laser scattering method (Zetasizer Nano
ZS90) (Jun et al., 2015). The zeta potential and
polydispersivity index were determined by photon correlation
spectroscopy using the kit ZetaPlus (Zhermack, Badia
Polesine, Italy), (Arancibia et al., 2017). All characterization
analyses were performed at the Electron Microscopy Unit of
the Faculty of Agriculture at Mansoura University (Egypt).
Nanoemulsion toxicity
Acute concentration-mortality bioassay
Acute toxicity of both nanoemulsions was determined
by concentration-mortality bioassay where 1 mL of the
nanoemulsion at the concentrations of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100
mg/mL were applied on 20 g cracked wheat grains and left to
dry for 20 min. The wheat grains treated with the
nanoemulsion were placed in 50 mL glass jars, which
subsequently received 10 non-sexed adult flour beetles (7-14
days old). Insect mortality was recorded after 96 h exposure.
All bioassays were repeated three times.
Time and concentration-dependent mortality
asssessments
Adult flour beetles were exposed to cracked wheat
grains treated with EO nanoemulsion as previously described
for the acute toxicity bioassays. However, the bioassays were
performed under different exposure times allowing mortality
assessments at 3, 6, 9 and 12 days after treatment. Again, each
combination of essential oil and concentration was replicated
three times.
Nutritional indices
The insects and the cracked wheat grains were used as
rearing substrate. They were initially weighted before the
insect release in each experimental unit following the
treatments indicated above. The insects were left on the
cracked wheat for eight consecutive days, after which adult
mortality and insect and grain weight were estimated. The
nutritional indices were calculated following Farrar et al.
(1989), as follow: relative growth rate (RGR) = (A - B)/B ×
day -1; relative consumption rate (RCR) = D/B × day -1;
conversion efficiency of ingested food (ECI) (%) = (RGR) /
(RCR) × 100; and feeding deterrence index (FDI) (%) = (C -
J. of Plant Protection and Pathology, Mansoura Univ., Vol 12 (1), January, 2021

T)/C × 100; where A = weight of live insects on the
investigated day (mg) / number of live insects on the
investigated day, B = initial weight of insects (mg) / initial
number of insects, D = biomass ingested (mg) / number of
live insects on the investigated day, C = food consumption in
control and T = food consumption of treatment.
Progeny production and grain loss
The adult insects released on the cracked wheat
grains, as described above, were removed after eight days,
and the grains were maintained for eight additional weeks
under the same environmental conditions as previously
described. After this period, the F1 progeny emergence was
recorded avoiding the overlapping of generations. The grain
loss caused by the insects was also recorded at this time.
Statistical analyses
Toxicity of the EO nanoemulsions was estimated by
probit methods using the software PcProbit (LdP Line,
available at http://www.ehabsoft.com/ldpline/) and following
Finney (1971). The remaining results were subjected to
regression analyses with concentration and time, as
independent variables (adult mortality), or only concentration
(other results), and using the curve fitting procedure of the
softwares TableCurve 3D (for adult mortality) and
TableCurve 2D (remaining results) (Systat, San Jose, CA,
USA). The regression models were selected from the simplest
(linear) to more complex models based on parsimony, F-
values (and error estimates), and steep increase/decrease in
R2 with model complexity. 
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results
Chemical composition of the essential oils
The results of Gas Chromatography/ Mass
Spectrometry (GC/MS) analyses of the tested oils that
obtained by hydrodistillation are summarized in Table 1.
The main compounds (>1%) of the tested oils were identified
by matching their spectra with those available in the mass
spectra digital library of the GC/MS. Thus, the main
components recognized were: bisabolol oxide A (40.54%),
7,11-dimethyl-3-methylene (17.01%), and Bisabolol oxide B
(7.43%) in the chamomile EO; and γ-terpinene (15.76%),
benzene methanol (11.32%) and beta-pinene (10.37%) in the
cumin EO.
Table 1. Composition of the chemical components of the
essential oils of chamomile and cumin used as
nanoemulsion.
Chemical
component
of essential oil
Chamomile (flowers)
Retention time
(min)
Concentration
(%)
Retention time
(min)
Concentration
(%)
7,11-Dimethyl-3-
methylene
28.58
17.01
-
-
Germacrene-D
29.35
1.90
-
-
Germacrene-B
29.94
1.26
-
-
3,7,11-Trimethyle
30.45
1.14
-
-
5,8-Dimethylisoquinoline
30.64
1.11
-
-
Alpha-bisabolol
36.52
6.43
-
-
Bisabolol oxide B
35.28
7.43
-
-
Chamazulen
39.23
3.52
-
-
Bisabolol oxide A
40.52
40.54
-
-
Lend-in-dicycloether
44.87
6.32
-
-
Benzene methanol
-
-
10.94
11.32
γ-Terpinene
-
-
11.23
15.76
Beta Pinene
-
-
8.56
10.37
P- cymine
-
-
12.05
7.45
1-pPhenil-1-butanol
-
-
8.25
6.45
Nanoemulsion characterization
The characterization of both nanoemulsions, from
chamomile and cumin essential oils, are shown in Table (2).
The average size and conductivity of chamomile and cumin
NE were 341.4 nm and 0.033 mS/cm for the former, while it
were 387.1 nm and 0.072 mS/cm for cumin NE. Also, the
zeta potential was -3.2 ± 4.28 for the chamomile NE and -10.1
± 4.08 for the cumin NE. However, the polydispersivity index
(PDI) value was slightly higher for the cumin NE (0.628) than
for the chamomile NE (0.069), both of which exhibited
similarly low viscosity (0.8872 cP), which may be due to the
usually low oil content of nanoemulsions.
Table 2. Physical characteristics of the nanoemulsion formulations.
