Carbon footprint reduction with the adoption of electricity-powered vehicles

Abstract

In the quest to reduce the global carbon footprints, many national governments are adopting the electricity-powered vehicle over conventional vehicles. However, this does not necessarily translate to a reduction of CO2 emission, as the source of the electricity utilized for the charging/recharging of such vehicles plays a significant contribution to its emission rate. This study looks at selected economies in six different continents and the Middle East to estimate the electric vehicle adoption and CO2 emission (kg/kWh) benchmark to make them greener than the conventional vehicles. At the current state of the emission from the conventional automobiles, CO2 emission per kWh of generated electricity is assumed to be below 0.5495 kg for the electric vehicles to be greener, and for a matured synthetic fuel technology below 0.1923 kg. The estimates show that to ensure a transition to the adoption of electricity powered vehicles in Bangladesh and Africa, a shift in electricity generation to clean renewable sources is required.

Full text

Towoju O.A. / International Energy Journal 21 (2021) Special Issue 1A, 101 – 106
©2021 Publis hed by R ERIC in I nterna tional E nergy J ournal (IEJ). Papers included in this Bangabandhu Chair Special Issue on: Energy, Disaster, Climate Change:
Sustai nabi lity a nd Just Trans itio ns in B angla desh ha ve under gone t he select ion and double blind peer-review process under the responsibility and guidance of t he
Guest Ed itors : Prof. Joyashre e Roy ( Bangabandhu C hair Pro fessor, Asian Instit ute of Te chnolo gy, Tha iland), Dr. Sheikh Tawhid ul Isla m (Jahangirnagar University,
Bangladesh), and Dr. I ndrajit Pal (Asian Institute of Technolo gy, Thailand).
www.rericjournal.ait.ac.th
101
Abstract – In the quest to reduce the global carbon footprints, many national governments are adopting the
electricity-powered vehicle over conventional vehicles. However, this does not necessarily translate to a reduction of
CO2 emission, as the source of the electricity utilized for the charging/recharging of such vehicles plays a significant
contribution to its emission rate. This study looks at selected economies in six different continents and the Middle
East to estimate the electric vehicle adoption and CO2 emission (kg/kWh) benchmark to make them greener than the
conventional vehicles. At the current state of the emission from the conventional automobiles, CO2 emission per kWh
of generated electricity is assumed to be below 0.5495 kg for the electric vehicles to be greener, and for a matured
synthetic fuel technology below 0.1923 kg. The estimates show that to ensure a transition to the adoption of
electricity powered vehicles in Bangladesh and Africa, a shift in electricity generation to clean renewable sources is
required.
Keywords – CO2 emission, conventional automobiles, electric vehicles, global warming, greenhouse gas.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
The threat of global due to emission of greenhouse gases
continues to be a begging issue waiting for a resolution.
CO2 gas always comes to fore whenever greenhouse
gases are mentioned because it is the largest of such
gases produced globally after water vapour [1],[2]. The
increase in the average global temperature over the pre-
industrial era caused by greenhouse gases is a cause of
major concern and also is the negative health impact [2].
Global temperatures have increased above 0.6 0C over
the past century [2]-[4]. Several activities contribute to
the release of CO2 gas to the environment, among which
are land use, waste management, and combustion of
carbon-content materials like fossil fuels and plants [3].
Reduction of CO2 emission is expected to be
accomplished by improved efficiency in combustion
plants, shift towards alternative energy use, and carbon
capture and storage [2],[5],[6], moreover, it is a known
fact that life cannot exist without traces of the
greenhouse gases [4],[7].
While there has been a continuous improvement in
the efficiency of combustion plants, the required level of
reduction in the emission of CO2 gas is yet to be
achieved, and attention is now shifted to the use of
alternative energy. A direct consequence of which is,
many nations are pushing for the adoption of electric
vehicles as a means of reducing CO2 emission in the
transportation sector [5,8,9]. The use of alternatives to
fossil fuels are also being rigorously pursued in the form
of biofuels [10]. The CO2 emission rate of conventional
automobiles, however, can compare favourably with that
*Mechanical Engineering Department, Adeleke University, Nigeria.
