Nutritional, health benefits and usage of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica): A review

Abstract

As we enter the 3rd millennium, with improved life expectancy, and high media coverage of health care
issues, people are becoming more aware of and interested in the potential benefits of nutritional
support for disease control or prevention. The review aimed to gather published information regarding
nutrition and health benefits associated with the use of chia seeds for human health. Researchers have
reported chia seeds to have high nutritional content in the form of protein (15-25%), dietary fibre (18-
35%), fat (15-35%) and ash content (4-6%). Apart from their rich nutritional content, chia seeds can
improve the nutritional content of various food products when they are blended or mixed. This article reviews the nutritional content, bioactive compounds, and nutraceutical functionality of chia seeds and
their use in the development of functional foods. Also highlights the functional properties of chia seeds, usage in the food industry and fortification of food with chia seeds. The results showed the potential
use of chia seeds with blending with other food to produce more nutrient-dense food products that can be regarded as a functional food

Full text

Vol. 15(2) pp. 48-59, February 2021
DOI: 10.5897/AJFS2020.2015
Article Number: 310BC7365996
ISSN: 1996-0794
Copyright ©2021
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJFS
African Journal of Food Science
Review
Nutritional, health benefits and usage of chia seeds
(Salvia hispanica): A review
Ashura Katunzi-Kilewela1,2, Lillian D. Kaale1, Oscar Kibazohi1 and Leonard M. P.
Rweyemamu1*
1Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Dar es Salaam, P. O. Box 35134 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
2Tanzania Bureau of Standards, P. O. Box 9524 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Received 7 September, 2020; Accepted 18 January, 2021
As we enter the 3rd millennium, with improved life expectancy, and high media coverage of health care
issues, people are becoming more aware of and interested in the potential benefits of nutritional
support for disease control or prevention. The review aimed to gather published information regarding
nutrition and health benefits associated with the use of chia seeds for human health. Researchers have
reported chia seeds to have high nutritional content in the form of protein (15-25%), dietary fibre (18-
35%), fat (15-35%) and ash content (4-6%). Apart from their rich nutritional content, chia seeds can
improve the nutritional content of various food products when they are blended or mixed. This article
reviews the nutritional content, bioactive compounds, and nutraceutical functionality of chia seeds and
their use in the development of functional foods. Also highlights functional properties of chia seeds,
usage in the food industry and fortification of food with chia seeds. The results showed the potential
use of chia seeds with blending with other food to produce more nutrient dense food products that can
be regarded as a functional food.
Key words: Chia seeds, functional foods, bioactive compounds, nutraceuticals, fortification.
INTRODUCTION
Suitable nutrition is a critical element in the prevention of
numerous diseases related to civilization condition. The
leading killer diseases due to unhealthy food today are
cancer, depression, diabetes, and coronary heart disease
(CHD) (Wang et al., 2016). However, the main challenge
today, and even in the future, will be providing people
with enough, safe, and healthy food. Foods from animals
and fish, which contain essential ingredients such as
protein, unsaturated fat, and minerals, will be incredibly
scarce (Kaale and Eikevik, 2014). With increased health
awareness globally as a result of an increase in the
number of non-communicable diseases, the demand for
a healthier lifestyle through the consumption of foods that
prevent and control these non-communicable diseases
has increased (Berner et al., 2014; Chadare et al., 2019).
The chia seed is an oilseed that is native to Central and
*Corresponding author. E-mail: leonard.rweyemamu@udsm.ac.tz. Tel: +255 0784478752.
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License

South America (Nieman et al., 2009). It is considered as
a pseudo-cereal, which is cultivated for different usage
and commonly grown in several countries. The main chia
producing countries are Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala,
Mexico, and Peru (Ixtaina et al., 2008). It has been a
significant food crop in the Aztec, Mayan, and Incan
civilizations of the past. It was used as food and
medicine, as well as in making paint. In recent years, chia
seeds have attracted much interest in the following
countries; Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Japan, the USA,
Canada, Europe and Australia. In these countries, it is
part of different food products (Porras-Loaiza et al.,
2014). Chia seeds were introduced into East Africa
recently, and it is cultivated in Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda,
and Tanzania. In Tanzania, chia seeds were firstly
introduced in Kagera Region on the western shores of
Lake Victoria in 2013 to improve rural farmers‘ income.
Chia seeds in Tanzania used in raw form and added to
drinking water, fruit juices, blending with other cereals for
the formulation of composite flour and occasionally taken
as nutritional supplements. The crop is increasingly
earning popularity in East Africa because of its economic
and human-health benefits (Kibui et al., 2018). It is
referred to as ―the seed of the 21st century‖, ―new gold,
super nutrient and superfood‖ (Dinçoğlu and Yeşildemir,
2019; Suri et al., 2016). The shape of the chia seed is flat
and oval. It is 2.0-2.5 mm long, 1 to 2 mm wide, and 0.8-
1.0 mm thick (Ixtaina et al., 2008; Suri et al., 2016). The
colour of the coat of the seed varies from grey, black- and
white-spotted, which are slightly different from each
other. However, black seeds are more common, and
white seeds are slightly larger than black seeds (Ixtaina
et al., 2008; Segura-Campos et al., 2014; Ayerza, 2013).
Increased consumption of chia seeds and a greater
variety of plant foods provides most of the lost minerals
and vitamins, in addition to phytochemicals.
The capacity and value of these safe, healthy, and
high-quality foods, as well as other alternative sources of
rich foods such as plants, are required. Various research
studies have been conducted to identify inexpensive and
sustainable solutions for supplementing the needed
nutrients from different plant sources such as soybeans
(SB), Moringa oleifera (Rweyemamu et al., 2015), and
chia seeds (Otondi et al., 2020). Such sources of
nutrients have shown positive results, especially in
fighting micronutrient deficiency in developing countries
(Rweyemamu et al., 2015). Chia seeds have great
nutritional potential because of their composition. Their
composition depends on genetic factors and on the effect
of the ecosystems where the plants are grown (Marcinek
and Krejpcio, 2017).
Current trends in healthier nutrient-dense foods show
chia seeds are becoming more popular to researchers
because of their nutritional composition, and benefits to
the human-health. Chia seeds reported to contain protein
(15-25%), fat (15-35%), ash (4-6%) dietary fibre (18-35%)
Katunzi-Kilewela et al. 49
and carbohydrates (18-31%) (Coelho and Salas-Mellado,
2014; Ixtaina et al., 2008; Muñoz-González et al., 2019;
Nieman et al., 2009; Porras‐Loaiza et al., 2014).
Furthermore, in several developing countries, both
micronutrient malnutrition (MNM) and protein-energy
malnutrition (PEM) have increased, particularly among
children. These are related to food insecurity and hence
non-communicable diseases. Chia seeds might be used
to combat these pandemics in many societies. Sub-
Saharan African countries including Tanzania, child
malnutrition and availability of healthy food is still a
common problem in rural areas, and urban regions as the
high number ofpopulation are of earners that have low-
income. This review aimed to gather information about
chia seeds nutritional benefits and potential usage with
other food products to enhance nutritional composition.
THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CHIA SEEDS
Various studies have shown that chia seeds consist of
vital macronutrient and micronutrient components
(Coelho and Salas-Mellado, 2014; Ixtaina et al., 2008;
Muñoz-González et al., 2019; Nieman et al., 2009;
Porras‐Loaiza et al., 2014; Segura-Campos et al., 2014).
The most common macronutrients are proteins, fats with
a good quality profile of fatty acids, ash, carbohydrates,
and dietary fibre (Table 1).
Suri et al. (2016) reported that different ecosystems
influence the nutritional composition of protein, fatty
acids, and fibre in chia seeds. Ixtaina et al. (2008),
mentioned chia seeds comprise 90 to 93% of dry-matter.
Coelho and Salas-Mellado (2014) stated that the dietary-
fibre content was higher than 30% of the total weight of
the seed, and approximately 19% of the seed contains
proteins of high biological-value. Ullah et al. (2016)
reported the chia seeds are good sources of vitamins,
antioxidants and other important minerals. Suri et al.
(2016) reported chia seeds contained protein content (15
to 23%), total dietary fibre (36 to 40%) and lipids average
of 30.74%. The human health benefits of chia seeds have
drawn much attention from researchers and consumers
because of the essential fatty acids and a high level of
proteins and other components like phytochemicals such
as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tocopherols,
steroids, and carotenoids (Valdivia-López and Tecante,
2015; Prakash and Sharma, 2014). These include
increased blood levels, improved blood sugar, lower
blood pressure, and improvement of the health of guts
(Marcinek and Krejpcio, 2017; Suri et al., 2016).
Fat composition of chia seeds
There are different classifications of fats and oils,
depending on the structure of the seeds. Chia seeds oil