Source of oil
Z-Average (nm)
Poly dispersivity (PDI)
Viscosity (cP)
Zeta Potential (mV) ± SE
Conductivity (mS/cm)
Chamomile
341.4
0.069
0.887
-3.2 ± 4.28
0.033
Cumin
387.1
0.628
0.887
-10.1 ± 4.08
0.072
Short-term contact toxicity
The NE of both essential oils were subjected to
concentration-mortality bioassays with 96 hours exposure of
adult flour beetles to assess their acute contact toxicity to these
insects. The results of probit analyses indicated suitability of
this model for the concentration-mortality curves of both NE
(high 2-values and P > 0.05) (Table 3)..
Table 3. Relative toxicity of nanoemulsion of the essential
oils of chamomile and cumin against the red
flour beetle Tribolium castaneum
Essential
oil
Slope
SE)
LC50 (95% FL) (mg/ml)
2
P
Chamomile
1.69
685.96 (548.77-857.45)
4.37
0.39
Cumin
4.68
136.25 (108.9-170.3)
3.43
0.44
The cumin NE was 5x more toxic to adult red flour
beetles than the chamomile NE based on the estimated LC50s
(Table 3). The higher slope observed with cumin NE also
indicated a higher homogeneity of response to this
formulation when compared with the chamomile NE
Time and concentration-dependent mortality
Extended exposure of adult red flour beetles to
cracked wheat grains treated with increasing concentrations
of either chamomile or cumin NE in reinforced the trend
observed with the short-term toxicity bioassay reported
above. Mortality was increased with increasing concentration
and length of exposure for both NEs, but the cumin NE
exhibited higher toxicity with a steep increase in mortality at
concentrations above 50 mg/mL and reaching mortality levels
above 50% after 10 days exposure, unlike chamomile, which
did not reach even 25% mortality at the highest concentration
and longest exposure (Fig. 1).
Hashem, A. S. and Marwa M. Ramadan

Fig. 1. Filled contour maps exhibiting the effects of concentration and exposure time on adult mortality of red flour
beetles provided with cracked wheat treated with essential oil nanoemulsions of chamomile and cumin. The
maps were plotted using regression models, as indicated in the figures, where Z is mortality, X is the essential oil
concentration, and y is the exposure time.
Insect weight gain, food consumption, and feeding
deterrence
The insects surviving were followed for eight days,
after which their gain in weight (i.e., body mass) was
determined, as was the food consumption during the period.
The weight gain of adult insects decreased with increasing the
essential oil concentration with the cumin NE exhibited
higher effect in compromising insect weight gain (Fig. 2A).
A similar trend was observed for food consumption, which
also declined with essential oil concentration and again with
cumin exhibited more drastic effect in compromising the
relative rate of food consumption than chamomile (Fig. 2B).
Fig. 2. Insect weight grain SE) (A) and food
consumption SE) (B) of red flour beetles
exposed to increasing concentrations of essential
oil nanoemulsions of chamomile and cumin. The
symbols represent the mean of three
independent replicates.
The efficiency of food conversion was estimated
based on the insect weight gain and food consumption with
both essential oils compromised food conversion at
concentrations as low as 25 mg/mL. The rate of such decline
with increasing concentration was similar for both oils, but
cumin imparted slightly higher effect than chamomile (Fig.
3A). In addition, both essential oils also deterred feeding
among flour beetles with a similar rate, as indicated by the
similar slopes of the curves of feeding deterrence with
concentration (Fig. 3B). Feeding deterrence increased with
concentration and the effect of cumin was consistently
stronger than that of chamomile (Fig. 3B).
Fig. 3. Food conversion efficiency (± SE) (A) and feeding
deterrence (± SE) (B) of red flour beetles exposed
to increasing concentrations of essential oil
nanoemulsions of chamomile and cumin. The
symbols represent the mean of three independent
replicates.
Progeny production and grain loss
The insects surviving with were able to reproduce
while maintaining their feeding activity. Although, the
progeny production of the exposed adults of the red flour
beetles decreased with the concentrations of both essential
oils with similar rate, the effect of the cumin NE was always
stronger leading to lower progeny emergence (Fig. 4A). The
J. of Plant Protection and Pathology, Mansoura Univ., Vol 12 (1), January, 2021

cost of the feeding activity and progeny production was the
decrease in grain weight with essential oil concentration (Fig.
4B). The rate of decrease was similar for both essential oils,
but again cumin led to higher declines in grain weight loss
with increasing in concentration than chamomile (Fig. 4B).
Fig. 4. Progeny production (± SE) (A) and grain loss
SE) (B) by red flour beetles exposed to increasing
concentrations of essential oil nanoemulsions of
chamomile and cumin. The symbols represent the
mean of three independent replicates.
Discussion
The development of nanoemulsion formulations form
the essential oils of chamomile and cumin was the focus of
the present study aiming their potential use as alternative
insecticides against the red flour beetle. Indeed, we were able
to obtain both nanoemulsions, which favors the use of
essential oils as insecticides minimizing their variability while
improving the physical stability of their bioactive compounds,
protecting them from the interactions with food ingredients.
Because of the subcellular size of the nanoformulations, their
bioactivity is increased through the activation of passive
mechanisms of cell absorption (Berne and Pecora, 2000).
The physicochemical properties of the nanoemulsions
are mainly determined by their zeta potential (mV), poly-
dispersivity (PDI), Z-average (nm), and other related
characteristics (Lett 2016). Nanopesticides, including
nanoemulsions, have a typical particle size range of 50-200
nm (Tadros et al., 2004). Emulsifiers may act as a mechanical
barrier and by forming a surface potential (zeta potential),
which can produce repulsive electrical forces among
approaching oil droplets thus hindering coalescence (Bordes
et al., 2009). High zeta potentials were observed for
nanoemulsions of chamomile and cumin EO (-3.2 and -10.1
mv, respectively), which results from both oil and surfactant
compositions. Zeta Potential values greater than +25 mV or
less than -25 mV typically have high degrees of stability, as
the case with chamomile and cumin EA. Scatterings with a
low zeta potential value will eventually aggregate due to Van
Der Waal inter-particle attractions (Shi et al., 2017). Both of
these effects lead to a narrow range of sample concentrations
that will yield a satisfactory quality result (Hinds, 2012). In
addition, a highly conductive sample (> 5mS/cm) can lead to
electrode polarization and degradation (Patakangas, 2014).
