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Fashion and clothing textiles: how to reduce the environmental and social impacts

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  • Clarendon Policy & Strategy Group

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It is hard to imagine living in a world without textiles. Nearly everyone, everywhere comes into contact with them nearly all the time, at home, work or in recreation. This is especially true of clothing, the focus of this report. Clothes provide comfort and protection, and for many, fashion represents an important expression of individuality. The textiles industry is also a significant sector in the global economy, providing employment for hundreds of millions around the world. These benefits notwithstanding, the ways we design, produce, and use clothes have major drawbacks that are becoming increasingly clear. The textiles system has mainly operated in an almost completely linear way: large amounts of non-renewable resources are extracted to produce clothes that are often used for only a short time, after which the vast volumes of materials are mostly sent to landfill or incinerated. More than US $500 billion of value is lost every year due to underutilisation of clothing and the lack of recycling. Furthermore, this make-buy-dispose linear model has substantially major negative environmental and societal impacts. For instance, total greenhouse gas emissions from textiles production, at 1.2 billion tonnes annually, are more than those of all international flights and maritime shipping combined. Hazardous substances affect the health of both textile workers and wearers of clothes, and they escape to negatively impact the environment. In addition, when washed, most garments release microfibres, of which around half a million tonnes every year contribute to ocean pollution, with increasing the risk of damage to marine organisms. Yet, trends point to these negative impacts rising inexorably, with the potential for catastrophic outcomes in future. This linear system is ripe for disruption. How the fashion and clothing industry can do better This report outlines a vision for a system that works, delivering long-term benefits, from a new textile circular economy based on the principles of a circular economy. To achieve this vision a collective approach is needed to meet six major requirements, to: 1. Phase out substances of concern and microfibre release. 2. Implement safer and better employment conditions. 3. More flexibly meet demand by providing more options for the way clothes are sold or rented, to break free from their increasingly disposable nature. 4. Radically improve durability, reuse and recycling by transforming clothing design. 5. Radically improve recycling and collection systems. 6. Make more effective use of resources and move to renewable inputs. This vision offers a sustainable direction of track on which the industry, stakeholders and consumers can agree and focus their collective efforts. In a new textile circular economy, clothes, textiles, and fibres are kept at their highest value during use and re-enter the economy afterwards, never significantly ending up as waste. Complementary to this vision are ongoing efforts to make the textile system more sustainable by minimising its negative environmental and social impacts. With specific emphasis on innovation towards a sustainable system, a new textile circular economy that presents an opportunity to deliver substantially better societal and environmental as well as economic outcomes. Better social out outcomes for workers will involve more focus on their universal human rights. Transforming the industry to usher in a new textile circular economy requires system-level change with an unprecedented degree of commitment, collaboration, and innovation. Existing activities focused on sustainability or partial aspects of the circular economy should be complemented by a concerted, global approach that matches the scale of the opportunity. That is, to inclusively include clothing companies and suppliers in both developed and developing countries. Such an approach would rally all clothing industry players, from global companies to local boutique designers and other stakeholders, including charities that collect second-hand clothing, and consumers, behind the objective of a new textile circular economy. Then to set ambitious joint commitments, kick-start joint-value chain demonstrator projects, and orchestrate and reinforce complementary initiatives, particularly through national industry clothing associations. Maximising the potential for success would require establishing a coordinated agenda that guarantees alignment and the pace of delivery necessary. What you can do personally As an individual you can significantly help improve sustainability of the clothing industry. To buy less, choose well, make clothing last (including repair), minimise transfer of clothing microfibres to the environment, and give quality clothes you don’t need to others. Further, you to consider buying clothes from fashion companies that have strong ethical and environmental policies.
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i
Clarendon Policy & Strategy Group
Fashion and clothing textiles:
how to reduce the environmental and social
impacts
Clarendon Policy & Strategy Group Working Paper Series
Working Paper No. 20, February 2021
Dr Duncan A. Rouch
Contact details:
Email: duncanrouch@gmail.com
How to cite this report: Rouch, D. A. (2021) Fashion and clothing textiles: how to reduce the
environmental and social impacts, Working Paper No. 20, Clarendon Policy & Strategy Group,
Melbourne, Australia.
We deal with the world of ideas and apply
these to improve society and planet
1
Fashion and clothing textiles:
how to reduce the environmental and
social impacts
Dr Duncan A Rouch
23 February 2021
Key movements have brands, stakeholders and customers all working together to collectively
create long term improvements in the fashion and clothing textile industry. The aim is to
substantially improve environmental and social sustainability of that industry. Effectiveness of this
approach is based on the collective impact model (Kania and Kramer 2011). These changes are
critical due to increasing pollution of the environment by chemicals used, green-house gas
emissions, post-purchasing release of clothing fibres, and unsafe and unfair employment conditions.
2
Executive Summary
It is hard to imagine living in a world without textiles. Nearly everyone, everywhere comes into
contact with them nearly all the time, at home, work or in recreation. This is especially true of
clothing, the focus of this report.
Clothes provide comfort and protection, and for many, fashion represents an important expression
of individuality. The textiles industry is also a significant sector in the global economy, providing
employment for hundreds of millions around the world.
These benefits notwithstanding, the ways we design, produce, and use clothes have major
drawbacks that are becoming increasingly clear. The textiles system has mainly operated in an
almost completely linear way: large amounts of non-renewable resources are extracted to produce
clothes that are often used for only a short time, after which the vast volumes of materials are
mostly sent to landfill or incinerated.
More than US $500 billion of value is lost every year due to underutilisation of clothing and the lack
of recycling. Furthermore, this make-buy-dispose linear model has substantially major negative
environmental and societal impacts. For instance, total greenhouse gas emissions from textiles
production, at 1.2 billion tonnes annually, are more than those of all international flights and
maritime shipping combined. Hazardous substances affect the health of both textile workers and
wearers of clothes, and they escape to negatively impact the environment. In addition, when
washed, most garments release microfibres, of which around half a million tonnes every year
contribute to ocean pollution, with increasing the risk of damage to marine organisms.
Yet, trends point to these negative impacts rising inexorably, with the potential for catastrophic
outcomes in future. This linear system is ripe for disruption.
How the fashion and clothing industry can do better
This report outlines a vision for a system that works, delivering long-term benefits, from a new
textile circular economy based on the principles of a circular economy. To achieve this vision a
collective approach is needed to meet six major requirements, to:
1. Phase out substances of concern and microfibre release.
2. Implement safer and better employment conditions.
3. More flexibly meet demand by providing more options for the way clothes are sold or
rented, to break free from their increasingly disposable nature.
4. Radically improve durability, reuse and recycling by transforming clothing design.
5. Radically improve recycling and collection systems.
6. Make more effective use of resources and move to renewable inputs.
This vision offers a sustainable direction of track on which the industry, stakeholders and consumers
can agree and focus their collective efforts. In a new textile circular economy, clothes, textiles, and
fibres are kept at their highest value during use and re-enter the economy afterwards, never
significantly ending up as waste.