50 Afr. J. Food Sci.
Table 1. Proximate composition of chia seeds.
Country of origin
Protein
Fat
Ash
Carbohydrate
Dietary fibre
Source
Salta, Argentina
15 - 25
30 - 33
4 - 5
26 - 41
18 – 30
Ixtaina et al. (2008)
Ecuador, Brazil
20 - 24
16 - 33
3.5 - 4.6
-
27 - 36
Carrillo et al. (2018); Coelho and Salas-Mellado (2014)
India
15 - 23
25 - 34
-
37 - 45
23 - 35
Many and Sarasvathi (2016); Suri et al. (2016)
Table 2. Composition of omega 3 and omega 6 for different types of vegetable oil.
Type of oil
Country of origin
Omega 3
Omega 6
Source
Chia
Mexico, Ecuador, Brazil and Argentina
54 - 67
17 -20
Álvarez-Chávez et al. (2008), Carrillo et al. (2018), Coelho and Salas-
Mellado (2014), Ixtaina et al. (2011).
Sunflower
Czech Republic and Poland
0.16 – 0.50
55 - 65
Orsavova et al. (2015); Marcinek and Krejpcio (2017)
Pumpkin
Cameroon, Czech Republic and Poland
0.12 – 0.50
47 - 69
Fokou et al. (2009); Orsavova et al. (2015); Marcinek and Krejpcio (2017)
Wheat germ
Czech Republic and Poland
1.2 – 2.90
45 - 65
Orsavova et al. (2015); Marcinek and Krejpcio (2017)
Rapeseed
Czech Republic and Poland
1.2 – 9.80
18 - 20
Orsavova et al. (2015); Marcinek and Krejpcio (2017)
has been reported to contain an excessive amount
of fatty acids, especially polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA), which consist of more than 60% α-
linoleic acid and more than 20% linoleic acid (Di
Marco et al., 2020; Segura-Campos et al., 2014).
Increasing environmental concerns on water
sources in terms of pollutants, overfishing, and the
use of un-approved fishing gear have prompted
the use of plant origin sources, which give
polyunsaturated-fatty-acids (PUFAs). Among the
common PUFAs of great interest to researchers
are omega -3 fatty acids, which have certain
nutritional benefits. Rajaram (2014) reported that
α-linolenic acid, which is derived from plant origin,
has the potential to reduce cardiovascular
disease, fracture, and Type 2 diabetes. Table 2
shows the composition of omega 3 and omega 6
fatty acids from different seeds, including chia
seeds.
Chia seeds have a substantial lipids amount
that is around 40% of the entire weight of chia
seeds (Table 2). Carrillo et al. (2018) used a
soxhlet method to extract oil from chia seeds and
used a gas chromatography-mass selective
detector (GC-MSD) to profile fatty acid. Carrillo et
al. (2018) reported the composition of omega 3 as
54.08%, the content of omega 6 as 18.69%, and
omega 9 as 10.24%. All are from the total fats that
are present in chia seeds. Coelho and Salas-
Mellado (2014) used acid hydrolysis to extract oil
from chia seeds and used gas chromatography
(GC) to profile fatty acids.
The high content of PUFAs, primarily linolenic
acid and linoleic acid, in chia seeds, has attracted
the attention of many researchers. Chia seeds
contain a prodigious amount of PUFAs, primarily
linolenic acid and linoleic acid (Enes et al., 2020a;
Ghafoor et al., 2020) which are beneficial to the
human-health. The fatty acids found in chia seeds
also contain several phenolic compounds,
antioxidants that play a significant role in human
health (Oliveira-Alves et al., 2017). In recent
healthy diet trends, the consumption of
unsaturated oils has increased because of an
increase in the number of non-communicable
diseases like cardiovascular diseases and
hypertension, and because of people‘s
consciousness about health. Subsequently,
physicochemical characteristics and the nutritional
composition of chia seeds influenced the use of
the seeds to enhance human health (Coates
2011; Ixtaina et al., 2011).
Ullah et al. (2016) reported a high intake of α-
linolenic acid by humans reduces the risk of heart
failure. This may be due to the anti-inflammatory,
anti-thrombotic and anti-arrhythmic role that chia
seeds, as a natural source of omega 3 and 6 fatty
acids, play (Oliveira-Alves et al., 2017; Arredondo-
Mendoza et al., 2020). A study conducted by Koh
et al. (2015) showed that increased intake of