Other studies revealed that particle sizes of nanoemulsions of
essential oils produced by high pressure homogenization and
spontaneous emulsification were similar to those obtained in
this study, as mentioned by Dias et al. (2014).
Poly-dispersity (PDI) is another important property of
nanoformulations. The measurement refers to the uniformity
of droplet size withinthe formulation (Flores et al., 2011).
Therefore, values of PDI lower than 0.2 indicate homogenous
droplet populations, while a 0.3 value represents
heterogeneity (Hoeller et al., 2009). Our results demonstrated
that the nanoemulsion of chamomile was particularly uniform
compared to the nanoemulsion of cumin. Thus, added
homogeneity can be achieved by increasing the viscosity of
the continuous phase of the formulation preparation.
However, this delays instability resulting in oil droplets of
more homogeneous particle size (Arancibia et al., 2016),
which can be further improved for the cumin oil. Regardless
of whether the insecticidal effects of cumin are higher or less
effective compared to chamomile
The search for bio-rational insecticides of natural
origin is on the increase particularly for organic production
systems, because they also consider as a means to minimize
adverse effects of conventional pesticides (Aktar et al. 2009).
In such context, preparation of nanoemulsions has emerged
as a promising alternative to improve EO performance against
arthropod pest species (Damalas and Koutroubas 2018).
Nanoemulsions have received a great deal of attention from
the pharmaceutical sector, for example as potential vehicles
for transdermal delivery of hydrophobic drugs (Shakeel et al.,
2012). Recent advances in agriculture research have also
triggered great interest in the exploration of nanotechnology
(Khot et al. 2012). The objective is usually to increase the
physical stability of the essential oil bioactive compounds.
Nanoemulsions of pesticidal active ingredients have often
been suggested to increase the insecticide uptake, but
supporting data in plant-protection products remains scarce.
However, two recent studies support the hypothesis of
enhanced uptake (Oberdörster et al., 2005). In the first of
these studies, experiments on a series of nanoemulsions of
neem oil showed that the LC50 decreased with droplet size,
which was interpreted as indicating an increased uptake of
smaller droplets. (Anjali et al., 2012).
The bioactivity and persistence of nanoemulsions of
the two tested oils against the red flour beetle exhibited
insecticidal activity, including lethal and sublethal effects.
Increased mortality with nanoemulsions of natural
insecticides were also observed in other studies with stored
product insects (e.g., Nenaah et al. 2015; Oliveira et al. 2017),
and mosquitoes (Oliveria et al., 2016). Most reports followed
the same approach in controlling insect pests, but used
different surfactants, like Tween (Montefuscoli et al., 2014)
and polyethylene glycol (González et al., 2014), and β-
cyclodextrin (Galvão et al., 2015), poly-β-hydroxybutyrate
and poly-ε caprolactone (Carvalho et al., 2015), as
encapsulating agents.
The main point is that the developed nanoemulsion
allowed for the insecticidal use of chamomile and cumin EO.
The concentration-mortality toxicity bioassays performed
indicated that the acute activity of these compounds, which
are not particularly high, but cumin EO seems promising for
further development. Eventual fractioning of use extracts with
higher concentration of main components will likely improve
Hashem, A. S. and Marwa M. Ramadan

the short-term performance of this EO. However, insecticidal
activity goes beyond short-term mortality (Guedes and Cutler,
2014; Guedes et al., 2016, 2017), and in our study we also
assessed a range of sublethal effects of the EO nonemulsion
exposure. Both essential oils and specially cumin essential oil
compromised food consumption, food conversion, insect
development and reproduction, minimizing grain loss. The
effects were always higher for cumin EO reinforcing the
potential of nanoemulsions of cumin EO for further
development aiming stored product protection, wich might
deserve further investigations.
REFERENCES
Abbassy, M. A., A. E. S. M. Marei, M. A. M. Al-Ashkar, and A.
T. H. Mossa. 2014. Adverse biochemical effects of
various pesticides on sprayers of cotton fields in El-Behira
Governorate, Egypt. Biomedicine & Aging Pathology,
4(3), 251-256.
Adil, B., A. Tarik, A. Kribii, and K. Ounine. 2015. The study of the
insecticidal effect of Nigella sativa essential oil against Tuta
absoluta larvae. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res., 4(10), 88-90.
Aktar, M.W., D. Sengupta, and A. Chowdhury. 2009. Impact of
pesticides use in agriculture: their benefits and hazards.
Interdiscip Toxicol 2(1):1 12.
Anjali, C.H., Y. Sharma, A. Mukherjee, and N. Chandrasekaran.
2012. Neem oil (Azadirachta indica) nanoemulsion as
potent larvicidal agent against Culex quinquefasciatus.
Pest Manag Sci 68(2):15863.
Arancibia, C., M. Miranda, S. Matiacevich, and E. Troncoso.
2017. Physical properties and lipid bioavailability of
nanoemulsion-based matrices with different thickening
agents. Food Hydrocolloids, 73, 243-254.
Arancibia, C., R. Navarro-Lisboa, R. N. Zúniga, and S.
Matiacevich. 2016. Application of CMC as thickener on
nanoemulsions based on olive oil: Physical properties and
stability. Int. J. Polym. Sci., 6280581.
Athanassiou, C. G., N. G. Kavallieratos, G. Benelli, D. Losic, P. U.
Rani, and N. Desneux. 2018. Nanoparticles for pest control:
current status and future perspectives. J. Pest Sci., 1-15.
Benelli, G., R. Pavela, R. Iannarelli, R. Petrelli, L. Cappellacci, K.
Cianfaglione, F. H. Afshar, M. Nicoletti, A. Canale, and
F. Maggi. 2017. Synergized mixtures of Apiaceae
essential oils and related plant-borne compounds:
larvicidal effectiveness on the filariasis vector Culex
quinquefasciatus Say. Ind. Crops Prod. 96, 186-195.