Complementary to this vision are ongoing efforts to make the textile system more sustainable by
minimising its negative environmental and social impacts. With specific emphasis on innovation
towards a sustainable system, a new textile circular economy that presents an opportunity to deliver
substantially better societal and environmental as well as economic outcomes. Better social out
outcomes for workers will involve more focus on their universal human rights.
3
Transforming the industry to usher in a new textile circular economy requires system-level change
with an unprecedented degree of commitment, collaboration, and innovation. Existing activities
focused on sustainability or partial aspects of the circular economy should be complemented by a
concerted, global approach that matches the scale of the opportunity. That is, to inclusively include
clothing companies and suppliers in both developed and developing countries.
Such an approach would rally all clothing industry players, from global companies to local boutique
designers and other stakeholders, including charities that collect second-hand clothing, and
consumers, behind the objective of a new textile circular economy. Then to set ambitious joint
commitments, kick-start joint-value chain demonstrator projects, and orchestrate and reinforce
complementary initiatives, particularly through national industry clothing associations. Maximising
the potential for success would require establishing a coordinated agenda that guarantees alignment
and the pace of delivery necessary.
What you can do personally
As an individual you can significantly help improve sustainability of the clothing industry. To buy less,
choose well, make clothing last (including repair), minimise transfer of clothing microfibres to the
environment, and give quality clothes you don’t need to others.
Further, you to consider buying clothes from fashion companies that have strong ethical and
environmental policies.
4
Contents
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................. 2
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Environmental and health impacts of the fashion and clothing industry .......................................... 7
Negative impacts of chemicals used in the fashion and clothing industry ..................................... 8
Negative impact of microfibres on the environment ................................................................... 10
Violations of human rights for workers in the fashion and clothing industry .................................. 13
Occupational and health impacts ................................................................................................. 16
Accelerated impacts by Fast Fashion ................................................................................................ 18
Changes in shopping behaviour by consumers ............................................................................. 18
The current fashion and clothing system is extremely wasteful and polluting ................................ 19
Recycling issues ............................................................................................................................. 20
Estimating financial benefits of addressing key environmental and social issues in the fashion and
clothing industry ............................................................................................................................... 20
Current industry response ................................................................................................................ 22
Toward better responses ...................................................................................................................... 24
What you can do personally ............................................................................................................. 24
Buy less ......................................................................................................................................... 24
Choose well ................................................................................................................................... 24
Make it last .................................................................................................................................... 25
Minimise transfer of microfibres to the environment .................................................................. 26
Send your clothes you do not need to others to give them more use ......................................... 27
How the fashion and clothing industry can do better ...................................................................... 27
1. Phase out substances of concern and microfibre release ........................................................ 27
2. Implement safer and better employment conditions .............................................................. 31
3. More flexibly meet demand by providing more options for the way clothes are sold or rented,
to break free from their increasingly disposable nature. ............................................................. 32
4. Radically improve durability, reuse and recycling by transforming clothing design ................ 35
5. Radically improve recycling and collection systems ................................................................. 40
6. Make more effective use of resources and move to renewable inputs ................................... 46
Conclusions and Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 52
References ............................................................................................................................................ 54
5
Introduction
Textiles and clothing are a fundamental part of everyday life and an important part of the global
economy. The industry is currently worth nearly US $3 trillion and includes the production,
refinement, and sale of both natural and synthetic fibres used in many associated industries. The
global textile market is broken into a number of sectors, Figure 1.
Figure 1. Market areas of textiles and fabrics. Source, this study.
6
It is estimated that between 60 million and 75 million people are employed in the textile, clothing
and footwear industry worldwide. Employment in the garment industry is particularly important in
developing economies such as India and Pakistan. The industry accounts for approximately 2 percent
of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and accounts for an even greater portion of GDP for the
world's leading producers and exporters of textiles and garments, Table 1.
China is the world's leading producer and exporter of both raw textiles and clothing. The United
States is the leading producer and exporter of raw cotton, while being the major importer of raw
textiles and garments.
Table 1 Top ten textile and clothing market (producer/exporter) countries by market share, 2019
Textile Production
Clothing production
Country
Country
China
China
India
India
United States
Pakistan
Pakistan
Brazil
Brazil
Turkey
Indonesia
South Korea
Taiwan
Mexico
Turkey
Italy
South Korea
Malaysia
Thailand
Taiwan
Source (Hanichak 2019).
Clothing represents more than 60 percent of the total textiles used and is expected to remain the
largest application. Clothes are worn by almost everyone, nearly all the time, and for many are an
important expression of individuality. Globally, the clothing industry is worth US $1.3 trillion and
employs more than 300 million people along the value chain; In the last 17 years, the clothing
market in G7 countries has increased about 55 percent, and in Asia & Australasia has approximately
doubled, Figure 2. These have been driven by a growing middle-class population across the globe
and increased per capita sales in mature economies. The latter rise is mainly due to the ‘fast fashion’
phenomenon, with quicker turnaround of new styles, increased number of collections offered per
year, and, often, lower prices.
Due to the major environmental and social impacts of the fashion and clothing industry sector, this
report mainly focusses on this sector.
7
Figure 2 Growing demand for clothing in G7 countries and Asia & Australasia, 1990 to 2019.
Market values in nominal USD billion. Group of Seven (G7) is an organization of the highly
industrialized countries of the United States (US), Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the
United Kingdom (UK). The G7 countries possess 64 percent of the world's wealth. East and Central
European countries and Economies in transition are developing countries. Source (International
Labour Organization 2019).
Environmental and health impacts of the fashion and clothing industry
The sustainability impact of clothing continues to mount after consumers leave the store with newly
purchased apparel. It has been estimated that washing and drying 1 kilogram of clothing over its
entire life cycle, using typical methods, creates 11 kilograms of greenhouse gases (Remy et al. 2016).
Further, on average, the annual carbon footprint of total new and existing clothing of a household is
estimated to be 1.5 tonnes of CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent, an indicator of global warming
potential) (WRAP 2012). The global footprint of clothing per household also includes water use of
more than 200,000 litres per year, and 70 kg of waste per year (WRAP 2012). The proportional
contribution to the environmental footprint of Green House Gas emissions, water and waste varies
across each stage of the garment life-cycle, Table 2.
$0
$50
$100
$150
$200
$250
$300
$350
Asia & Australasia East & Central Europe Economies in transition G7
8
Table 2 Estimated contribution (%) of each stage of the garment life-cycle to environmental
footprint
Source
Fibre
production
Yarn, fabric
and garment
production
Distribution
and retail
Consumer use
(clothes
cleaning)
End-of-life (re-
use, recycling,
incineration,
landfill)
Green
House Gas
emissions
15
60
6
26
-7
Water
87
13
~0
<1
~0
Waste
3
32
<1
<1
64
, Re-use and recycling of clothes at End-of-life reduces the carbon footprint by reducing the need
for new materials, hence the negative value. Source (WRAP 2012).