1Corresponding author;
Tel: + 2348055934207.
E-mail: olumidetowo@yahoo.com
of electricity-powered vehicles based on the comparison
of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of such vehicles
when the generated electricity source is put into
consideration [5].
The electric vehicle technology has evolved with
time, and some of the hitherto challenges like exorbitant
cost price and low drive mileage before a recharge is
gradually being overcome [11]. The tail pipe emission
from electricity-powered vehicles is zero and this has
always been the point of argument for their advocates,
however, the electricity generation source is a critical
issue which must be considered [5] in the overall
evaluation of the emission value of such vehicles. While
the generated electricity of some nations can be said to
be ‘clean’, this cannot be said for most of the countries.
This will result in some countries contributing to the
reduction of CO2 emission with the adoption of electric
vehicles, while others will contribute to the increase.
This study, therefore, seeks to develop a benchmark
of CO2 emission from electricity generation that will
make the adoption of electricity-powered vehicles
environmentally friendlier in comparison to
conventional automobiles, and also to determine its
suitability in some selected top economies in continents.
2. ELECTRICITY GENERATION SOURCES
The global sources of electricity generation are
renewable and non-renewable, with the utilization of
renewable sources standing at approximately a quarter
of the total based on the data available for the year 2018
[12]. Electricity generation from renewables is said to be
free of emissions [13], while non-renewables are major
contributors to greenhouse gas emission [5]. Although
many nations are now investing heavily in electricity
generation plants with renewables as an energy source,
its installed capacity still hovers around a third of the
total [14], and projections for the nearest future look
bright putting it at about 50% by the year 2050 [13].
Carbon Footprint Reduction with the Adoption of the
Electricity-Powered Vehicles
Olumide A. Towoju*
www.rericjournal.ait.ac.th

Towoju O.A. / International Energy Journal 21 (2021) Special Issue 1A, 101 – 106
©2021 Publis hed by R ERIC in I nterna tional E nergy J ournal (IEJ). Papers included in this Bangabandhu Chair Special Issue on: Energy, Disaster, Climate Change:
Sustai nabi lity a nd Just Trans itio ns in B angla desh ha ve under gone t he selection a nd double blind peer-review process under the responsibility and guidance of the
Guest Ed itors : Prof. Joyashre e Roy ( Bangabandhu C hair Pro fessor, Asian Instit ute of Te chnolo gy, Tha iland), Dr. Sheikh T awhid ul Isla m (Jahangirnagar University,
Bangladesh), and Dr. Ind rajit Pal (Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand).
www.rericjournal.ait.ac.th
102
However, it is imperative to note that installed capacity
does not translate to generation capacity especially for
the case of renewable-powered electricity generation
because of the peak and low periods which is their
characteristic feature making them have a low value of
return on investment for some sources [15],[16].
Renewable energy sources available for electricity
generation include hydropower, wind, solar, ocean
power, geothermal, and biomass and biofuels, etc., while
non-renewable sources are fossil fuels; coal, oil, and
natural gas, and nuclear energy [17].
3. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION
CONSIDERATION
The adoption of electric vehicles over the use of
conventional automobiles will result into more
electricity consumption and demand [5], and hence, it is
required to know the energy sources and plants’
efficiency to determine the CO2 emissions from a
country’s electricity generation sector which will be
utilized in powering the electric vehicle. Although the
quality of the fuel used in the generation of electricity
also plays a huge part in the level of emissions, it can,
however, be assumed that the available figures for the
year 2018 provided by the United States as depicted in
Table 1 still subsists.
Table 1. CO2 emission based on energy source.
Energy Source CO2 (kg. /kWh)
Coal 1.003
Natural gas 0.418
Petroleum 0.958
Source: EIA [18].
The CO2 emission from the renewable sources as
mentioned earlier can be said to be zero, and as revealed
by the literature [18]. For the United States of America,
the fossil fuels powered generated electricity accounted
for 99% of the CO2 emissions despite being only 63% of
the total generated electricity. Data exist for the average
amount of CO2 emission for on-the-road conventional
automobiles. For petrol as fuel emission is 0.144 kg/km
and for diesel 0.109 kg/km [19], and it will not be out of
place to say that biodiesels and alcohols even do better.