Katunzi-Kilewela et al. 51
Table 3. Essential amino acid composition of chia seeds (g per 100 g).
Country of origin
Amino acid
Quantity
Health/nutritional benefit
Source
Poland and Slovakia
Leucine
1.37- 1.42
Regulates blood sugar, promotes growth, and repairs muscles
and bones. It is also responsible for wound healing.
Nitrayová et al. (2014); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and Slovakia
Phenylalanine
1.02– 1.6
It plays a vital role in specific brain functions and the structure
and function of other proteins and enzymes.
Nitrayová et al. (2014); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and Slovakia
Lysine
0.93- 0.97
Immunity functions of the body, energy production, collagen,
and elastin, which support body tissues.
Nitrayová et al. (2014); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and Slovakia
Valine
0.79- 0.95
Responsible for muscle growth, regeneration, and energy
productions
Nitrayová et al. (2014); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and Slovakia
Isoleucine
0.74- 0.80
Production of haemoglobin and energy regulations
Nitrayová et al. (2014); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and Slovakia
Threonine
0.54- 0.71
Responsible for healthy skin and teeth, fat metabolism and
immune functions
Nitrayová et al. (2014); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and Slovakia
Methionine
0.59- 0.67
Health flexibility of skin and hair. It is responsible for tissue
growth and facilitates the absorption of vital minerals.
Nitrayová et al. (2014); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and Slovakia
Histidine
0.53- 0.61
Acts as a protective barrier which surrounds nerve cells and
facilitates growths
Nitrayová et al. (2014); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
omega 3 fatty acids from marine or plant sources
by humans reduces the risk of cardiovascular
diseases, which are among the most chronic non-
communicable diseases in the world is facing at
present. There are other sources of PUFA like
flaxseed and marine products. These other
sources have disadvantages or shortcomings
which are associated with their usage like
digestive problems and a fishy flavour (Tur et al.,
2012).
Proteins composition of chia seeds
Knowledge of protein in any food compound is
essential as proteins contribute to the physical
and functional properties, which can also improve
the sensory properties of food and, therefore,
consumer acceptability (Otondi et al., 2020). Most
food products, like cereals and grains, are
consumed after being subjected to any form of
heat treatment. During this process, protein
denaturation is likely to occur and contributes to
the functional properties of a particular food item
(Boye et al., 2017). Being the main building block
in the human body for blood, bones, cartilage,
muscles, and skin, protein must be sufficient in
the human body for all these processes to take
place. With a 20% protein content, chia seeds
have the potential to correct and prevent protein-
energy malnutrition. Ullah et al. (2016) noted that
chia seeds do not have gluten in which gluten
intolerance people can utilize the seeds so that
they do not suffer from coeliac diseases. Chia
seeds contain 18 out of 22 amino acids, of which
9 are essential which contribute significantly to
human health (Ullah et al., 2016). Table 3 shows
that chia seeds contain the following essential
amino acids: phenylalanine, valine, threonine,
tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine,
and histidine.
The consumption of foods that are rich in
protein contributes to weight loss because of the
reduction of fat in the body (Ullah et al., 2016).
The protein content of chia seeds was reported to
be in the range of 15-26% (Table 1), oats (15.3%),
wheat (14%), corn (14%), barley (9.2%) and rice
(8.5%) (Coates, 2011). These variations are
justified by different seed sources due to
geographical, agronomic, and environmental
conditions. However, the level of protein in chia
seeds is still significantly higher than that of other
kinds of grain (Ullah et al., 2016).
Carbohydrates and dietary fibre
Among the nutritional contents of chia seeds are
carbohydrates and fibre. The nutritional benefits of
dietary fibre include the regulation of bowel health.

52 Afr. J. Food Sci.
Table 4. The micronutrient composition of chia seeds (g per 100 g).
Country of origin
Micronutrient
Quantity
Nutritional benefit
Sources
Poland and the USA
Niacin – B3 (mg)
8.83
Healthy skin, blood cells, brain and nervous system
Jin et al. (2012); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and the USA
Ascorbic acid – C (mg)
1.6
Improve immune system, building connective tissues, antioxidant
Jin et al. (2012); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and the USA
Thiamine - B1 (mg)
0.62
Healthy hair, brain and skinas well as important for nerve
function.
Jin et al. (2012); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and the USA
Phosphorus (mg)
860 - 919
Protect bones and teeth. It helps shuttle nutrients into and out of
cells
Jin et al. (2012); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and the USA
Calcium (mg)
456 - 631
Builds and protects bones and teeth. Assist nerve impulse
transmission, muscle relaxation and contraction,, as well as blood
clotting. Enzyme activation and hormone secretion. Helps
maintain healthy blood pressure
Jin et al. (2012); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and the USA
Potassium (mg)
407 - 726
Balances blood fluids
Jin et al. (2012); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and the USA
Magnesium (mg)
335 - 449
Chemical reactions in the bodywork with calcium.
Jin et al. (2012); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and the USA
Iron (mg)
7.72 – 9.18
Blood production and the making of amino acids, collagen,
neurotransmitters, and hormones
Jin et al. (2012); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
Poland and the USA
Zinc (mg)
4.58 – 6.47
Enhance the immune system, sense of taste and smell, and
wound healing
Jin et al. (2012); Kulczyński et al. (2019)
There are two types of carbohydrates in chia
seeds, namely dietary fibre and starch. Dietary
fibre (DF) can be classified into soluble DF (such
as, gums, pectins, mucilages, and algal
polysaccharides), insoluble DF (such as, cellulose
and hemi-celluloses),/mixed (such as bran),
fermentable and non-fermentable DF (Coelho and
Salas-Mellado 2014; Fernandes and de las
Mercedes Salas-Mellado 2017; Suri et al., 2016).
Soluble dietary fibre absorbs water, turning it into
gel-like, highly hydrated masses that are almost
entirely fermented in the colon by microorganisms.
The main purpose of the dietary-fibre in the
human body is to retain healthy digestive system
in the human body (Capitani et al., 2012).
It has been reported that the high content of
gum and mucilage in chia seeds is a potential
means of application in the food industry
(Fernandes and de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado
2017; Suri et al., 2016; Coelho and Salas-Mellado
2014) reported that chia seeds contain 5-6%
mucilage which can be used as dietary fibre.
Muñoz et al. (2012) noted that chia seeds can
form a gelatinous mass when soaked in water.
This is due to the occurrence of a large amount of
mucilages and gums, which make the seeds
strongly hydrophilic and thus capable of absorbing
several times their weight in liquids such as water
that can absorb up to 12 times its weight (Attalla
and El-Hussieny, 2017). The mucilage can be
extracted from chia seeds and hydrated to archive
water retention of 27 times its weight in water.
This property makes chia seeds a functional
ingredient that can be used in the food industry
as, for example, a thickener and stabilizer.
Because of this property, chia also improves the
function of the digestive system and helps to
improve the health of the guts through a
prolonged time of gastro-intestinal (Anderson et
al., 2009; Suri et al., 2016).
MICRONUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF CHIA
SEEDS
There are different vitamins needed by the human
body in different quantities for various metabolic
purposes. The human body as vitamin D, can
synthesize other vitamins obtained from an
additional food source like vitamin C. Researchers
have shown that chia seeds consist of some
vitamins and minerals (Suri et al., 2016; Ullah et
al., 2016). The minerals found in chia seeds are
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, iron, zinc, and
magnesium. The vitamins found in chia seeds are
thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, ascorbic
acid, and vitamin A (Suri et al., 2016). Table 4