Negative impacts of chemicals used in the fashion and clothing industry
Annually, 43 million tonnes of chemicals are used to produce textiles (Ellen Macarthur Foundation
2017). The industry uses more than 8,000 chemicals in various processes of textile manufacture
(Kant 2012). Chemicals are used at several stages, from fibre production, to dyeing, treating, and
finishing processes, and often to give specific advantageous properties to the items, including water
or stain repellence, increased durability, or a wide choice of colours (Chemsec 2020).
However, a number of these chemicals raise concerns due to their potential adverse effects during
clothing production, use, and after-use phases. Indeed, some have been found to be carcinogenic or
hormone disruptive, causing concern for the health of factory workers exposed to them, and for the
environment into which they escape, for example by being released into local rivers in factory
effluent, Table 3.
The World Bank estimates that between 17 to 20 percent of industrial wastewater pollution
worldwide originates from the textile industry. Mills discharge millions of gallons of this effluent as
hazardous toxic waste, full of colour and organic chemicals from dyeing and finishing salts. Presence
of sulphur, naphthol, vat dyes, nitrates, acetic acid, soaps, chromium com-pounds and heavy metals
like copper, arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, nickel, and cobalt and certain auxiliary chemicals all
collectively make the effluent highly toxic. Other harmful chemicals present in the water may be
formaldehyde-based dye fixing agents, hydrocarbon-based softeners and non-biodegradable dyeing
chemicals. The mill effluent is also often of a high temperature and pH, both of which are extremely
damaging to the environment (Kant 2012).
9
Table 3 types of chemicals used in the textile industry and environmental and health risks
Chemical
type
Purpose
Environmental and health risks
Pesticides
To defend crops, that provide
natural fibres, from damage by
insects, mould, or weeds.
While a number of hazardous pesticides have
been banned globally by the Stockholm
Convention (Stockholm Convention 2019),
many are still applied to cotton crops in some
countries (Pesticide Action Network 2017).
Dyes and
pigments
To colour clothes, for example,
amine-containing azo dyes for
stability, and others may include
heavy metals such as lead or
cadmium.
Some azo dyes are broken down to compounds
that are mutagenic and/or can cause cancer
(KEMI 2016: p. 17).
Plasticisers
To soften plastics, such as
polyvinylchloride (PVC). In
textiles PVC is used for screen-
printing designs and coating
fabrics. One common group of
plasticisers is the phthalates,
which are used in large
quantities in printing.
Several phthalates have hazardous properties,
including being harmful to hormonal systems
and reproductive health. Phthalates can leak
out when treated clothes are worn or washed.
Due to this, EU legislation, for instance, bans
the use of certain phthalates (Mo 2020).
Solvents
Used in large quantities at
various stages of textiles
production to dissolve
substances such as dye
pigments. Solvents are used in
the production of cellulose-
based fibres, for instance,
viscose, (to extract and treat the
cellulose).
Many are hazardous when inhaled or if they
come into contact with the skin. The viscose
process often uses carbon disulphide which has
been linked to numerous severe health
conditions (Gelbke et al. 2009: Changing
Markets Foundation 2020).
Surfactants
Act as detergents, wetting
agents (enabling easier
absorption into the material),
emulsifiers, foaming agents,
dispersants, softeners, and anti-
pilling and anti-static agents.
Include alkyl phenol ethoxylates.
Alkyl phenol ethoxylates can be metabolised,
resulting in substances that are endocrine
disruptors, so they could interfere with the
hormone systems of mammals and fish. These
compounds, when metabolised, can also
deleteriously affect elements of the nervous
system and cognitive function, and trigger or
even exacerbate allergic diseases (Acir and
Guenther 2018).
Flame
retardants
To make a product less
flammable. Flame retardants
may be required in certain
products by national regulations.
Examples of textiles include
protective clothing, curtains, and
fabrics used in furniture.
Includes halogenated
substances.
Halogenated versions^ have been shown to
possess hazardous properties including,
endocrine and thyroid disruption, impacts to
the immune system, reproductive toxicity,
causing cancer, adverse effects on foetal and
child development, and impacts on neurologic
function (National Institute of Environmental
Health Science 2020).
10
Water and
stain
repellents
Water repellence is often a
desired property, especially for
textiles to be used outdoors.
This is commonly achieved by
impregnating the fabric with
fluorinated or perfluorinated
compounds.
Some of these substances contain unintended
impurities, such as perfluorooctanoic acid
(PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS)
(Hill et al. 2017). These are persistent in the
environment, have the ability to bioaccumulate
(Sedlak et al. 2017), and are now found in
outdoor shops and even in remote regions
(Greenpeace 2015; 2016). Studies have shown
that these have hormone-disrupting properties
with impacts on the reproductive and immune
systems (Cao et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2019).
Biocides
To prevent living organisms from
growing on clothes during
storage or transport, and to give
anti-odour properties to
products such as sportswear.
Problematic biocides that may be contained in
final textile products include triclosan,
triclocarban, and nano-silver (KEMI 2016: p. 28).
†, Hazardous pesticides, for instance; mirex, endosulfan, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT).
, Many companies have taken action to phase out these substances, yet by doing so, they often
increased the use of alternative perfluorinated substances but with similar potential environmental
and health impacts. For example, the alternative substance perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) has also
been found to persist in the environment (Wang et al. 2013). ^, Perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHXS),
which is used as a flame retardant, has been recommended for inclusion on the EU’s Registration,
Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) list for restriction (ECHA 2017).
Chemical groups based on Chemsec (2020).
Some of these substances are bio-accumulative and classified as persistent, meaning that once
present in the environment, they will remain there for a long time (Greenpeace 2011: pp. 6, 52). For
example, Cotton, accounting for about 30 percent of all textile fibre consumption, is usually grown
using much of water, pesticides, and fertilizer. Also, since countries with large fabric- and clothing-
manufacturing industry sectors rely mainly on fossil fuels for energy production, it has been
estimated that manufacturing 1 kilogram of fabric generates an average of 23 kilograms of
greenhouse gases (Remy et al. 2016).
Despite growing concerns raised by Non-Government Organisations, the public, policymakers, and
across the textiles value chain itself, there is very low transparency on the chemicals used across the
industry, making the true scale of the pollution, and its associated economic, environmental, and
societal impacts, difficult to evaluate.
Negative impact of microfibres on the environment
Release of microfibres
Fibre release during domestic textile washing is a cause of marine microplastic pollution. Soiled
consumer wash loads from U.K. households were found to release a mean of 114 ± 66.8 ppm (mg
microfiber per kg fabric), so around 357 mg/wash, of fibres during typical washing conditions and
these were mainly composed of natural fibres, average of 96 percent, with 4 percent of synthetic
fibres (acrylic, nylon and polyester). Extended testing of polyester fleece garments up to a 48-wash
cycle found that microfibre release, was highest in the first wash, around 80 ppm, though was
significantly reduced to a consistent lower level of 28.7 ± 10.9 ppm from eight through 48 washes
(Lant et al. 2020).