For any nation to be considered as one whose
contribution to global warming is positively oriented
with the adoption of the electric vehicle over the
conventional vehicle, then her generated electricity must
be such that in addition to some other factors when used
to power the vehicles it must produce lower CO2
emission levels. Relying on the data provided, the
benchmark adopted for the maximum amount of CO2
emission per km of road travel for the electric vehicle is
put at 0.1 kg/km.
Electric vehicles depend on batteries for their
energy storage [5],[20], and the common of such is the
Lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries derive their
functionality from the formation and subsequent
reduction of CO2 emission [21] and the loss of which
results in the damage of it. With this point in mind,
asides the CO2 emission produced during the generation
of electricity used in powering the electric vehicle, it
also emits due to the use of the batteries; the discharge
of 1 kg. of Lithium batteries to nature is equivalent to
about 12.5 kg. of CO2 and the production of the batteries
is accompanied by the emission of (90-200) kg. of CO2
per kilogram [22], [23].
In arriving at the CO2 emission rate of the
electricity-powered vehicle, the battery contribution is
not factored-in because of the non-inclusion of the
emission rate during the process of refining conventional
vehicles’ fuel. Using the data available from electric
vehicle manufacturers like Tesla, Nissan, Hyundai,
Ford, the average consumed energy is about 0.182 kWh
[5] per kilometer of road travel, and this is the basis for
the calculation of the CO2 emission rate of electric
vehicles.
4. CASE STUDY OF SELECTED COUNTRIES
To determine the environmental suitability of the
adoption of the electric vehicles, the different continents
were considered with the selection of the top economies.
This was characterized on the CO2 emission rate per
kWh of their generated electricity. The considered
countries are depicted in Table 2.
The CO2 emission per kWh of generated electricity
of the studied countries is depicted in Table 3.
Table 2. Selected countries for studies.
Africa Asia Australia Europe *Middle East North America South America
Nigeria China Australia Germany Turkey USA Chile
South Africa Japan New Zealand France Saudi Arabia Mexico Argentina
Egypt India Italy Iran Canada Brazil
Algeria South Korea United Kingdom Russia Jamaica Peru
Morocco Bangladesh Spain UAE Panama Uruguay
*The Middle East is not listed as a continent.

Towoju O.A. / International Energy Journal 21 (2021) Special Issue 1A, 101 – 106
©2021 Publis hed by R ERIC in I nterna tional E nergy J ournal (IEJ). Papers included in this Bangabandhu Chair Special Issue on: Energy, Disaster, Climate Change:
Sustai nabi lity a nd Just Trans itio ns in B angla desh ha ve under gone t he select ion and double blind peer-review process under the responsibility and guidance of t he
Guest Ed itors : Prof. Joyashre e Roy ( Bangabandhu C hair Pro fessor, Asian Instit ute of Te chnolo gy, Tha iland), Dr. Sheikh Tawhid ul Isla m (Jahangirnagar University,
Bangladesh), and Dr. I ndrajit Pal (Asian Institute of Technolo gy, Thailand).
www.rericjournal.ait.ac.th
103
Table 3. CO
2
emission rate per kWh of electricity
generation.