shows the micronutrient composition of chia seeds, as
well as their quantities and nutritional benefits.
Muñoz et al. (2012) noted that chia seeds are richer in
niacin than in other cereals like corn, soybean, and rice.
Vitamin B1 and vitamin B3 are similar to corn and rice,
but chia seeds have six times more calcium, eleven times
more phosphorus, and four times more potassium than
milk, which is only 100 g (Muñoz et al., 2012; Suri et al.,
2016).
CHIA SEEDS AS A NATURAL FUNCTIONAL FOOD
In its unchanged or changed form, chia seed is a
functional food (Marcinek and Krejpcio, 2017). An
unchanged natural food is a food that has not undergone
human interference to improve its nutritional/health
benefits. Functional foods are foods that offer additional
nutrition and health benefits and can perform three
functions. Their primary function is a particular food‘s
nutritional value. Furthermore, their secondary functions
are the food‘s sensory appeal, sensory satisfaction, or
organoleptic properties. The tertiary function refers to the
food‘s physiological aspects, such as neutralizing harmful
substrates, regulation of body functions and physical
conditions, prevention of diseases related to nutrition,
and elevation of the mental and physical health of people
(Yao et al., 2012).
There is no specific meaning of the functional food
concept, which has been proposed. However, the
/Functional Food Institute in Dallas or/ Functional Food
Centre describes functional foods as ―processed or
natural foods that comprise of unknown or known
compounds which are biologically-active; which, is defined
in non-toxic and effective amounts, that can deliver a
documented and clinically proven health-benefit for the
treatment, management and prevention of diseases that
are chronic” (Martirosyan and Singh, 2015). The Institute
of Food Technology (IFT) considers the term ―functional
food‖ as evolving, and it uses it to refer to foods and food
components that provide health benefits besides basic
nutrition. Functional foods offer important nutrients,
usually beyond quantities needed for usual maintenance,
development and growth of other biologically active
components and/or the target population desirable to
provide required physiological effects or health-benefits
(Rajaram, 2014). Functional foods can also be beneficial
in increasing the number of nutrients by providing
particular dietary food components that intensify their
palatability and availability (Ullah et al., 2016).
More research should be directed on the provision of
functional foods through either enriched or fortified food
with the use of natural sources like chia seeds so as to
come up with a new formulation of known concentration
and reported therapeutic benefits expected. The expected
processing conditions and the possible chemical and
Katunzi-Kilewela et al. 53
biological changes during food preparation, as well as
food bioavailability and its bio-accessibility after its
consumption was established.
Phytochemicals in chia seeds
The phytochemical compounds that have been detected
in chia seeds include carotenoids, sterols tocopherols,
and phenolic compounds, including quercetin, myricetin,
caffeic acid kaempferol and chlorogenic (Capitani et al.,
2012; Oliveira-Alves et al., 2017). The phytochemicals,
either alone or in combination with others, have the
therapeutic potential to cure various ailments (Marcinek
and Krejpcio, 2017). Epidemiological and animal studies
suggest that dietary intake of phytochemicals may have
certain health benefits and protect people against human
chronic degenerative disorders such as neuro-
degenerative diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases,
kidney diseases, and as well as diabetes (Tokuşoğlu and
Hall III, 2011). Majority of foods, such as whole grains,
legumes, fruits, vegetables, and herbs, contain
phytochemicals (Tokuşoğlu and Hall III, 2011). Tables 5
and 6 shows nutritional bioactive compounds and
antioxidant compounds in chia seeds, as reported by
various researchers.
Functional properties of chia seeds
Besides considering the nutritional quality of new food
products, consumers have expressed a need to have
more knowledge of the functional properties and
nutritional quality of the food-products (Limsangouan et
al., 2010). The functional properties of any food item
shows how their starch, protein, and lipids in it behave
during the processing of that particular food item and
their effects on the final food product in relation to
properties of an organoleptic (smell, appearance, texture
and taste). The behaviour of these nutrients is essential
in relation to technological and dietary formulation in
developing novel functional foods (Brennan et al., 2016).
Food items in flour form, common functional properties
that describe how ingredients behave during preparation
and cooking are emulsion stability, bulk density and least-
gelation concentration, swelling capacity, foam stability,
gelatinization temperature, oil absorption capacity, foam
capacity, emulsion activity and water absorption
capacity. Olivos-Lugo et al. (2010) reported the protein
functional properties such as foaming and gelling, oil
holding capacity and water holding capacity, are from
chia seeds. It was observed that the protein from chia
seeds has good water holding capacity and excellent oil
retention capacity, which makes chia a useful ingredient
in products from the bakery.
Segura-Campos et al. (2014) reported a study

54 Afr. J. Food Sci.
Table 5. Nutritional bioactive compounds in chia seeds.
Phytochemical
Nutraceutical value (Health benefit)
Source
Linolenic acid
Cancer preventive, reduce the risk of coronary heart
Disease, Coronary Heart Disease,
Bone Health, Immune Response Disorders,
Weight Gain, Stroke Prevention, Mental Health,
Cancer and Visual Acuity
Koh et al. (2015)
McClements et al. (2009)
Linoleic acid
It helps the body to build muscle rather than store fat and has anti-inflammatory properties. It
also prohibits cancer.
Martínez-Cruz and Paredes-López,
(2014)
Tocopherols
Contributes to the antioxidant‘s composition of chia seeds, which helps to reduce
inflammation, promoting anti-cancer cells, anti-ageing, and other antioxidant activities in the
stabilization of cell membranes.
Marcinek and Krejpcio, (2017)
Sterols
Plant sterols are effective in inhibiting cholesterol incorporation into mixed micelles, which is an
essential step at the intestinal-epithelium for the absorption of cholesterol.
Tokuşoğlu and Hall III, (2011)
Carotenoids
Cancer, Coronary Heart Disease, Macular
Degeneration, and Cataracts
Maruyama et al. (2014)
Glutamic acid
Proper brain functioning
Olivos-Lugo et al. (2010
Dietary-fibre
Treating and preventing diseases of the circulatory and digestive systems, kidney stones,
diabetes, haemorrhoids colorectal cancer and disorder in the metabolic system
Valdivia-López and Tecante (2015)
Phenolic
compounds
Protective role against cardiovascular illness, cancer, and diabetes;
Antioxidant protectants for human beings and play a beneficial role in reducing the risk of
hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart disease, and some types of cancer.
Oliveira-Alves et al. (2017)
Prakash and Sharma (2014)
Caffeic acid
Hypoglycemic activity, memory protective effect
Anti-carcinogenic, antihypertensive, neuron protective effects and antioxidant activity
Oliveira-Alves et al. (2017)
Enes et al. (2020b)
Rosmarinic
Quercetin
The immuno-regulatory function that includes antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
activities and antidiabetic effect.
A potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-hepatotoxic, reduces LDL
oxidation, vasodilator and blood thinner
Oliveira-Alves et al. (2017)
Prakash and Sharma (2014)
Myricetin
Exhibits antibacterial activity and has anti-gonadotropic activity
Prakash and Sharma (2014)
Kaempferol
Antimicrobial Antioxidant, anti-cancer, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-
osteoporotic, anxiolytic, neuroprotective, anti-estrogenic/estrogenic, analgesic, and anti-
allergic activities
Reduction in hot flushes and menopausal symptoms
Prakash and Sharma (2014)
Protocatechuic acid
Antioxidant properties, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperglycaemic, and antimicrobial effects
against gram-positive and harmful bacteria and fungi.
Semaming et al. (2015)
Gallic acid
Cytotoxic and anti-oxidative activities, antileukemic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antineoplastic,
anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic
Prakash and Sharma (2014)
Chlorogenic acid
Anti-carcinogenic, antihypertensive, neuron protective effects; Antioxidant activity that can
reduce the production of free radicals in the body, inhibit peroxidation of fats.
Oliveira-Alves et al. (2017)
Alagawany et al. (2020)