11
Fragmentation through chemical and physical forces, such as photodegradation and abrasion,
reduces plastic polymer materials to increasingly smaller particles that persist in the environment.
Plastic microfibres (< 5 mm) and nanofibres (< 100 nm) have been identified in ecosystems in all
regions of the globe and have been estimated to comprise up to 35 percent of primary microplastics
in marine environments, a major proportion of microplastics on coastal shorelines, and to persist for
decades in soils treated with sludge that contains plastic microfibres from waste water treatment
plants (Henry et al. 2019). Further, a recent study examined the widespread distribution of
microfibres in near-surface seawater across the European and North American Arctic, including the
North Pole (Ross et al. 2021). Particle abundance correlated with longitude, with almost three times
more particles in the eastern Arctic compared to the west. Polyester comprised 73 percent of total
synthetic fibres. It was suggested that relatively fresh polyester fibres are delivered to the eastern
Arctic Ocean, via Atlantic Ocean inputs and/or atmospheric transport from the South. Polyester
fibres were also found at all depths sampled in the northern Beaufort Sea, down to 1,105 m. These
results raise further questions about the extensive global reach of clothing textile fibres from urban
areas, with the findings pointing to their widespread distribution in this remote region of the world.
The environmental fate and impacts of clothing and textile microfibres are summarises in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Model for environmental fate and impacts of clothing and textile microfibres. For impacts,
solid lines indicate confirmation by published research, while dotted lines indicate uptake of
microfibres, though not yet conclusive knowledge on an impact. Fates of microfibres in thousands of
tonnes (kt), per year, global data 2016 (Gavigan et al. 2020). Adapted from Henry et al. (2019).
Globally, across the period 1950 to 2016, from wastewater, 88 percent of all microfibre emissions to
waterbodies were from untreated wastewater, 8 percent from treated wastewater, and 4 percent
12
from biosolids discarded into waterbodies. Synthetic microfibre emissions to terrestrial
environments from wastewater were 92 percent from biosolids, while the other 8 percent were
delivered by untreated wastewater used for irrigation. Both landfill and incineration also serve as
disposal methods for synthetic microfibres retained in biosolids. The global composition of synthetic
microfibres in the cumulative emissions, 1950 to 2016, is 4.0 Mt polyester, 0.7 Mt polyamide, 0.5 Mt
polypropylene and 0.4 Mt acrylic (Gavigan et al. 2020).
Natural as well as synthetic textile fibres may be a risk to freshwater systems
Both natural and synthetic textile fibres were detected in a number of locations in the River Trent,
UK (Stanton et al. 2019). The highest cumulative abundance of natural and extruded textile fibres on
each of the rivers sampled was recorded at sites immediately downstream of urban population
centres. The observed pattern of textile fibres at different sites demonstrated the role of localised
anthropogenic activity on textile fibre abundance in the freshwater system. Also, the prevalence of
textile fibres in atmospheric fallout in both urban and rural sites highlighted the role of atmospheric
deposition in the transport of textile fibres throughout the environment, including to relatively
remote locations.
Natural textile fibres, such as cotton and wool, are the product of multiple anthropogenic processes,
in particular commercial processing of natural fibres to make textile yarns, and are, therefore,
inherently unnatural in freshwater systems. While it may be expected that natural textile fibres may
be degraded by biological processes in general, such processes may well be absent, or be at quite
low levels in freshwater systems, as indicated by the significant presence of natural textile fibres in
the River Trent. Therefore, the continuing existence of both natural and synthetic textile fibres in
freshwater systems may be a risk to the health of these systems.
The prevalence of natural textile fibres alongside synthetic textile fibres and microplastic fragments
in the gastrointestinal tract of terrestrial birds have been reported by Zhao and colleagues (2016),
and synthetic textile fibres, in particular viscose, have been found in marine macroinvertebrates by
Remy and colleagues (2015).
Impact of textile fibres and associated dyes on aquatic animals
A meta study has considered the effects of microplastics on consumption of food, growth,
reproduction, and/or survival of aquatic animals (Foley et al. 2018). The animals included in this
study ranged from fish to mussels to sea urchins to worms. The most significant finding was that,
considering all effect sizes together, on average, exposure to microplastics negatively affects
consumption, growth and survival of aquatic animals. Though, the results were highly varied and not
all groups of animals were affected in the same ways. Nevertheless, microplastics significantly
reduced growth, reproduction and survival of crustacean zooplankton, which are the main prey for
many small fishes. That these very small organisms are consuming these microplastics, to alter their
growth, reproduction and survival, means there could be significant negative consequences further
up the food web. So, if zooplankton numbers decline, there may be less food available for organisms
at higher trophic levels. Also, importantly, when exposed to microplastics, larval and juvenile fish
suffer negative effects on natural consumption of other foods (Foley et al. 2018).
Further, dyes associated with textile fibres have been detected in macroinvertebrates present in a
Mediterranean coastal zone; Direct Blue 22 and Direct Red 28 (Remy et al. 2015), which could be
potentially harmful for aquatic animals. Both Direct Blue 22 and Direct Red 28 are members of a
large group of azo-dyes that are restricted for use in the textile industry in developed countries, due
13
to the risk of being transformed to aromatic amines, which are carcinogenic (Nimkartek 2015). For
instance, Direct Red 28 dye, mainly used in viscose, cotton, wool, silk and cellulose fibre dyeing, is
classified as a carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic to reproduction colouring agent (European
Chemicals Agency 2013a; b) Its negative effect on marine invertebrates remains uncertain but is
clearly proven in the case of mammals and fishes. It is known that human intestinal bacteria are able
to reduce the azo-linkage of Direct Red 28, which results in benzidine, an aromatic amine, which
have been classified as carcinogenic for humans and cause bladder cancer (International Agency for
Research on Cancer 2011; 2012). In addition, it induces widespread cell death in the zebrafish brain
and dorsal neurons, resulting in the development of an abnormal telencephalon region in the
zebrafish (Chen et al. 2014). Other dyes that can be bio-transformed to make carcinogenic benzidine
include Direct Black 38, Direct Blue 6, and Direct Brown 95. Further, benzidine in the environment
can be transformed by bacterial action to form 4-aminobiphenyl, another type of amine carcinogen
(Bafana et al. 2007).
While the industrial applications of these azo-dyes have been restricted in developed countries,
including the US and European Union (International Agency for Research on Cancer 2011; 2012), it is
clear that at least some of these continue to circulate in the environment, and so likely be a
continuing risk to aquatic animals (Remy et al. 2015). That is, such chemicals that are known to
damage DNA in humans, to cause cancer, are well likely to cause damage to DNA in any other
organism, including marine and freshwater organisms exposed to these dyes, with likely negative
impacts on their survival.
Impact of synthetic textile fibres on human health?