Country
Key
CO2/kWh
Remarks
Nigeria
NG
0.4396
[24],[25]
South Africa
SA
0.9606
[26]
Egypt
EG
0.63
[27]
Algeria
AG
0.6642
[25]
Morocco
MC
0.7312
[25]
China
CH
0.6236
[26]
Japan
JP
0.4916
[26]
India
IN
0.7429
[26]
South Korea
SK
0.517
[26]
Bangladesh
BG
0.6371
[25]
Australia
AS
0.8
[26]
New Zealand
NZ
0.0074
[26]
Germany
GE
0.469
[26]
France
FR
0.047
[26]
Italy
IT
0.327
[26]
United
Kingdom
UK
0.2773
[26],[28]
Spain
SP
0.288
[26]
Turkey
TR
0.5434
[26]
Saudi Arabia
SD
0.7176
[26]
Iran
IR
0.571
[29]
Russia
RS
0.4
[30]
UAE
UA
0.4333
[26]
USA
US
0.4759
[26]
Mexico
ME
0.464
[25],[26]
Canada
CA
0.13
[26]
Jamaica
JA
0.7961
[25]
Panama
PA
0.2768
[25]
Chile
CL
0.4086
[25]
Argentina
AR
0.3583
[26]
Brazil
BR
0.0927
[25],[26]
Peru
PE
0.2377
[25]
Uruguay
UG
0.017
[31]
Sources: References [24]-[31].
However, it is important to note that a greater
fraction of the studied countries have a quality supply of
electricity whose uptime period is close to a hundred
percent, but this cannot be said for some countries like
Nigeria with only about 54.4%, South Africa with
84.4%, and Bangladesh with 88% [32]. While the
electricity supply downtime for Bangladesh and South
Africa can be assumed to be minimal, that of for Nigeria
one cannot. Nigeria meets the shortfall of her electricity
demand through self-generation basically from
petroleum-fueled generators which do not pass through
the grid [33], and this has to be considered in the
determination of the CO2 emission rate of her available
electricity.
The adjusted CO2 emission rate per kilowatt-hour
of available electricity in Nigeria can hence be
determined thus; A generation of about 30,897 GWh
[34] of electricity results in an uptime percentage of 54.4
[32], an indication that with all things being equal, a
generation of 56,796 GWh will give a 100% quality of
supply. It is therefore assumed that the balance of
25,899 GWh of electricity is generated from petroleum.
Using the emission rate based on petroleum and
factoring in the efficiency ratio of thermal plants to
compression ignition engines; 1:1.29 [5], the adjusted
CO2 emission rate for Nigeria electricity is depicted in
Table 4.
Table 4. Adjusted CO2 emission per kWh.
Country
Key
CO
2
/kWh
Nigeria
NG
0.5778
Sources: References [24], [25].
The projected amount of CO2 emission per
kilometer of travel of an electric vehicle
charged/recharged with generated electricity from the
studied selected countries is depicted in Figure 1.
The country that will produce the least emission
with the adoption of the electric vehicle is New Zealand
followed by Uruguay, while South Africa and Australia
will produce the highest rate of emission respectively.
The adoption of the electric vehicle over the
conventional automobiles will assist in the reduction of
greenhouse gas for the countries whose emission rates
are below the benchmark line. All the selected studied
countries in Europe and South America fall below the
benchmark. The benchmark corresponds to a CO2
emission rate of 0.5494 kg/kWh of generated electricity,
which was derived thus;
Average energy consumed per kilometer of road
travel = 0.182 kWh [5].
Rate of CO2 emission expected to make it greener
= 0.1 kg/kWh
Corresponding CO2 emission benchmark (kg/kWh)
=
0.1
0.182 = 0.5495.
The current energy sources mix for electricity
generation in Bangladesh does not favour the adoption
of the electric powered vehicle. The adoption will result
in more emission of greenhouse gases in comparison
with the conventional vehicle as its CO2 gas emission
rate (0.6371 kg/kWh) is in excess of the modeled
benchmark. To ensure the sustainability and just
transition of energy in the country, it is imperative for
the country to shift more to electricity generation from
cleaner renewable sources. The country’s three coal
power plants under construction [35] will in no small
way increase is CO2 gas emission rate per kW of
generated electricity. The adoption of the electricity
powered vehicle should be suspended until the
greenhouse gas emission from her electricity generation
falls below the benchmark.