Berne, B. J., and R. Pecora. 2000. Dynamic light scattering: with
applications to chemistry, biology, and physics. Courier
Corporation.
Bordes, P., E. Pollet, and L. Avérous. 2009. Nano-biocomposites:
biodegradable polyester/nanoclay systems. Prog. Polym.
Sci., 34:125155.
Boyer, S., H. Zhang, and G. Lempérière. 2012. A review of
control methods and resistance mechanisms in stored-
product insects. Bull. Entomol. Res. 102 (2), 213229.
Çalmaşur, Ö., I. Aslan, and F. Şahin. 2006. Insecticidal and
acaricidal effect of three Lamiaceae plant essential oils
against Tetranychus urticae Koch and Bemisia tabaci
Genn. Ind. Crops Prod., 23(2), 140-146.
Carvalho, S. S. D., J. D. Vendramim, I. C. G. D. Sá, M. F. D. G.
F.Silva, L. D. P. Ribeiro, and M. R. Forim. 2015.
Systemic insecticidal effect of neem-based
nanoformulations against Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera:
Aleyrodidae) biotype B in tomato. Bragantia 74:298-306.
Damalas, C. A., and S. D. Koutroubas. 2018. Current Status and
Recent Developments in Biopesticide Use.
Dias, D.D.O., M. Colombo, R. G. Kelmann, S. Kaiser, L. G.
Lucca, H. F. Teixeira, R. P. Limberger, V. F. Veiga, and
L. S. Koester. 2014. Optimization of Copaiba oil-based
nanoemulsions obtained by different preparation
methods. Industrial Crops and Products, 59, 154-162.
Farrar, R.R., J. D. Barbour, and G. G. Kennedy. 1989. Quantifying
food consumption and growth in insects. Ann. Entomol.
Soc. Am. 82, 593-598.
Fernandes, C. P., F. B. de Almeida, A. N. Silveira, M. S. Gonzalez,
C. B. Mello, D. Feder, R. Apolinário, M. G. Santos, J. C.
T. Carvalho, L. A. C. Tietbohl, L. Rocha, and D. Q.
Falcão. 2014. Development of an insecticidal
nanoemulsion with Manilkara subsericea (Sapotaceae)
extract. J. Nanobiotechnol., 12(1), 22.
Finney, D.J. 1971. Probit Analysis: 3rd Ed. Cambridge University
Press.
Flores, F.C., R. F. Ribeiro, A. F. Ourique, C. M. B. Rolim, C. B.
Silva, A. R. Pohlmann, R. C. R. Beck, and S. S. Guterres.
2011. Nanostructured systems containing an essential oil:
protection against volatilization. Quim. Nova. 6, 968972.
Galo, J.G., V. F. Silva, S. G. Ferreira, F. R. M. França, D. A.
Santos, L. S. Freitas, P. B. Alves, A. A. S. Araújo, S. C.
H. Cavalcanti, and R. S. Nunes. 2015. β-cyclodextrin
inclusion complexes containing Citrus sinensis (L.)
Osbeck essential oil: an alternative to control Aedes
aegypti larvae. Thermochim Acta 608:1419.
Gonlez, J. O. W., M. M. Gutiérrez, A. A. Ferrero, and B. F.
Band. 2014. Essential oils nanoformulations for stored-
product pest controlCharacterization and biological
properties. Chemosphere, 100, 130-138.
Guedes, R. N. C., and G. C. Cutler. 2014. Insecticide-induced
hormesis and arthropod pest management. Pest
Management Science, 70, 690-697.
Guedes, R. N. C., G. Smagghe, J. D. Stark, and N. Desneux. 2016.
Pesticide-induced stress in arthropod pests for optimized
integrated management programs. Annual Review of
Entomology, 61, 43-62.
Guedes, R. N. C., S. S. Walse, and J. E. Throne. 2017. Sublethal
exposure, insecticidal resistance, and community stress.
Current Opinions in Insect Science, 21, 47-53.
Hagstrum, D. W., and T. W. Phillips. 2017. Evolution of Stored-
Product Entomology: Protecting the World Food Supply.
Annu. Rev. Entomol. 62, 379-397.
Hamouda, T., M. M. Hayes, Z. Cao, R. Tonda, K. Johnson, D. C.
Wright, J. Brisker, and Jr. J. R. Baker. 1999. A novel
surfactant nanoemulsion with broad-spectrum sporicidal
activity against Bacillus species.J.Infect.Dis.180,1939-1949.
Hashem, A.S., S. S. Awadalla, G. M. Zayed, F. Maggi, and G.
Benelli. 2018. Pimpinella anisum essential oil
nanoemulsions against Tribolium castaneum -
Insecticidal activity and mode of action. Environ. Sci.
Pollut. Res., 25, 18802-18812.
Hinds, W.C. 2012. Aerosol technology: properties, behavior, and
measurement of airborne particles. John Wiley & Sons.
Hoeller, S., A. Sperger, and C. Valenta. 2009. Lecithin based
nanoemulsions: A comparative study of the influence of
non-ionic surfactants and the cationic phytosphingosine
on physicochemical behaviour and skin permeation. Int.
J. Pharm. 370, 181-186.
J. of Plant Protection and Pathology, Mansoura Univ., Vol 12 (1), January, 2021

Jindal, V., G. Dhaliwal, and O. Koul. 2013. Pest management in
21st century: roadmap for future. Biopestic. Int. 9, 1-22.
Joe, M.M., K. Bradeeba, R. Parthasarathi, P. K. Sivakumaar, P. S.
Chauhan, S. Tipayno, A. Benson, and A. Sa. 2012.
Development of surfactin based nanoemulsion
formulation from selected cooking oils: evaluation for
antimicrobial activity against selected food associated
microorganisms. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 43, 172-180.
Jun, H., T. H. Le Kim, S. W. Han, M. Seo, J. W. Kim, and Y. S.
Nam. 2015. Polyglycerol-poly -caprolactone) block
copolymer as a new semi-solid polymeric emulsifier to
stabilize O/W nanoemulsions. Colloid Polym. Sci.,
293(10), 2949-2956.