Microplastics have been reported in a wide range of human food and beverages, including seafood,
drinking water, beer, salt and sugar and in the air, raising concerns about the threat to human health
through ingestion and inhalation (Henry et al. 2019). Indeed, microplastics have been found in
human stool samples, suggesting that humans are exposed to microplastics through food and/or
drinking water. However, currently there is no conclusive data regarding the impact of micro- and
nano-plastics on human health, and so unknown (Jiang 2020).
Violations of human rights for workers in the fashion and clothing industry
Due to cutting costs, many fashion and clothing companies face problems with labour conditions
throughout their supply chains, including child labour, low wages, and health and safety hazards
(Remy et al. 2016). Therefore, it is important to consider that the right to fair and safe working
conditions is supported by Article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations
1948), which states:
1. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable
conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
2. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
3. Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself
and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by
other means of social protection.
4. Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
Continually cutting or keeping low costs by global clothing companies has resulted in a number of
disasters of clothing factories in developing countries. On 24 November 2012 a fire killed 112
workers in the Tazreen Fashions garment factory, Bangladesh the number 2 exporter of apparel
after China. Workers there were making clothes for global retailers like Walmart and Sears. The fire
14
has exposed flaws in the system that monitors the industry’s global supply chain: Walmart and Sears
say they had no idea their apparel was being made there. Nevertheless, the fire has focused
attention on the unsafe work conditions and low wages at many garment factories in Bangladesh
(Yarley and Manik 2012).
The fire broke out in the open-air ground floor, where large mounds of fabric and yarn were illegally
stored. The blaze quickly spread across the length of the ground floor, roughly the size of a football
field, as fire and toxic smoke filtered up through the building’s three staircases. However, on some
floors, managers ordered workers to ignore a fire alarm and stay to work, so precious minutes were
lost. Further, managers on some floors had closed collapsible gates, which blocked workers from
escaping down the staircases. Also, the factory lacked a sprinkler system or an outdoor fire escape,
the building’s escape plan was unacceptable, and the factory lacked a required closed-circuit
television monitoring system. None of the fire extinguishers in the factory appeared to have been
used on the night of the fire, suggesting poor preparedness and training (Yarley and Manik 2012).
Bangladesh has more than 4,500 garment factories, which employ more than four million workers,
many of them young women. It provides cheap labour for almost every top brand in the world. The
industry is crucial to the national economy as a source of employment and foreign currency.
Garments constitute about four-fifths of the country’s manufacturing exports, and the industry is
expected to grow rapidly (Yarley and Manik 2012).
However, Bangladesh’s manufacturing formula depends on keeping wages low and restricting the
rights of workers. The minimum wage in the garment industry is $37 a month, unions are almost
non-existent, and garment workers have taken to the streets in recent years in sometimes violent
protests over wages and work conditions (Yarley and Manik 2012).
Five months later on 24 April 2013, the Rana Plaza building in Dhaka, Bangladesh, collapsed, killing
more than 1,100 people, mostly women and young girls, and injuring more than 2,500 people in
total. It’s considered the deadliest disaster in the history of the garment industry. The local mayor
was at fault for allowing the construction of three additional floors, while the owners of the factories
were culpable for filling a building meant for retail shops with heavy clothing production machinery,
and for telling employees to get back to work in spite of evidence that the building was unsafe (Wolf
2018).
Shortly after the building’s collapse, a coalition of global retailers and trade unions signed on to the
Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh. The agreement, funded with $11 million paid
annually by its signatories, identifies and fixes building-safety violation, fixing 97,235 safety issues, or
60 per factory, between 2013 and 2018 (Wolf 2018).
However, poor pay and working conditions are still prevalent. Mark Anner, Director of the Center for
Global Workers' Rights at Penn State University, stated there are two factors in particular, the “price
squeeze” and the “lead-time squeeze,” and these start at the top of supply chains. First is the price
squeeze. If you came and made a shirt for a three-dollar price point last season, there's going to be
pressure for you to do it at $2.95 this season (Wolf 2018).
Further, big global buyers press the supplier factories to come down on price point, and so the
pressure to not increase wages becomes very strong. Along with that is an increase in work intensity.
The garment industry, since the beginning, has relied on some form of the piece-rate system. The
owners use a piece-work wage system that pays workers based on how many actual items they
produce, or actions they complete toward the completion of an item Managers can say, if you don't
do X operations per hour or day, you'll lose your job (Wolf 2018).
15
Allegations of labour exploitation in the fashion supply chain continue. For instance, evidence of
factory workers being treated poorly have been documented within the fashion industry in the UK,
including working in sweat shops under poor conditions, along with poor pay. Also, some defective
suppliers have been associated with UK fast fashion retailer Boohoo (Popat 2020).
In both the UK and USA fashion some companies have demanded factory staff to work under unsafe
health conditions during the Covid-19 pandemic, at risk of being infected, or if infected to be still
demanded to attend work, at risk of infecting others (BBC News 2020; Popat 2020; Segran 2020).
Further, a key supplier to the international fashion industry, TAL Apparel, with two factories in
Malaysia, has been reported to have forced labour by Transparentem, a non-profit agency that
focuses on environmental and human rights abuses in supply chains. In particular, the company had
forced factory staff to work under poor pay and working conditions in these factories. In one of
these factories around 70 percent of workers were migrants hired in countries like Vietnam,
Myanmar, Nepal and Bangladesh. Investigations indicated that many migrant workers had paid
substantial recruitment fees and related costs, like visas and health checks, to secure their jobs
before they left their home countries, a common industry practice (Paton 2020).
Migrant workers from Bangladesh, for example, paid recruitment agents in their home country an
average of US $2,450 to work in the TAL factories in Malaysia. Once they arrived, they would also
pay a second set of fees, which were effectively TAL’s recruitment costs. For the dream of a more
lucrative livelihood abroad many agreed to pay the fees. However, the total fees were so high that
they often had to use their life savings, sell family land or take out loans with high interest rates from
the company. The company provided these loans, considered “factory loans”, that workers had to
repay through major pay deductions. Prior to employment workers were not informed about factory
loans. Further, workers found it difficult to pay off their investment and were unable to save any
money, which they had planned to do to support their home families (Paton 2020).
Also recorded were accounts of deception, intimidation and unsafe living conditions from workers
(Paton 2020), all of which are listed among the 11 indicators of forced labour outlined by the
International Labour Organization. Indeed, according to this organization, a specialized agency of the
United Nations, forced labour is “work or service which is exacted from any person under the threat
of a penalty and for which the person has not offered himself or herself voluntarily” (International
Labour Organization 2012).
TAL factories supply huge numbers of shirts, for brands including Brooks Brothers, Bonobos and LL
Bean. TAL Apparel claims it makes one in six dress shirts sold in the United States (Paton 2020).
In response to Transparentem’s report nine companies agreed to discuss a collective reimbursement
plan, including the Dutch brand Suitsupply and American brands like Levi’s, LL Bean, Eddie Bauer and
Brooks Brothers (before Brooks Brothers filed for bankruptcy). After several rounds of negotiations,
an agreement was reached: More than 1,400 workers from eight countries would receive payment
from what TAL called a “substantial” collective action fund, distributed to workers in two instalments
in July 2020 (Paton 2020).