Katunzi-Kilewela et al. 55
Table 6. Composition of antioxidant compounds in chia seeds (mg/g).
Country of origin
Polyphenol
Chlorogenic acid
Caffeic acid
Quercetin
Kaempferol
Source
Mexico
0.51-0.88
0.046-0.102
0.003-0.007
0.15-0.27
0.36-0.51
Reyes-Caudillo et al. (2008)
Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay
0.91-0.98
0.214-0.235
0.141-0.156
0.006
0.024-0.025
Ayerza (2019)
Brazil, Mexico
0.64
0.005
0.02 - 0.03
0.1- 0.2
0.0002
Coelho and Salas-Mellado (2014);
Martínez-Cruz and Paredes-López (2014)
concerning the functional properties such as water
absorption, oil holding capacity and water holding
capacity of the chia-seed gum, which they
confirmed that good functional and
physicochemical properties of chia-seed gum
could be useful in food industries. Most of the
studies on the functional properties of chia seeds
have been conducted on specific items like the
amount of protein in the seeds, the gum and
mucilage (Iglesias-Puig and Haros 2013; Olivos-
Lugo et al., 2010; Pizarro et al., 2013; Segura-
Campos et al., 2014; Zettel et al., 2015).
Uses of chia seeds in the food industry
Chia seeds because of the various nutritional
properties, multiple studies have been conducted
for different purposes, including their composition,
characterization of the compounds, application in
the food industry as well as usage in cosmetic
industries (Iglesias-Puig and Haros 2013; Many
and Sarasvathi 2016; Olivos-Lugo et al., 2010;
Pizarro et al., 2013; Segura-Campos et al., 2014;
Zettel et al., 2015).
The high content of gum and mucilage in chia
seeds makes the seeds potentially useful in the
food industry (Fernandes and de las Mercedes
Salas-Mellado 2017; Suri et al., 2016). The seeds
are mostly used in the baking industry. This is
because of the higher amount of carbohydrates in
the baked products compared to other nutrients
which are essential (Romankiewicz et al., 2017).
Among the products in which chia seeds have
been included are bread, pasta, biscuits, and
cakes. Chia seeds can also be used in beverages,
snacks, and other products (Coelho and Salas-
Mellado, 2014; Steffolani et al., 2014).
Also, among the products which have been
fortified with chia seeds is wheat bread
(Romankiewicz et al., 2017). The presence of
bioactive compounds in chia seeds has
contributed significantly to the formulation of
various functional foods (Bresson et al., 2009).
However, the addition of chia seeds to original
products made the products have characteristics
different from their original characteristics. (Zettel
et al., 2015) analyzed the effects of chia on the
production of wheat bread and noted a reduction
in bread firmness. Coelho and Salas-Mellado
(2014) noted that breadcrumbs incorporated with
whole chia seeds were softer than chia flour.
Romankiewicz et al. (2017) added 4 to 6% of chia
seeds to wheat flour during the baking of bread
and noted a reduction in the amount of the bread
obtained. In addition, 6 to 8% chia seeds to
wheat flour reduced baking loss because the high
content of dietary fibre in chia combines with
water and prevents evaporation during bread
baking. This indicates that when chia seeds are
incorporated into flour products, they might
influence the swelling capacity and water-holding
capacity of the products. Iglesias-Puig and Haros
(2013) noted dark colour in the bread baked into
which chia seeds had been incorporated because
of phenolic compounds.
Fortification of foods with chia seeds
Subsequently chia seeds are rich of omega-3 fatty
acids, protein, fibre, vitamins, minerals, and
phytochemicals, they can be used as nutritional
additives in food, a nutritional supplement, and a
base for beverages. According to Dary and Hurrell
(2006), food fortification is the addition of one or
more essential nutrients to food so as to reduce or
prevent the deficiency of nutrient(s) in a given
population (Dary and Hurrell, 2006). Food
fortification is precisely stated as the addition of
one/more components of another food item that is
not naturally occurred to increase its nutritional/
health benefits of the newly designed/formulated
food product (Świeca et al., 2014). Food
fortification is among the techniques commonly
used in the development or formulation of
functional foods.
There are two principal reasons for fortifying
foodstuffs. The first reason is when legislation
demands it through public health policy. Examples
of this include fortification of baby foods, weight
reduction products, and even national programs
requiring the staple foods fortification for example