Khot, L., S. Sankaran, J. Maja, R. Ehsani, and E. Schuster. 2012.
Applications of nanomaterials in agricultural production
and crop protection: a review. Crop Prot., 35:6470.
Lett, A.M. 2016. Microstructure engineering of emulsion-based
systems for the control of satiation, satiety, hedonic
acceptability and sensory quality (Doctoral dissertation,
University of Birmingham).
Lusk, J. L., and J. McCluskey. 2018. Understanding the Impacts
of Food Consumer Choice and Food Policy Outcomes.
Appl. Econ. Perspectives and Policy, 40(1), 5-21.
Madhyastha, R. M., and H. K. Daima. 2018. Impact of
Physicochemical Properties and Surface Chemistry of
Nanomaterials on Toxicity. Nanotoxicology: Toxicity
Evaluation, Risk Assessment and Management, 35.
Magan, N., R. Hope, V. Cairns, and D. Aldred. 2003. Postharvest
fungal ecology: impact of fungal growth and mycotoxin
accumulation in stored grain. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 109,
723730.
Montefuscoli, A.R., J. O. W. González, S. D. Palma, A. A.
Ferrero, and B. F. Band. 2014, Design and development
of aqueous nanoformulations for mosquito control.
Parasitol. Res., 113:793800.
Mossa, A. T. H. 2016. Green pesticides: essential oils as
biopesticides in insect-pest management. J Environ Sci
Technol 9 (5):354378.
Nenaah, G.E., S. I. Ibrahim, and B. A. Al-Assiuty. 2015. Chemical
composition, insecticidal activity and persistence of three
Asteraceae essential oils and their nanoemulsions against
Callosobruchus maculatus (F.). J. Stored Prod. Res.61, 9-16.
Oberrster, G., E. Oberdörster, and J. Oberdörster. 2005.
Nanotoxicology: discipline evolving from studies of
ultrafine particles. Environ. Health Perspect., 113:823839.
Oliveira, A.E., J. L. Duarte, J. R. Amado, R. A. Cruz, C. F. Rocha,
R. N. Souto, and A. Kelecom. 2016. Development of a
larvicidal nanoemulsion with Pterodon emarginatus
Vogel Oil. PloS one 11:0145835
Oliveira, A.P., A. S. Santana, E. D. Santana, A. P. S. Lima, R. R.
Faro, R. S. Nunes, and L. Bacci. 2017. Nanoformulation
prototype of the essential oil of Lippia sidoides and thymol
to population management of Sitophilus zeamais
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Ind. Crops Prod. 107, 198-205.
Opit, G.P., T. W. Phillips, M. J. Aikins, and M. M. Hasan. 2012.
Phosphine resistance in Tribolium castaneum and
Rhyzopertha dominica from stored wheat in Oklahoma. J.
Econ. Entomol. 105, 11071114
Patakangas, J. 2014. Investigation of electrolyte materials and
measurement techniques for nanocomposite fuel cells.
Perry, N., R. Anderson, N. Brennan, M. Douglas, A. Heaney, J.
McGrimpsey, and B. Smallfield. 1999. Essential oil from
Dalmation sage (Salvia officinalis L.), variations among
individuals, plant parts, seasons and sites. J. Agric. Food
Chem. 47, 2048-2054
Rajendran, S. 2002. Postharvest pest losses. In: Pimentel D (ed)
Encyclopedia of pest management. Marcel Dekker Inc.,
New York, pp 654656.
Rees, D. 2004. Insects of Stored Products. CSIRO Publishing,
Collingwood, Australia.
Regnault-Roger, C., C. Vincent, and J. T. Arnason. 2012.
Essential oils in insect control: low-risk products in a high-
stakes world. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 57.
Saad, M. M., H. K. Abou-Taleb, and S. A. Abdelgaleil. 2018.
Insecticidal activities of monoterpenes and
phenylpropenes against Sitophilus oryzae and their
inhibitory effects on acetylcholinesterase and adenosine
triphosphatases. Appl. Entomol. Zool., 1-9.
Shakeel, F., S. Shafiq, N. Haq, F. K. Alanazi, and I. A. Alsarra.
2012. Nanoemulsions as potential vehicles for
transdermal and dermal delivery of hydrophobic
compounds: an overview. Expert Opin Drug Deliv
9(8):95374.
Shi, B., Z. Wang, and H. Wen. 2017. Research on the strengths of
electrostatic and van der Waals interactions in ionic
liquids. J. Mol. Liq. 241, 486-488.
Singh, P., K. Kumari, V. K. Vishvakarma, S. Aggarwal, R. Chandra,
and A. Yadav. 2018. Nanotechnology and Its Impact on
Insects in Agriculture. In Trends in Insect Molecular
Biology and Biotechnology (pp. 353-378). Springer, Cham.
Sugumar, S., S. K. Clarke, M. J. Nirmala, B. K. Tyagi, A.
Mukherjee, and N. Chandrasekaran. 2014. Nanoemulsion
of eucalyptus oil and its larvicidal activity against Culex
quinquefasciatus. Bull. Entomol. Res., 104(3), 393-402.
Tadros, T., P. Izquierdo, J. Esquena, and C. Solans. 2004.
Formation and stability of nano-emulsions. Adv. Colloid
Interfac. 108/109, 303-318.
Tapondjou, L. A., C. Adler, H. Bouda, and D. A. Fontem. 2002.
Efficacy of Powder and essential oil from
Chenopodiumam brosioides leaves as post-harvest grain
protectants against six stored product beetles. J. Stored
Prod. Res., 38: 395-402.
Walia, S., S. Saha, V. Tripathi, and K. K. Sharma. 2017.
Phytochemical biopesticides: some recent developments.
Phytochem. Rev., 16(5), 989-1007.
Wang, L., X. Li, G. Zhang, J. Dong, and J. Eastoe. 2007. Oil-in-
water nanoemulsions for pesticide formulations. J.
Colloid Interface Sci., 314(1):230235.