Additionally, in response to the wider campaign to address deep-rooted problems in worker
recruitment across the apparel industry, TAL Apparel changed its policy to cover recruitment fees for
all new migrant recruits, starting in January 2020, a policy that was communicated to its customers
before the company was aware of Transparentem’s investigation. TAL Apparel has also since halted
factory loan salary deductions of current workers. That move was part of an internal project with
16
significant expenses to improve labour policies. This required the company to offset factory loans by,
in part, raising the prices it charged the brands for which clothes it makes (Paton 2020).
More seriously, since 2017, more than a million Uyghurs and members of other Turkic Muslim
minorities have been forced to live among a vast network of ‘re-education camps’ located in the far
west region of the Xinjiang province, China (Zenz 2019). There is mounting evidence that many
Uyghurs are now being forced to work in factories within Xinjiang province, as slaves without
working or personal rights: highly similar in effect to brutal treatment of enslaved Africans by
Europeans during the period of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, 15th century to mid-19th century
(Rothbard 2018). Also, Chinese factories located outside Xinjiang province are sourcing Uyghur
workers (Xu et al. 2020), under a revived, exploitative government-led labour transfer scheme (Hess
2009). Some factories appear to be using Uyghur workers sent directly from ‘re-education camps’. It
was reported that 27 factories in nine Chinese provinces have been using Uyghur labour transferred
from the Xinjiang province since 2017. Between 2017 and 2019, it has been estimated that at least
80,000 Uyghurs were transferred out of Xinjiang province and assigned to factories through labour
transfer programs under a central government policy known as ‘Xinjiang Aid’ (Xu et al. 2020). Those
factories claim to be part of the supply chain of 82 well-known global brands, that include
international fashion companies such as Calvin Klein, Gap, Jack & Jones, Lacoste, L.L. Bean, Marks &
Spencer, Polo Ralph Lauren, Tommy Hilfiger and Uniqlo (Xu et al. 2020).
The ‘re-education camps’ involve what James Leibold, Associate Professor of Politics and Asian
Studies, La Trobe University, has called a systematic, government-led program of cultural genocide
(Leibold 2019). Inside the camps, detainees are subjected to political indoctrination, forced to
renounce their religion and culture and, in some instances, reportedly subjected to torture (Schmitz
2018). In the name of combating ‘religious extremism’ (Xuequan 2019), Chinese authorities have
been actively remoulding the Muslim population in the image of China’s Han ethnic majority.
In this case, as well as breaching workers’ rights (articles 23), three other universal human rights
have been violated: personal rights and freedoms (Article 2); freedom of thought, conscience and
religion (article 18); and no one to be held in slavery or servitude (Article 4) (United Nations
1948).
Occupational and health impacts
The textile industry consists of a number of work units, engaged in spinning, weaving, dyeing,
printing, finishing and a number of other processes that are required to convert fibre into a finished
fabric or garment. There are several safety and health issues associated with these work activities in
the textile industry. The major safety and health issues in the textile industry are: exposure to cotton
dust, exposure to chemicals exposure to noise and ergonomic issues (Fibre2fashion 2007).
Exposure to cotton dust
Exposure to cotton dust and other particles leads to byssinosis, a collection of respiratory symptoms,
as a respiratory disorder, among textile workers. Exposure to jute, flax, and hemp fibres have also
been implicated in development of byssinosis. Not only is cotton dust implicated in the pathogenesis
but also the level of endotoxin in the work environment. This endotoxin is a lipopolysaccharide
found in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria which reside within the cotton dust.
Exposure has been implicated as the key mediator of respiratory disease among these workers (Patel
et al. 2020).
17
Chronic exposure to cotton can lead to lung fibrosis and impaired lung function. Most of these
individuals will require oxygen and have impaired exercise function. Deaths from chronic exposure
are not uncommon in Pakistan and India where textile industries still flourish, without preventive
measures for workers (Patel et al. 2020).
Exposure to chemicals
Workers in the textile industry are also exposed to a number of chemicals, especially those engaged
in the activities of dyeing, printing and finishing. Chemicals based on benzidine, optical brighteners,
solvents and fixatives, crease-resistance agents releasing formaldehyde, flame retardants that
include organophosphorus and organobromine compounds and antimicrobial agents are used in
textile operations (Fibre2fashion 2007).
A large group of azo-dyes are restricted for use in the textile industry in developed countries,
including the US and European Union, due to the risk of being transformed to aromatic amines,
which are carcinogenic (Nimkartek 2015). These aromatic amines have been classified as
carcinogenic for humans and cause bladder cancer (International Agency for Research on Cancer
2011; 2012).
Exposure to formaldehyde, in production of permanent-press garments, has resulted in excess
mortality from cancers of the buccal cavity and connective tissue (Stayner et al. 1988). Also, myeloid
leukemia mortality was elevated among textile workers exposed to formaldehyde (Pinkerton et al.
2004; Meyers et al. 2013).
Moreover, lung cancer, associated with exposure to asbestos textiles, and bladder cancer, linked
with exposure to azo-dyes in printing, have been observed at higher rates among textile workers, as
assessed from a large range of investigations. Additional research has shown that oral cavity and
pharynx cancer was significantly increased in spinning-weaving unit workers. Also observed at
increased rates among female textile workers are endometrial cancer, associated with exposure to
silk textiles, and ovarian cancer, linked to exposure to silica dust (Singh and Chadha 2016).
Exposure to noise
High levels of noise have been observed in most of the units engaged in the textile industry,
particularly those in developing countries. In the long run, exposure to high noise levels has been
known to damage the eardrum and cause hearing loss. Other problems like fatigue, absenteeism,
annoyance, anxiety, reduction in efficiency, changes in pulse rate and blood pressure as well as sleep
disorders have also been noted on account of continuous exposure to noise. Lack of efficient
maintenance of machinery is one of the major reasons behind the noise pollution in a majority of
the units (Fibre2fashion 2007).
Ergonomic issues
Ergonomic issues are observed in a majority of the units engaged in textile-related activities in India.
Most of these units have a working environment that is unsafe and unhealthy for the workers.
Workers in these units face a number of problems such as unsuitable furniture, improper ventilation
and lighting, and lack of efficient safety measures in case of emergencies. The workers in such units
are at risk for developing various occupational diseases. Musculoskeletal disorders like carpal tunnel
syndrome, forearm tendinitis, bicipital tendinitis, lower back pain, epicondylitis, neck pain, shoulder
pain, and osteoarthritis of the knees are some of the occupational diseases that have been observed
among the workers on account of poor ergonomic conditions. These issues are more common in
developing nations as compared to developed ones (Fibre2fashion 2007).
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Occupation and health impacts can be effectively addressed by policies that support social as well as
environmental and economic sustainability.