56 Afr. J. Food Sci.
wheat flour, maize flour, and cooking oil, which is
common in developing countries (Dary and Hurrell,
2006). The second reason for fortifying foods is market
differentiation. The non-compulsory fortification of dairy
products, breakfast cereals, and drinks has been
effectively used to boost sales through enhanced
nutritional claims (Dary and Hurrell, 2006). Certainly,
fortified beverages and food products can decrease
dietary deficiencies of which is resulting from a
progressively reliance on processed food products and
busy lifestyle that, without fortification, may be viewed as
―empty calorie‖ products (Dary and Hurrell, 2006; Iwatani
and Yamamoto, 2019; McClements et al., 2009;
Tokuşoğlu and Hall III, 2011).
Boosting the bioavailability of chia seed
phytochemicals using a food matrix design
Contrary to conventional practices, the composition and
structure of foods are typically optimized to improve their
quality characteristics such as mouth-feel, appearance,
taste and texture. Foods have of late been intended to
improve their nutritional profiles by plummeting the levels
of the macronutrients. These are believed to have
adverse health effects. Such effects are saturated fats,
digestible carbohydrates, and salt. On the other way,
such foods can be improved with other food components
that are supposed to have health effects which are
beneficial, for instance minerals, nutraceuticals vitamins
or dietary fibre (McClements et al., 2009). Nevertheless,
the potential advantages of a significant number of these
nutraceuticals are not ideally comprehended, as a result
of their comparatively low as well as adjustable oral
bioavailability (McClements et al., 2015). Both the
composition and structure of a food matrix can influence
the bioavailability of co-ingested nutraceuticals
(McClements et al., 2009; McClements et al., 2015).
Chia seeds have nutritional and nutraceutical benefits.
They are a good source of material for the fortification of
consumed cereals, roots, and tubers. Foods fortified with
chia seeds improve people‘s health, especially pregnant
women, and children. Some of these deficiencies may
result in irreversible effects like stunting for children, and
congenital disabilities and death (Coelho and Salas-
Mellado, 2014). However, more studies have to be
conducted on different food products that are developed
to produce functional foods and to confirm its quality
characteristics of fortified foods (McClements et al., 2015;
Yao et al., 2012).
Chia seeds as a vehicle for bioactive components in
food products
Chia is a crucial ingredient for the development of
functional food products (Dinçoğlu and Yeşildemir, 2019).
The bioactive components found in chia seeds may be
used to fortify food, besides being used as a vehicle for
increasing the number or amount of vital nutrient intake
(Coelho and Salas-Mellado, 2014). The formulation of
new functional foods with the incorporation of chia seeds
is a promising and innovative way of protecting and
delivering omega-3 fatty acids into a range of food
products (Garg et al., 2006; Geelen et al., 2004; Koh et
al., 2015).
Considerations to ensure the number of bioactive
compounds present in commercial food products are
satisfactory
Ideally, it is desirable to design chia-based functional
food products that are stable in many different
applications. Food ingredient manufacturers usually have
functional food formulations designed for different food
categories. Examples of common available functional
foods already in the market include infant formula, bakery
products, dairy, and liquid beverage, of which all have
different requirements. There are various challenges
relating to the final food formulation with regard to food
standard regulations, shelf-life, and quantity of bioactive
components present (McClements et al., 2015; Ottaway,
2008). Some of the critical issues that must be
considered so that there are enough chia bioactive
components in commercial food products include the
following:
(i) Compliance with regulatory standards – availability of
product standards from regulatory bodies to ensure that
the ingredients chosen as nutraceutical-rich (health-
promoting) foods are approved for usage in each country
where a given product will be marketed or sold. This step
will minimize the time for seeking regulatory approval
when the final product is ready to go into the market
(Dary and Hurrell, 2006; Ottaway, 2008).
(ii) Definition of a final product application to ensure a
uniform product – dry blending with other food powders –
it is necessary for the nutraceutical-rich (health-
promoting) food ingredient like powder before usage in
combination with other food items, to be matched in
terms of physical and functional properties like water
activity, bulk density, and particle size to achieve the
homogeneous end product. Also, to avoid possible
physical separation during the transportation, storage, or
use of a newly formulated food product. For liquid
products, the rehydration and re-dispersion behaviour of
the powder is vital if a powder format is chosen (Dary and
Hurrell, 2006; Ottaway, 2008).
(iii) Understanding of the protection and release

requirements during processing – Knowledge and
understanding of the processing steps and the unit
operations involved in manufacturing the final food
product is important to be able to design functional food
properties in such a way that the core is protected during
the process and released at the desired time (Dary and
Hurrell, 2006; Ottaway, 2008).
(iv) Understanding how and where to add chia – familiarity
with the setup and layout of a food manufacturing plant is
also required in order to identify the stage at which it is
appropriate to add chia seeds to a food product (such as
how and where chia seeds should be added), without any
other process modification (McClements et al., 2015).
(v) Understanding possible interactions with other
ingredients– when the new nutraceutical-rich food
ingredient is added to a food product, the final food
product properties, including sensory and physical
properties, as well as the shelf life of the food may be
affected by possible ingredient interactions. Sometimes
these interactions may be minimized by making minor
modifications to the process or formulation. However,
sometimes even small changes cannot be made because
of some limitations in the plant‘s layout/setup or further
modifications could add significant capital investment
(Majeed et al., 2013; McClements et al., 2015).
(vi) “Working in partnership” – all stakeholders or
corresponding partners in the value chain should be
aware of what is going on and, therefore, work together
to ensure that the final product is of good or high quality
(Dary and Hurrell 2006; Ottaway, 2008).
CONCLUSION
Chia seeds richness is due to its high composition of
protein (15-25%), fats (15-35%), fat (15-35%), ash (4-6%)
and presence of minerals, vitamins, phytochemicals and
antioxidants. The nutritional composition of chia seeds
varies because of their geographical origins and climatic
and environmental conditions. Characterization of chia
seeds grown in different locations is crucial before the
development of any new food product, and for food
fortification or enrichment purposes using other local food
products and chia seeds. This review recommends usage
of chia seeds on its natural form or in combination with
other less dense food products. During the development
of new functional foods with the incorporation of chia
seeds, consideration of the physical and functional
properties of the new food product to be developed is
essential. Emphasis on product‘s attributes like shelf life,
usability and consumer acceptability not affected as
compared to those of the original product (unfortified
product). A systematic approach is important during
Katunzi-Kilewela et al. 57
product formulation for different food products so that the
nutrients needed (recommended dietary intake – RDI) do
not negatively affect the acceptability of products. The
functional foods to be developed should have supported
scientific evidence for the availability of nutritional and
health benefits to ensure that they are not lost in the food
chain before the food is consumed.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
REFERENCES
Alagawany M, Nasr M, Al-Abdullatif A, Alhotan RA, Azzam MM, Reda
FM (2020). Impact of dietary cold-pressed chia oil on growth, blood
chemistry, haematology, immunity and antioxidant status of growing
Japanese quail. Italian Journal of Animal Science 19:896-904.
Álvarez-Chávez LM, Valdivia-López MdlA, Aburto-Juarez MdL, Tecante
A (2008). Chemical characterization of the lipid fraction of Mexican
chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.). International Journal of Food
Properties 11:687-697.
Anderson JW, Baird P, Davis RH, Ferreri S, Knudtson M, Koraym A,
Waters V, Williams CL (2009). Health benefits of dietary fibre.
Nutrition Reviews 67:188-205.
Arredondo-Mendoza GI, Jiménez-Salas Z, Garza FJG-dl, Solís-Pérez
E, López-Cabanillas-Lomelí M, González-Martínez BE, Campos-
Góngora E (2020). Ethanolic Extract of Salvia hispanica L. Regulates
Blood Pressure by Modulating the Expression of Genes Involved in
BP-Regulatory Pathways. Molecules 25:3875.
Attalla NR, El-Hussieny EA (2017). Characteristics of nutraceutical
yoghurt mousse fortified with chia seeds. International Journal of
Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology 2(4):238873.
Ayerza R (2013). Seed composition of two chia (Salvia hispanica L.)
genotypes which differ in seed colour. Emirates Journal of Food and
Agriculture (EJFA) 25(7).
Ayerza R (2019). Antioxidants, protein, oil content and fatty acids
profiles of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) genotype Tzotzol growing
in three tropical ecosystems of Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay.
International Journal of Agriculture Environment and Food Sciences
3(3):191-196.
Berner LA, Keast DR, Bailey RL, Dwyer JT (2014). Fortified foods are
major contributors to nutrient intakes in diets of US children and
adolescents. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics
114(7):1009-1022.
Boye J, Ma C-Y, Harwalkar V (2017). Thermal denaturation and
coagulation of proteins. In: Food proteins and their applications. pp.
25-56. CRC Press.
Brennan CS, Brennan M, Mason S, Patil S (2016). The Potential of
Combining Cereals and Legumes in the Manufacture of Extruded
Products for a Healthy Lifestyle. EC Nutrition 5(2):1120-1127.
Bresson J-L, Flynn A, Heinonen M, Hulshof K, Korhonen H, Lagiou P,
Løvik M, Marchelli R, Martin A, Moseley B (2009). Opinion on the
safety of ‗Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) and ground whole Chia
seeds‘ as a food ingredient [1]: Scientific Opinion of the Panel on
Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies. EFSA, Journal 7(4):996.
Capitani MI, Spotorno V, Nolasco SM, Tomás MC (2012).
Physicochemical and functional characterization of by-products from
chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds of Argentina. LWT-Food Science and
Technology 45(1):94-102.
Carrillo W, Cardenas M, Carpio C, Morales D, Álvarez M, Silva M
(2018). Content of nutrients component and fatty acids in chia seeds
(Salvia hispanica L.) cultivated in Ecuador. Asian Journal of
Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 11(2):1-4.