 (EO) 
 (Matricaria chamomilla L.)  (Cuminum cyminum L.)  Tribolium castaneum (Hersbt). 
 (PDI)  (cP)  (mV)  (mS / cm) 


... Nowadays, emerging alternative approaches such as insecticides from natural resources and nano-insecticides are in demand (Hashem and Ramadan, 2021). Nanoparticles (NPs) provides promising solutions for insect control (Athanassiou et al., 2018). ...
... An enormous number of rehearses have investigated the toxicity of various nanomaterials (natural or synthesized) against the stored product insects. The nano-emulsions of essential oils (EO) such as chamomile, cumin, fennel, mint, sweet orange as well as solid lipid NPs loaded by EO showed a toxicity against Tribolium castaneum and Rhyzopertha dominica (Hashem and Ramadan, 2021;Giunti et al., 2021;Lima et al., 2021 andHosseinpour et al., 2020). In addition, silica, alumina, zinc oxides, green synthesized silver, and lead NPs expressed high insecticidal activity against Sitophilus oryzae (Gamal, 2018;Sankar andAbideen, 2015 andKeratum et al., 2015). ...
... Furthermore, nanoformulations act as repellents and antifeedants (Giunti et al., 2021;Elango et al., 2016). Also, these nanoformulations reduced progeny production (Hashem and Ramadan, 2021). ...
... where A represents the leaf area consumed by the larvae after 72 h of feeding; B represents the total leaf area of the entire plant; C represents the total mass of larvae after feeding on the plant leaves for 72 h (g); D represents the initial larval mass before feeding (Hashem & Ramadan, 2021). ...
Article
Full-text available
Trichomes are specialized epidermal outgrowths covering the aerial parts of most terrestrial plants. There is a large species variability in occurrence of different types of trichomes such that the molecular regulatory mechanism underlying the formation and the biological function of trichomes in most plant species remain unexplored. Here, we used Chrysanthemum morifolium as a model plant to explore the regulatory network in trichome formation and terpenoid synthesis and unravel the physical and chemical roles of trichomes in constitutive defense against herbivore feeding. By analyzing the trichome‐related genes from transcriptome database of the trichomes‐removed leaves and intact leaves, we identified CmMYC2 to positively regulate both development of T‐shaped and glandular trichomes as well as the content of terpenoids stored in glandular trichomes. Furthermore, we found that the role of CmMYC2 in trichome formation and terpene synthesis was mediated by interaction with CmMYBML1. Our results reveal a sophisticated molecular mechanism wherein the CmMYC2–CmMYBML1 feedback inhibition loop regulates the formation of trichomes (non‐glandular and glandular) and terpene biosynthesis, collectively contributing to the enhanced resistance to Spodoptera litura larvae feeding. Our findings provide new insights into the novel regulatory network by which the plant synchronously regulates trichome density for the physical and chemical defense against herbivory.
... Similarly, Kavallieratos et al. (2021b) developed isofuranodiene-based NE 3% (w/w) derived from Smyrnium olusatrum essential oil (EO) that exhibited high adulticidal effects against T. molitor and larvicidal activity against T. castaneum and T. confusum, reaching 98.6, 97.4, and 93.5% at 1,000 ppm after 7 days of exposure, respectively. Cumin essential oil (Cuminum cyminum L.) nanoemulsion was found to be highly toxic to T. castaneum (Hashem and Ramadan, 2021). Larvae of E. kuehniella were killed with nanoformulation in the form of emulsion using a botanical extract of M. longifolia having a particle range of 14-36 ppm (Louni et al., 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
Globally, between one quarter and one-third of total grains produced each year are lost during storage mainly through infestation of insect pests. Among the available control options such as chemical and physical techniques, fumigation with aluminum phosphide (AlP) is so far considered the best control strategy against storage insect pests. However, these insect pests are now developing resistance against AIP due to its indiscriminate use due to non-availability of any effective alternative control option. Resistance to AIP among storage insect pests is increasing, and its inhalation has shown adverse effects on animals and human beings. Nanotechnology has opened up a wide range of opportunities in various fields such as agriculture (pesticides, fertilizers, etc.), pharmaceuticals, and electronics. One of the applications of nanotechnology is the usage of nanomaterial-based insecticide formulations for mitigating field and storage insect pests. Several formulations, namely, nanoemulsions, nanosuspensions, controlled release formulations, and solid-based nanopesticides, have been developed with different modes of action and application. The major advantage is their small size which helps in proper spreading on the pest surface, and thus, better action than conventional pesticides is achieved. Besides their minute size, these have no or reduced harmful effects on non-target species. Nanopesticides can therefore provide green and efficient alternatives for the management of insect pests of field and storage. However, an outcry against the utilization of nano-based pesticides is also revealed. It is considered by some that nano-insecticides may also have hazardous effects on humans as well as on the environment. Due to limited available data, nanopesticides have become a double-edged weapon. Therefore, nanomaterials need to be evaluated extensively for their large-scale adoption. In this article, we reviewed the nanoformulations that are developed and have proved effective against the insect pests under postharvest storage of grains.
Article
Encapsulation technologies, including micro- and nanoencapsulation, provide innovative solutions to key challenges in food grain storage, insect and mold infestation, and nutrient loss. Methods like coacervation, spray drying, freeze-drying, electrospinning, solvent evaporation, and interfacial polymerization are commonly used to encapsulate the active ingredients. Encapsulation is particularly effective in prolonging the activity of pesticides and insecticides, enhancing the safety and quality of stored grains. These techniques ensure controlled release by enclosing active ingredients within protective shells, reducing the need for frequent applications. This approach improves food security and promotes sustainable agricultural practices by maintaining high-quality standards for food grains. This review explores the encapsulation technologies in-depth, emphasizing their role in addressing storage challenges and ensuring food security.