Accelerated impacts by Fast Fashion
Fast fashion can be defined as cheap, trendy clothing, that samples ideas from the catwalk or
celebrity culture and turns them into garments in high street stores at breakneck speed to meet
consumer demand. In the 1960s and 70s, young people were creating new trends and clothing
became a form of personal expression, but there was still a distinction between high fashion and
high street. By the late 1990s and 2000s, low-cost fashion reached its zenith. Online shopping took
off, and fast fashion retailers like H&M, Zara, and Topshop took over the high street (Rauturier
2020).
The idea is to get the newest styles on the market as fast as possible, so shoppers can snap them up
while they are still at the height of their popularity, and then, sadly, discard them after a few wears.
It plays into the idea that outfit repeating is a fashion faux pas, and that if you want to stay relevant,
you have to sport the latest looks as they happen. As a result, it has accelerated overproduction and
consumption that has made fashion one of the largest polluters in the world, along with associated
social employment issues in the production train (Rauturier 2020).
Fast fashion has been a particularly large clothing sale segment and a source of enviable growth for
some clothing companies. By compressing production cycles and turning out up-to-the-minute
designs, these businesses have enabled shoppers not only to expand their wardrobes but also to
refresh them quickly (Remy et al. 2016). To do this, businesses have aggressively cut costs and
streamlined their supply chains. This has caused the price of clothing to fall relative to the prices of
other consumer goods. Shorter lead times for production have also allowed clothing makers to
introduce new lines more frequently. A leading fast fashion company, Zara, has offered 24 new
clothing collections each year, while the H&M fashion company has offered 12 to 16 new clothing
collections each year and refreshes them weekly. Among all European clothing companies, the
average number of clothing collections has more than doubled, from two a year in 2000 to about
five a year in 2011 (Remy et al. 2016).
Changes in shopping behaviour by consumers
Shoppers have responded to lower prices and greater variety by buying more items of clothing. The
number of garments produced and sold annually has doubled since 2000 and exceeded 100 billion
for the first time in 2014, which corresponds to nearly 14 items of clothing per year for every person
on earth. While sales growth has been robust around the world, emerging economies have seen
especially large rises in clothing sales, as more people in them have joined the middle class. In five
large developing countries, Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and Russia, clothing sales grew eight times
faster than in four developed countries, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United
States (Remy et al. 2016).
Worldwide, the number of times a garment is worn, before it is ceased to be used, has decreased by
36 percent across the period 2002 to 2016. This has been exacerbated by utilisation rates in
emerging economies tending towards the low rates of high-income countries. In China, for example,
the average number has descended from 207.5 wears to just 61.3. However, the lowest wearing
rates have continued in the USA, at 42.4 in 2002, falling to 35.4 in 2016, Table 4.
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Table 4 Number of times a new garment is worn before being discarded
Region
Year
Decrease
2002
2016
(%)
USA
42.5
35.4
16.7
China
207.5
61.3
70.5
EU-28
103.8
94.3
9.1
World
200.0
127.4
36.3
Source (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 77).
Also, some estimates suggest that consumers treat the lowest-priced garments as nearly disposable,
discarding them after just seven or eight wears (Remy et al. 2016).
In the UK, the estimated average lifetime for a garment of clothing is 2.2 years, or just
under two years and three months (WRAP 2012). Around 30 percent of clothes in the household
wardrobe typically have been unused for at least a year, worth over £1,000 per household or £30
billion across the UK. Most often, clothes are unused because they no longer fit (WRAP 2012).
Unfortunately, the innovation in the way clothes are made has not kept pace with the acceleration
of how they are designed and marketed. Fast fashion is now a large, sophisticated business sector
fed by a fragmented and relatively low-tech production system. This system has outsize
environmental impacts: making clothes typically requires using much water and chemicals and
emitting significant amounts of green-house gases (Remy et al. 2016).
The current fashion and clothing system is extremely wasteful and polluting
The current system for producing, distributing, and using clothing operates in an almost completely
linear way. Large amounts of fossil-based resources are used to produce clothes, particularly for
synthetic fibres, that are often used for only a short period, after which the materials are largely lost
to landfill or incineration, Figure 4. This linear system leaves economic opportunities untapped, puts
pressure on resources, pollutes and degrades the natural environment and its ecosystems, and
creates significant negative societal impacts at local, regional, and global scales (Ellen Macarthur
Foundation 2017).
When it comes to disposing of clothing, current technologies cannot reliably turn unwanted apparel
into fibres that could be used to make new goods. Recycling methods such as shredding or chemical
digestion work poorly. And there are not markets large enough to absorb the volume of material
that would come from recycling clothes. As a result, nearly three-fifths of all clothing produced ends
up in incinerators or landfills within years of being made (Remy et al. 2016).
Germany outperforms most countries by collecting almost three-quarters of all used clothing,
reusing half and recycling one-quarter. Elsewhere, collection rates are far lower: 15 percent in the
United States, 12 percent in Japan, and 10 percent in China (Remy et al. 2016).
20
Figure 4 Global clothing materials cycle, year 2015. Notes: 1, Recycling of clothing into the same or
similar quality applications; 2, Down-cycling of clothing into other, lower-value applications such as
insulation material, wiping cloths, or mattress stuffing; 3, Includes factory offcuts and overstock
liquidation; 4, Plastic microfibres shed through the washing of all textiles released into the
environment. Adapted from Ellen Macarthur Foundation (2017).
Recycling issues
In addition, in Australia, people dumping illegally or donating unusable clothing items (poor quality,
damaged or stained/dirty clothing) was costing Australian charities such as Lifeline, St Vincent de
Paul, Red Cross and the Endeavour Foundation more than $18 million a year. On average across
Australia, about 12 percent of donations were unusable and cost the charities for disposing these to
landfill (Hartley 2019).
Estimating financial benefits of addressing key environmental and social issues in the
fashion and clothing industry
Effectively addressing key environmental and social issues in the clothing industry can potentially
provide substantially reduced environmental footprints and improved social benefits, which have
been estimated in terms of positive financial values, Table 5. The overall benefit to the world
economy could be about EUR 160 billion (USD 192 billion) in 2030 if the fashion industry were to
address the environmental and societal impacts of the status quo in 2017 (Global Fashion Agenda &
The Boston Consulting Group 2017).
21
Table 5 Estimated benefits of addressing key environmental and social issues in the clothing
industry by 2030, in terms of positive financial values
Key Factors
Projected
value by
2030
Estimation principle
Proxy (value per unit)
Environmental
factors
Water
€32 billion
per year
Potential benefit to the world economy if
the fashion industry achieves the
projected retail volume growth while
consuming no more water by 2030 than it
did in 2017.
Water consumption, in
billion cubic meters
(€0.81/m³)
Energy
€67 billion
per year
Value is calculated based on the industry
avoiding all additional emissions through
energy use projected in 2030 compared
to 2017.
Emissions of CO2-eq.,
in million tons (€62/t)
Chemicals
€7 billion
per year
Based on occupational illnesses attributed
to mismanagement of chemicals
in the workplace, due to carcinogens and
airborne particulates, measured in DALYs
(disability-adjusted life-years).