58 Afr. J. Food Sci.
Chadare FJ, Idohou R, Nago E, Affonfere M, Agossadou J, Fassinou
TK, Kénou C, Honfo S, Azokpota P, Linnemann AR (2019).
Conventional and food‐to‐food fortification: An appraisal of past
practices and lessons learned. Food Science and Nutrition 7(9):2781-
2795.
Coates W (2011). Protein content, oil content and fatty acid profiles as
potential criteria to determine the origin of commercially grown chia
(Salvia hispanica L.). Industrial Crops and Products 34:1366-1371.
Coelho MS, Salas-Mellado M (2014). Chemical characterization of chia
(Salvia hispanica L.) for use in food products. Journal of Food and
Nutrition Research 2(5):263-269.
Dary O, Hurrell R (2006). Guidelines on food fortification with
micronutrients. World Health Organization, Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations: Geneva, Switzerland. pp. 3-37
Di Marco AE, Ixtaina VY, Tomás MC (2020). Inclusion complexes of
high amylose corn starch with essential fatty acids from chia seed oil
as potential delivery systems in food. Food Hydrocolloids 106030.
Dinçoğlu AH, Yeşildemir Ö (2019). A Renewable Source as a
Functional Food: Chia Seed. Current Nutrition and Food Science
15(4):327-337.
Enes BN, Moreira LdPD, Toledo RCL, Moraes ÉA, de Castro Moreira
ME, Hermsdorff HHM, Noratto G, Mertens-Talcott SU, Talcott S,
Martino HSD (2020a). Effect of different fractions of chia (Salvia
hispanica L.) on glucose metabolism, in vivo and in vitro. Journal of
Functional Foods 71(4):104026.
Enes BN, Moreira LP, Silva BP, Grancieri M, Lúcio HG, Venâncio VP,
Mertens‐Talcott SU, Rosa CO, Martino HS (2020b). Chia seed
(Salvia hispanica L.) effects and their molecular mechanisms on
unbalanced diet experimental studies: A systematic review. Journal
of Food Science 85(2):226-239.
Fernandes SS, de las Mercedes Salas-Mellado M (2017). Addition of
chia seed mucilage for reduction of fat content in bread and cakes.
Food chemistry 227(24):237-244.
Fokou E, Achu MB, Kansci G, Ponka R, Fotso M, Tchiegang C,
Tchouanguep FM (2009). Chemical properties of some cucurbitaceae
oils from Cameroon. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8(9):1325-1334.
Garg M, Wood L, Singh H, Moughan P (2006). Means of delivering
recommended levels of long-chain n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in
human diets. Journal of Food Science 71:R66-R71.
Geelen A, Brouwer IA, Zock PL, Katan MB (2004). Antiarrhythmic
effects of n-3 fatty acids: evidence from human studies. Current
opinion in lipidology 15(1):25-30.
Ghafoor K, Ahmed IAM, Özcan MM, Al-Juhaimi FY, Babiker EE, Azmi
IU (2020). An evaluation of bioactive compounds, fatty acid
composition and oil quality of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed roasted
at different temperatures. Food Chemistry 333(39):127531.
Iglesias-Puig E, Haros M (2013). Evaluation of the performance of
dough and bread incorporating chia (Salvia hispanica L.). European
Food Research and Technology 237(6):865-874.
Iwatani S, Yamamoto N (2019). Functional food products in Japan: A
review. Food Science and Human Wellness 8:96-101.
Ixtaina VY, Nolasco SM, Tomas MC (2008). Physical properties of chia
(Salvia hispanica L.) seeds. Industrial Crops and Products 28(3):286-
293.
Ixtaina VY, Martínez ML, Spotorno V, Mateo CM, Maestri DM, Diehl
BW, Nolasco SM, Tomás MC (2011). Characterization of chia seed
oils obtained by pressing and solvent extraction. Journal of Food
Composition and Analysis 24(2):166-174.
Jin F, Nieman DC, Sha W, Xie G, Qiu Y, Jia W (2012). Supplementation
of milled chia seeds increases plasma ALA and EPA in
postmenopausal women. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 67(2):105-
110.
Kaale LD, Eikevik TM (2014). The development of ice crystals in food
products during the super chilling process and following storage, a
review. Trends in Food Science and Technology 39:91-103.
Kibui AN, Owaga E, Mburu M (2018). Proximate composition and
nutritional characterization of Chia enriched yoghurt. African Journal
of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition, and Development 18.
Koh AS, Pan A, Wang R, Odegaard AO, Pereira MA, Yuan J-M, Koh W-
P (2015). The association between dietary omega-3 fatty acids and
cardiovascular death: the Singapore Chinese Health Study.
European Journal of Preventive Cardiology 22(3):364-372.
Kulczyński B, Kobus-Cisowska J, Taczanowski M, Kmiecik D and
Gramza-Michałowska A 2019 The chemical composition and
nutritional value of chia seeds—Current state of knowledge.
Nutrients11(6): 1242.
Limsangouan N, Takenaka M, Sotome I, Nanayama K, Charunuch C,
Isobe S (2010). Functional properties of cereal and legume-based
extruded snack foods fortified with by-products from herbs and
vegetables. Kasetsart Journal (Natural Science) 44:271-279.
Majeed H, Qazi HJ, Safdar W, Fang Z (2013). Microencapsulation can
be a novel tool in wheat flour with micronutrients fortification: current
trends and future applications-a review. Czech Journal of Food
Sciences 31:527-540.
Many JN, Sarasvathi V (2016). Analysis of Chia Seed‘–Physiochemical
and Proximate Analysis. Research Journal of Recent Sciences E-
ISSN 227:2502.
Marcinek K, Krejpcio Z (2017). Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica): health
promoting properties and therapeutic applications-a review. Roczniki
Państwowego Zakładu Higieny 68.
Martínez-Cruz O, Paredes-López O (2014). Phytochemical profile and
nutraceutical potential of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) by ultra-
high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography
A 1346:43-48.
Martirosyan DM, Singh J (2015). A new definition of functional food by
FFC: what makes a new description unique? Functional foods in
health and disease 5:209-223.
Maruyama SA, Claus T, Chiavelli LU, Bertozzi J, Pilau EJ, Souza NEd,
Visentainer JV, Gomes S, Matsushita M (2014). Analysis of
carotenoids, α-tocopherol, sterols and phenolic compounds from
white bread enriched with chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds and carrot
(Daucus carota L.) leaves. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society
25:1108-1115.
McClements DJ, Decker EA, Park Y, Weiss J (2009). Structural design
principles for the delivery of bioactive components in nutraceuticals
and functional foods. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
49:577-606.
McClements DJ, Li F, Xiao H (2015). The nutraceutical bioavailability
classification scheme: classifying nutraceuticals according to factors
limiting their oral bioavailability. Annual Review of Food Science and
Technology 6:299-327.
Muñoz-González I, Merino-Álvarez E, Salvador M, Pintado T, Ruiz-
Capillas C, Jiménez-Colmenero F, Herrero AM (2019). Chia (Salvia
hispanica L.) a Promising Alternative for Conventional and Gelled
Emulsions: Technological and Lipid Structural Characteristics 5:19.
Muñoz L, Cobos A, Diaz O, Aguilera J (2012). Chia seeds:
Microstructure, mucilage extraction and hydration. Journal of Food
Engineering 108(1):216-224.
Nieman DC, Cayea EJ, Austin MD, Henson DA, McAnulty SR, Jin F
(2009). Chia seed does not promote weight loss or alter disease risk
factors in overweight adults. Nutrition Research 29(6):414-418.
Nitrayová S, Brestenský M, Heger J, Patráš P, Rafay J, Sirotkin A
(2014). Amino acids and fatty acids profile of chia (Salvia hispanica
L.) and flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) seed. Potravinarstvo Slovak
Journal of Food Sciences 8(1):72-76.
Oliveira-Alves SC, Vendramini-Costa DB, Cazarin CBB, Júnior MRM,
Ferreira JPB, Silva AB, Prado MA, Bronze MR (2017).
Characterization of phenolic compounds in chia (Salvia hispanica L.)
seeds, refibre flour and oil. Food Chemistry 232(33):295-305.
Olivos-Lugo B, Valdivia-López M, Tecante A (2010). Thermal and
physicochemical properties and nutritional value of the protein
fraction of Mexican chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.). Food Science
and Technology International 16:89-96.
Orsavova J, Misurcova L, Ambrozova JV, Vicha R, Mlcek J (2015).
Fatty acids composition of vegetable oils and its contribution to
dietary energy intake and dependence of cardiovascular mortality on
dietary intake of fatty acids. International Journal of Molecular
Sciences 16:12871-12890.
Otondi EA, Nduko JM, Omwamba M (2020). Physico-chemical
properties of extruded cassava-chia seed instant flour. Journal of