Article
Full-text available
The major universal challenge on our planet is the issue of establishing food security for a rapidly increasing population in the world. Farmers all over the world focus on using new innovations and technologies for enhancing the production and storage of crops through intensive and extensive agriculture. The current efforts lead to the formation of nanopesticides and nanobiopesticides (NBPs) which has been made possible by advances in nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is one of the promising areas to boost the availability of food and to manufacture newer products for beneficial purposes in agriculture, food, water, the environment, medicine, energy, and electronics.NBPs are made using a variety of surfactants, polymers, nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, and metal nanoparticles with sizes in the nanometer range. These NBPs with an elevated surface-to-volume ratio are able to target organisms more effectively and persistently than traditional pesticides because of their physical characteristics and may continue to be effective for longer periods of time. In comparison to conventional pesticides, NBPs have the potential to improve the environment by decreasing toxicity, extending the shelf life of agricultural produce with the aid of nanoparticles, and enhancing the solubility of pesticides that are poorly soluble in water. However, the commercialization of NBPs faces significant obstacles due to their applicability in real-world settings, legal compliance, and market acceptability. Enhancing the usage and spread of NBPs are beneficial in reducing the number of spread chemicals, minimize nutrient losses in fertilization, and increased yield through pest and nutrient management.
Article
Full-text available
Biopesticides have attracted attention in pest management in recent decades, and have long been promoted as prospective alternatives to synthetic pesticides. Biopesticides have also attracted great interest in the international research community, with a significant increase in the number of publications devoted to the subject. Recently, new substances, like strains of the fungus Talaromyces flavus SAY-Y-94-01, extracts of the plant Clitoria ternatea (butterfly pea), products of the fungus Trichoderma harzianum, products of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis strain Xd3 (Btt-Xd3), the alkaloid compound oxymatrine, fermentation products of the bacterium Lactobacillus casei strain LPT-111, stilbenes accumulated in grape canes, and olive mill wastes, have been reported in the literature as promising compounds for use as biopesticides, but more field research is required to assess the effects on specific pest problems under diverse cropping systems. Nevertheless, biopesticides have not yet reached the desired level of use, whereby they could displace the dominance of chemical pesticides, given that the commercialization of new products in the market is lagging behind. Currently, biopesticides comprise a small share of the total crop protection market globally, with a value of about $3 billion worldwide, accounting for just 5% of the total crop protection market. Fewer biopesticide-active substances are registered in the European Union (EU) than in the United States, India, Brazil, or China, due to long and complex registration processes in the EU, which follow the model for the registration of conventional pesticides. Nanoformulations and microencapsulation technologies can improve the stability and residual action of biopesticide products, and this could increase their field use. Regulations that promote registration of low-risk compounds with the provision of incentives could also facilitate commercialization and availability of biopesticides in the market.
Article
Full-text available
The red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), is an economically important pest of stored products. As possible alternative to conventional insecticides for its management, plant essential oils have gained interest owing to their effectiveness and eco-friendly features. However, they also show some drawbacks, such as low stability, poor water solubility and diffusion, and limited persistence in the environment. A good strategy to overcome these disadvantages is represented by green nanotechnologies. Herein, we developed a nanoemulsion based on the essential oil from Pimpinella anisum L. (Apiaceae) containing 81.2% of (E)-anethole and evaluated its toxicity on T. castaneum adults and F1 progeny, as well as its morphological and histological impact. The aniseed oil nanoemulsion was characterized by the formation of a semi-solid interphase between oil and water; mean drop size was 198.9 nm, PDI was 0.303, zeta potential was − 25.4 ± 4.47 mV, and conductivity was 0.029 mS/cm. The nanoemulsion showed toxicity on T. castaneum (LC50 = 9.3% v/v), with a significant impact on its progeny. Morphological and histological damages triggered by feeding and exposure to the aniseed nanoemulsion were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and light microscopy. Overall, our findings showed that the development of nanoemulsions allows to improve the stability of P. anisum essential oil enhancing its efficacy against stored grain pests and contributing to reduce the use of harmful synthetic insecticides.
Article
Full-text available
In the current paper, we reviewed the use of nanoparticles (NPs) in crop protection, emphasizing the control of pests in the agricultural and urban environment. At the same time, we provide the framework on which the technology of NPs is based and the various categories of NPs that are currently used for pest control. Apart from the use of NPs as carriers of a broad category of active ingredients, including insecticides and pheromones, some NPs can be used successfully as insecticides alone. Moreover, several types of NPs are produced by natural resource-based substances, which make them promising “green” alternatives to the use of traditional pest control agents. Finally, the potentials in the use of NPs are briefly illustrated and discussed.
Book
Insect infestations in grains and other stored food and fibre products cause annual losses worth many millions of dollars worldwide. This illustrated guide enables specialists and non-specialists to distinguish the major pests of durable stored products found throughout the world. It describes how to identify each pest group or species and summarises the latest information on their biology, ecology, geographical distribution, the damage they cause and their economic importance. Hundreds of colour photographs illustrate the identifying features of the most important beetles, moths, psocids, bugs and wasps found in stored products. Essential details on inspection and trapping are included to aid in the early detection of infestations, allowing more time to plan and undertake effective pest control. An extensive bibliography provides a convenient entry point to the specialised literature on these insects. This concise yet comprehensive reference is an essential tool for people responsible for the storage and handling of dried durable products of plant and animal origin worldwide.
Chapter
Nanoscience and nanotechnology is considered as an interdisciplinary science wherein it deals with chemistry, physics, biology, agriculture, civil and many more shower interrelationship. The term nanoscience basically has been used to understand and discuss the behaviour of any material at very small scale which cannot be seen by our naked eyes. In other way, it is at nanoscale of a material in any one or more than one dimension (1–100 nm). It reflects from its name. Researchers and academicians are also trying to correlate the industrial chemicals, agriculture and pesticides together to understand a new term “nanopesticides”. The perception of researchers is that the nanotechnology and nanoscience promises or commits huge benefits like health care, materials, biology, medicines, etc. In the present scenario of the world, a number of industries and disciplines have focused on the potency of nanomaterials. The important key in nanotechnology to think about the use of nanomaterials is that nanomaterials should not harm in any way as the risk cannot be evaluated. In this chapter, various nanoparticles, their synthesis and applications in different areas and further how they can be used in agricultural science have been discussed.