Towoju O.A. / International Energy Journal 21 (2021) Special Issue 1A, 101 – 106
©2021 Publis hed by R ERIC in I nterna tional E nergy J ournal (IEJ). Papers included in this Bangabandhu Chair Special Issue on: Energy, Disaster, Climate Change:
Sustai nabi lity a nd Just Trans itio ns in B angla desh ha ve under gone t he selection a nd double blind peer-review process under the responsibility and guidance of the
Guest Ed itors : Prof. Joyashre e Roy ( Bangabandhu C hair Pro fessor, Asian Instit ute of Te chnolo gy, Tha iland), Dr. Sheikh T awhid ul Isla m (Jahangirnagar University,
Bangladesh), and Dr. Ind rajit Pal (Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand).
www.rericjournal.ait.ac.th
104
Fig. 1. Estimated CO2 emission per kilometer of road travel by countries.
With an uptime of 88% in Bangladesh [32], the
CO2 emission rate of the country per kWh can also be
adjusted to allow the downtime to be compensated with
self-generation. The adjusted value based on average
grid value of 13,000 MW [35] is depicted in Table 5.
Table 5. Adjusted CO2 emission per kWh.
Country
Key
CO
2
/kWh
Bangladesh
BG
0.6590
Sources: Reference [25].
It is, however, to be noted that the use of synthetic
fuel will further lower the emission rate benchmark as
data shows that its utilization in internal combustion
engines results in about a third of the tailpipe emission
of CO2 gas [5]. The development of synthetic fuel and
its wide availability will thus make the adoption of the
electric vehicle greener in the hitherto qualified
countries according to the depicted model in Figure 1
with emission rates that fall below the benchmark as
depicted in Figure 2.
The maturity of the synthetic fuel production and
supply will make the adoption of the electric vehicle
powered with the current generated electricity greener
only five (5) countries according to this study model;
New Zealand, France, Canada, Brazil, and Uruguay. At
this level, the benchmark electricity generation emission
rate per kilowatt-hour for the sole use of electric
vehicles to be greener will be 0.1923 kg/kWh.
Fig. 2. Estimates based on the use of synthetic fuels.
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
JP
SK
NZ
GE
FR
IT
UK
SP
TR
RS
UA
US
ME
CA
PA
CL
AR
BR
PE
UG
kg(CO2)/km
Countries
Benchmark

Towoju O.A. / International Energy Journal 21 (2021) Special Issue 1A, 101 – 106
©2021 Publis hed by R ERIC in I nterna tional E nergy J ournal (IEJ). Papers included in this Bangabandhu Chair Special Issue on: Energy, Disaster, Climate Change:
Sustai nabi lity a nd Just Trans itio ns in B angla desh ha ve under gone t he select ion and double blind peer-review process under the responsibility and guidance of t he
Guest Ed itors : Prof. Joyashre e Roy ( Bangabandhu C hair Pro fessor, Asian Instit ute of Te chnolo gy, Tha iland), Dr. Sheikh Tawhid ul Isla m (Jahangirnagar University,
Bangladesh), and Dr. I ndrajit Pal (Asian Institute of Technolo gy, Thailand).
www.rericjournal.ait.ac.th
105
5. CONCLUSION
The top five performing countries in six continents and
the Middle East were estimated in this study to
determine their contribution to greenhouse gas emission
if a switch to electric vehicles from the conventional
ones are done. European countries and South American
countries will be greener with the adoption of electric
vehicles over conventional automobiles, so will be some
countries in Asia, North America, the Middle East, and
Australia. However, the continent of Africa will
contribute more to global warming with a switch from
conventional vehicles to electric vehicles. This is due to
no other fact that the major players in the continent rely
on non-renewable sources for the generation of the bulk
of their electricity. Bangladesh needs to shift to
electricity generation to cleaner renewable sources to
ensure to if electricity powered vehicles are going to be
used.
The estimates also show that only five countries:
New Zealand, France, Canada, Brazil, and Uruguay will
be more green if the synthetic fuel technology should get
matured at the present electricity generation fuel mix.
The greener the electricity generation becomes, the
greener will be the electric vehicle and synthetic fuel.
REFERENCES
[1] IPCC. Summary for policymakers. In: O.
Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E.
Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, et al., editors.
Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate
change. Contribution of working group III to the
fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental
panel on climate change. Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge
University Press; 2014.
[2] Tan Z., 2014. Air pollution and greenhouse gases.