Agriculture and Food Research 2:100058.
Ottaway PB (2008). Food fortification and supplementation:
Technological, safety and regulatory aspects. Elsevier.
Pizarro PL, Almeida EL, Sammán NC, Chang YK (2013). Evaluation of
whole chia (Salvia hispanica L.) flour and hydrogenated vegetable fat
in pound cake. LWT-Food Science and Technology 54:73-79.
Porras‐Loaiza P, Jiménez‐Munguía MT, Sosa‐Morales ME, Palou E,
López‐Malo A (2014). Physical properties, chemical characterization
and fatty acid composition of Mexican chia (Salvia hispanica L.)
seeds. International Journal of Food Science and Technology
49:571-577.
Prakash D, Sharma G (2014). Phytochemicals of nutraceutical
importance. CABI. https://www.cabi.org/nutrition/ebook/20143083504
Rajaram S (2014). Health benefits of plant-derived α-linolenic acid. The
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 100:443S-448S.
Reyes-Caudillo E, Tecante A, Valdivia-López M (2008). The dietary
fibre content and antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds present
in Mexican chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds. Food Chemistry
107:656-663.
Romankiewicz D, Hassoon WH, Cacak-Pietrzak G, Sobczyk M,
Wirkowska-Wojdyła M, Ceglińska A, Dziki D (2017). The effect of
chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) addition on quality and nutritional
value of wheat bread. Journal of Food Quality 2017.
Rweyemamu LM, Yusuph A, Mrema GD (2015). Physical properties of
extruded snacks enriched with soybean and moringa leaf powder.
African Journal of Food Science and Technology 6(1):28-34.
Segura-Campos MR, Ciau-Solís N, Rosado-Rubio G, Chel-Guerrero L,
Betancur-Ancona D (2014). Chemical and functional properties of
chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) gum. International Journal of Food
Science 2014.
Semaming Y, Pannengpetch P, Chattipakorn SC, Chattipakorn N
(2015). Pharmacological properties of protocatechuic acid and its
potential roles as complementary medicine. Evidence-Based
Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2015.
Steffolani E, De la Hera E, Pérez G, Gómez M (2014). Effect of Chia
(Salvia hispanica L.) Addition on the Quality of Gluten‐Free Bread.
Journal of Food Quality 37:309-317.
Suri S, Passi SJ, Goyat J (2016). Chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.)—A
new age functional food. In: 4th International Conference on Recent
Innovations in Science Engineering and Management pp. 286-299.
Katunzi-Kilewela et al. 59
Świeca M, Sęczyk Ł, Gawlik-Dziki U, Dziki D (2014). Bread enriched
with quinoa leaves–The influence of protein–phenolics interactions on
the nutritional and antioxidant quality. Food Chemistry 162:54-62.
Tokuşoğlu Ö, Hall III CA (2011). Fruit and cereal bioactives: sources,
chemistry, and applications. CRC press. pp. 21-82.
Tur J, Bibiloni M, Sureda A, Pons A (2012). Dietary sources of omega 3
fatty acids: public health risks and benefits. British Journal of Nutrition
107:S23-S52.
Ullah R, Nadeem M, Khalique A, Imran M, Mehmood S, Javid A,
Hussain J (2016). Nutritional and therapeutic perspectives of Chia
(Salvia hispanica L.): a review. Journal of Food Science and
Technology 53:1750-1758.
Valdivia-López MÁ, Tecante A (2015). Chia (Salvia hispanica): a review
of native Mexican seed and its nutritional and functional properties.
In: Advances in Food and Nutrition Research 53-75. Elsevier.
Wang H, Naghavi M, Allen C, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Carter A, Casey
DC, Charlson FJ, Chen AZ, Coates MM (2016). Global, regional, and
national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific
mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis
for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. The Lancet 388:1459-
1544.
Yao C, Hao R, Pan S, Wang Y (2012). Functional foods based on
traditional Chinese medicine. Nutrition, Well-Being and Health 179 p.
Zettel V, Krämer A, Hecker F, Hitzmann B (2015). Influence of gel from
ground chia (Salvia hispanica L.) for wheat bread production.
European Food Research and Technology 240:655-662.