Article
The food consumer plays an increasingly prominent role in shaping the food and farming system. A better understanding of how public policies affect consumer choice and how those choices impact health, environment, and food security outcomes is needed. This paper addresses several key challenges we see for the future, including issues related to dietary-related diseases and the efficacy of policies designed to improve dietary choices, trust in the food system, acceptance of new food and farm technologies, environmental impacts of food consumption, preferences for increased food quality, and issues related to food safety. We also identify some research challenges and barriers that exist when studying these issues, including data quality and availability, uncertainty in the underlying biological and physical sciences, and the challenges to welfare economics that are presented by behavioral economics. We also identify the unique role that economists can play in helping address these key societal challenges. © The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Agricultural and Applied Economics Association. All rights reserved.
Article
In the present study, six monoterpenes [(−)-citronellal, p-cymene, (−)-menthone, α-pinene, α-terpinene, and (−)-terpinen-4-ol] and two phenylpropenes [trans-cinnamaldehyde and eugenol] were evaluated for their contact and fumigant toxicities against Sitophilus oryzae adults. The effects of these compounds on the mortality of S. oryzae adults in stored wheat and their inhibitory effects on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) were examined. The tested compounds showed varying degrees of contact toxicity, with trans-cinnamaldehyde (LC50 = 0.01 mg/cm2) being the most potent compound, followed by (−)-menthone (LC50 = 0.013 mg/cm2) and eugenol (LC50 = 0.015 mg/cm2). In a fumigant toxicity assay, the monoterpenes α-terpinene, p-cymene, and (−)-menthone showed the highest toxicities (LC50 = 50.79, 52.37, and 54.08 μl/L air, respectively). Trans-cinnamaldehyde, (−)-citronellal, and eugenol were the least toxic (LC50 > 100 μl/L air). In general, the oxygenated compounds exhibited high contact toxicities while the hydrocarbon compounds exhibited high fumigant toxicities. When tested for their insecticidal activities against S. oryzae in stored wheat, trans-cinnamaldehyde was found to be the most potent compound, with 73.9% mortality at an application rate of 0.5 g/kg and complete mortality (100%) at 1 and 5 g/kg after 1 week of treatment. All of the tested compounds showed AChE inhibition, although (−)-citronellal and trans-cinnamaldehyde presented the strongest enzyme inhibition, with IC50 values of 18.40 and 18.93 mM, respectively. On the other hand, (−)-terpinene-4-ol exhibited the highest inhibition of ATPases, followed by α-pinene and α-terpinene.
Article
This work studies the influence of two thickening agents, starch and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with different structural characteristics on physical properties and lipid bioavailability of avocado oil-based nanoemulsions. Eight nanoemulsions were prepared varying oil content (5 and 15%) and thickener type and concentration (CMC: 0.5–0.75%; Starch: 6–8%). Particle size (PS) and zeta potential (ZPot) depended mainly on the thickener type; starch-based nanoemulsions showed a lower PS and ZPot values near to zero. Nanoemulsions containing the highest oil (15%) and thickener concentrations (0.75% CMC or 8% starch) were more viscous and pseudoplastic than those with 5% oil. With respect to physical stability, the CMC-thickened nanoemulsions exhibited a better stability than starch-based samples. Starch-based nanoemulsions with 15% oil showed the highest creaming index values (40–45%) after 21 days of storage. In turn, the hydrocolloid type had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on lipid bioavailability of O/W nanoemulsions. Nanoemulsions with 5% and 15% oil did not show significant differences on the digestion rate due to thickener type. However, nanoemulsions with 15% oil presented lower digestion rates and final extent of free fatty acids released, with a lag time increased. At 15% oil, CMC-based nanoemulsions showed a lower release of free fatty acids after lipolysis than starch-thickened samples, indicating that CMC caused physical retention of oil droplets in the matrix structure, delaying lipid digestion.
Article
The special properties of ionic liquids are due to the simultaneous presence of Coulombic and van der Waals forces. Evaluation of their interaction strengths is a basic work for explaining the macroscopic physical properties of ionic liquids, understanding the molecular dynamics and microstructure of ionic liquids, and assessing the binding force induced by ions in biological systems. In this paper, a modified Coulomb's law was constructed to calculate the average electrostatic force in ionic liquids through treating an ionic liquid molecule as two charges separated by some organic groups and taking these organic groups as an organic molecule. The modified Coulomb's law was verified with the surface tension data of 117 non-ionic liquids and 153 ionic liquids. According to the modified Coulomb's law, the average strengths of the electrostatic and van der Waals interactions between a pair of cation-anion in the 153 ionic liquids were almost equal, which were about 20 pN.
Article
Sitophilus zeamais is a pest of global significance and it is difficult to control due to the high indices of resistance to insecticides showed by the populations. As an alternative to the management of S. zeamais populations, in the present study, we evaluated the toxicity of essential oil (EO) of Lippia sidoides, its major compound (thymol − 68.5%) and prototypes of nanoformulations (NF) (18%) based on these compounds on S. zeamais populations (N = 5) from different regions of Brazil. Toxicity bioassays were performed to determine lethal and chronic toxicity doses and times to test the efficiency of prototypes in the treatment of stored grains. Additionally, we study the efficiency and stability of stored NFs. The lethal doses of EO of L. sidoides and thymol required to kill 50% of S. zeamais populations ranged from 7.1 to 19.9 μg/ mg⁻¹ and 17.1 to 25.7 μg/ mg⁻¹, respectively. The populations of Jacarezinho-PR and Maracaju-MS were, respectively, the most tolerant and susceptible to the EO of L. sidoides. EO of L. sidoides, thymol and its NFs acted fast on the populations of S. zeamais. Increasing of NF concentrations led to reduced grain consumption and total population mortality. NFs stored for up to seven months maintained high mortalities on S. zeamais. This work indicates that the prototypes of NFs based on the EO of L. sidoides and its major compound are promising for the management of S. zeamais populations.