Green Energy and Technology, Springer.
[3] Aizebeokhai A.P., 2009. Global warming and
climate change: Realities uncertainties and
measures. Int J Phys Sci. 4(13): 868–79.
[4] Hannah R. and R. Max, 2019. CO2 and other
greenhouse gas emissions. Published online at
OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved April 15, 2019
from the World Wide Web:
https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-
greenhouse-gas-emissions.
[5] Towoju O.A. and F.A. Ishola, 2020. A case for the
internal combustion engine powered vehicle.
Energy Reports 6(2): 315-321.
[6] Towoju O.A., and A. Dare, 2016. Di-methyl ether
(DME) as a substitute for diesel fuel in
compression ignition engines. Int J Adv Res Eng
Manage 2(5): 39–47.
[7] Michaelides E.E., 2012. Alternative energy
sources. Green Energy and Technology, Springer.
[8] Wang N., Tang L., Zhang W., and Guo J., 2019.
How to face the challenges caused by the
abolishment of subsidies for electric vehicles in
China? Energy 166: 359–72. Retrieved from the
World Wide Web:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.10.006.
[9] Link C., Raich U., Sammer G., and Stark J., 2012.
Modelling demand for electric cars – A methodical
approach. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences 48: 1958 – 1970.
[10] Towoju O.A., and S.O. Jekayinfa, 2019.
Compression ignition engine performance as a
function of the fuel properties. Journal of
Engineering Sciences 6(1): G1-G5. DOI:
10.21272/jes.2019.6(1).g1.
[11] Lambert F., 2016. Breakdown of raw materials in
Tesla’s batteries and possible bottlenecks.
Retrieved April 134, 2019 from the World Wide
Web: https://electrek.co/2016/11/01/breakdown-
raw-materials-tesla-batteries-possible-bottleneck/.
[12] The World Bank. Renewable Electricity Output (%
of Total Electricity Output). Retrieved March 12,
2020 from the World Wide Web:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.RNE
W.ZS.
[13] Islam M.A., Hasanuzzaman M., Rahim N.A.,
Nahar A., and Hosenuzzaman M., 2014. Global
renewable energy-based electricity generation and
smart grid system for energy security. The
Scientific World Journal, Article ID 197136.
doi.org/10.1155/2014/197136.
[14] IRENA, 2019. Renewable Energy Now Accounts
for A Third of Global Power Capacity. Retrieved
from the World Wide Web: https:// www.power-
technology.com/news/irena-report-renewable-
energy/.
[15] Breeze P., 2016. Chapter 2 - The Wind Energy
Resource. Wind Power Generation, 9-17.
doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804038-6.00002-5.
[16] Jônatas da Mata F.C., Mesquita A.Z., and Neto
R.O., 2017. Comparison of the performance,
advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power
generation compared to other clean sources of
electricity. International Nuclear Atlantic
Conference – INAC.
[17] Chen J., 2019. Nonrenewable resources.
Investopedia. Retrieved from the World Wide
Web:
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/nonrenewab
leresource.asp.
[18] US Energy Information Agency. 2020. How much
carbon dioxide is produced per kilowatthour of
U.S. electricity generation? [Online], Retrieved
June 17, 2020 from the World Wide Web:
https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=74&t=1
1.
[19] IAV GmbH. 2017. Combustion engines with CO2
– avoiding fuel. [Online], Retrieved April 4, 2019
from World Wide Web:
https://www.iav.com/us/automotion-

Towoju O.A. / International Energy Journal 21 (2021) Special Issue 1A, 101 – 106
©2021 Publis hed by R ERIC in I nterna tional E nergy J ournal (IEJ). Papers included in this Bangabandhu Chair Special Issue on: Energy, Disaster, Climate Change:
Sustai nabi lity a nd Just Trans itio ns in B angla desh ha ve under gone t he selection a nd double blind peer-review process under the responsibility and guidance of the
Guest Ed itors : Prof. Joyashre e Roy ( Bangabandhu C hair Pro fessor, Asian Instit ute of Te chnolo gy, Tha iland), Dr. Sheikh T awhid ul Isla m (Jahangirnagar University,
Bangladesh), and Dr. Ind rajit Pal (Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand).
www.rericjournal.ait.ac.th
106
magazine/automotion-2017-issue-02/combustion-
engines-co2-avoiding-fuel?r=en&n=14058.
[20] Zeinab R., Johan J., and Jan B., 2015. Advances in
consumer electric vehicle adoption research: A
review and research agenda. Transp Res D. 34:
122–36.
[21] Sloop S.E., Kerr J.B., and Kinoshita K., 2003. The
role of li-ion battery electrolyte reactivity in
performance decline and self-discharge. J Power
Sources 119–121, 330–7.
[22] Soodabeh S. and A. Mohammed, 2013. Concerns
on the growing use of lithium: The pros and cons.
Iranian Red Crescent Med J 15(8): 629–32.
[23] Wolfram P. and T. Wiedmann, 2017. Electrifying
Australian transport: Hybrid life cycle analysis of a
transition to electric light-duty vehicles and
renewable electricity. Appl Energy 206(2017):
531–40.
[24] Sam-Amobi C., Ekechukwu O.V., and Chukwuali
C.B., 2019. A preliminary assessment of the
energy related carbon emissions associated with
hotels in Enugu metropolis Nigeria. International
Journal of Science and Technology (STECH),
Ethiopia 8(2): 19 – 30.
[25] Brander M., Sood A., Wylie C., Haughton A., and
Lovell J., 2011. Electricity-specific emission
factors for grid electricity. Ecometrica 1-22.
Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
https://ecometrica.comassetsElectricity-specific-
emission-factors-for-grid-electricity.pdf.
[26] Carbon footprints. 2019. Grid electricity emission
factors. [Online], Retrieved June 18, 2020 from
the World Wide Web:
https://www.carbonfootprint.com/docs/2019_06_e
missions_factors_sources_for_2019_electricity.pdf
[27] Abdallah L. and T. El-Shennawy, 2017. Evaluation
of CO2 emissions from electricity generation in
Egypt: Present status and projections to 2030. In
Proceedings of the 1st International Conference of
Chemical, Energy and Environmental Engineering
ICCEEE.
[28] Loughran J., 2017. Carbon emissions associated
with UK’s electricity generation have halved since
2012. Eng Technol. Retrieved May 1, 2019 from
the World Wide Web:
https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2017/11/car
bon-emissions-associated-with-uk-s-electricity-
generation-have-halvedsince-2012/.
[29] Noorpoor A.R. and S.N. Kudahi, 2015. CO2
emissions from Iran's power sector and analysis of
the influencing factors using the stochastic impacts
by regression on population, affluence and
technology (STIRPAT) model. Carbon
Management 6(3-4): 101-116. DOI:
10.1080/17583004.2015.1090317).
[30] Climate Transparency. 2016. Brown to green: G20
transition to a low carbon economy. [Online],
Retrieved on June 18, 2020 from World Wide
Web: http://www.climate-transparency.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/08/Russia-2016.pdf.
[31] Sierra W., 2016. Uruguay: Revolution rather than
energy transition? Heinrich Boll Stiftung. Retrieved
June 18, 2020 from the World Wide Web:
https://us.boell.org/en/2016/06/20/uruguay-
revolution-rather-energy-transition.
[32] Index Mundi. 2019. Access to electricity (% of
population) – country ranking. Retrieved on June
19, 2020 from the World Wide Web:
https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/EG.
ELC.ACCS.ZS/rankings.
[33] Towoju O.A., Ishola F.A., and Elomien E.
Decentralized electricity generation can revive
Nigeria dying critical sectors.
[34] Wikipedia. List of countries by electricity
generation. [Online], Retrieved on July 25, 2020
from the World Wide Web:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by
_electricity_production.
[35] Fairley P. 2020. Bangladesh scrambles to deliver
electricity to its 160 million residents in 2021.
IEEE Spectrum, [Online serial] Retrieved on July
26, 2020 from the World Wide Web:
spectrum.ieee.org.