DALY (€143,000/DALY)
Waste
€4 billion
per year
To generate no more waste by 2030 than
it already generated in 2017 while
achieving the projected growth in retail
volume.
Amount of waste, in
million tons (€66/t)
Social factors
Labour practices
€5 billion
per year
The value opportunity by not further
increasing the number of workers being
paid less than 120% of the local minimum
wage while maintaining the projected
growth of the industry: this wage level
reflects that the local minimum wage in
main textile-producing countries is
considered insufficient to make a living.
The value per worker represents the
opportunity to the world economy of
increased economic consumption and
increased private investments.
No. of workers earning
<120% minimum
wage, in millions
(€642/worker)
Health and
safety
€32 billion
per year
The value opportunity to the world
economy if the fashion industry succeeds
in eliminating workplace injuries from a
current average of 5.6 per 100 workers to
0 by 2030.
No. of recorded
injuries, in millions
(€21,000/injury)
Community and
external
engagement
€14 billion
per year
Value opportunity to society is estimated
based on the industry increasing
community spending and other CSR-
related activities to 0.7% of sales from
2017's level of 0.2%. Today, the fashion
industry is not on par with other
industries with regard to community
Foregone community
spending, in billion €
(€1.5/€1 spent)
22
spending. This represents effects such as
increased quality of life for workers and
their families.
Source (Global Fashion Agenda & The Boston Consulting Group 2017).
Current industry response
Mitigating the sustainability impact of the clothing industry, including of the fast fashion sector, will
require action across the industry. Some apparel companies have formed coalitions to tackle
environmental and social challenges together, which helps to accelerate change and to mitigate the
risks of working on these challenges alone. For example, a coalition programme called Zero
Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) to improve and expand the use of nontoxic, sustainable
chemistry in the textile and footwear supply chain, began in 2011 and today consists of 22 signatory
fashion brands, 12 value chain affiliates and seven associates (Sustainable Apparel Coalition 2021a).
In addition, the Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) involves more than 50 retailers and brands and nearly
700 suppliers in setting standards for environmental, social, and economic responsibility in cotton
production. At the end of 2019, BCI had more than 1,840 members, spanning the entire global
cotton supply chain from farmer organisations through to retailers and brands. Together with its
partners it provided training on more sustainable farming practices to more than 2.3 million cotton
farmers in 23 countries. In the 2018-19 cotton season, licensed BCI Farmers produced more than 5.6
million metric tonnes of ‘Better Cotton’, that accounted for around 22 percent of global cotton
production (Better Cotton Initiative 2020). Further, the retail chain C&A, has recognized the
environmental effects of cotton farming, and so had a policy aimed to purchase only organic cotton
by 2020 (C&A 2020).
A few apparel businesses have begun tackling sustainability challenges on their own. Actions of
eleven clothing companies to improve environmental and social sustainability are summarised in
Table 6. For instance, H&M and Levi’s have each partnered with I:CO (I:Collect) to collect clothing
and footwear for reuse and recycling. I:CO provides collection bins, sorts the items so anything
wearable that can be sold, and recycles what is left, and provides service in more than 60 countries
(I:CO 2021). Also, the Patagonia clothing company not only collects used clothing of its brand in its
stores and through the mail but also offers repair services so its customers can extend the lives of
their garments (Patagonia 2021).
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Table 6 Actions of eleven clothing companies to improve environmental and social sustainability
Company
Actions
Amour Vert
Sustainably sourced garments in smaller batches to avoid the waste
of unsold items.
Amour Vert partners directly with mills to ensure items are made
using non-toxic dyes and the most sustainable fabrics.
For every item purchased Amour Vert plants a tree.
Eileen Fisher
Sustainable and eco-friendly manufacturing, from the materials used
to the ethical treatment of the workers who sew the pieces.
Uses creative processes to limit fabric waste.
Buys back used items to recycle into new garments or turn into art if
the clothing can’t be resold.
Everlane
A line of clothing made from recycled plastic bottles and other
reused materials.
Transparency by sharing with customers the exact breakdown of the
cost of each item and showing the factories where garments are
made.
The company builds strong relationships with factory owners to
ensure that the employees and production meet Everlane’s high
ethical standards.
H&M Conscious
Collection
Moving away from its fast fashion roots.
Uses eco-friendly fabrics and more sustainable production methods.
Customers can also recycle unwanted garments at H&M stores and
get a discount for a future purchase.
Levi’s
Levi’s new collection, Water<Less, uses up to 96% less water.
Planning towards 100% sustainably sourced cotton and recycling old
jeans into home insulation.
Pact
Certified organic and fair-trade clothing.
Reuses old clothing and linens to create many of its items.
Patagonia
Uses sustainable materials in making its durable outerwear.
Helps customers repair their clothing instead of buying new items.
Customers are encouraged to recycle old Patagonia gear and
purchase items second hand.
The Company follows fair-trade practices for its suppliers.
People Tree
Credited by the World Fair Trade Organization and invests heavily in
sustainable and environmentally friendly practices, including organic
farming.
Promotes fair wages and good working conditions and uses
sustainable materials like natural fibres and non-toxic dyes.
Reformation
Each item has a description and score of its environmental footprint,
to help customers understand the impact of their clothing.
Items are made of upcycled and sustainable materials in fair wage
manufacturing.
Customers can return old clothing to the company to earn credit for
new items.
Rothy’s
Shoes and handbags made from 100% recycled plastic water bottles
and post-consumer recycled materials.
24
Tentree
Clothing is made from ethically sourced and sustainable materials
including cork, coconut and recycled polyester.
For each item purchased Tentree plants 10 trees, to mitigate
greenhouse gas emissions.
Source (Morgan 2020).
Global demand for clothing looks set to increase significantly over the coming decade, as millions of
people in developing countries enter the middle class and spend more on apparel. While this
presents a tremendous opportunity for fashion companies, it may be a risky one for companies that
choose not to grapple with the social and environmental risks of low-cost, resource-hungry
production processes (Remy et al. 2016).
Those risks could become even more pressing over time: as the millennial generation gains
purchasing power, their high expectations that businesses will operate in a sustainable manner
could have a big influence on shopping trends. Production methods that are more sustainable may
cost slightly more, but they can also spur innovation and protect businesses from supply-chain
shocks and reputation risks, resulting in greater resilience and profitability (Remy et al. 2016).
Next, I look at recommending better responses.
Toward better responses
What you can do personally
As consumers we can help to reduce environmental and social issues of the fashion industry by
changing our spending behaviour. We can minimise our consumption by buying less, choosing well
and making it last. Indeed, British designer Vivienne Westwood, said “buy less, choose well, make it
last” (Hill 2018a).
Buy less
A big factor of buying less is decluttering. Avoid decision fatigue by simplifying and organising your
wardrobe. Separate your clothing into seasonal categories will create structure and will mean that
you know your wardrobe well. Familiarise yourself with potential combinations and have a go
pairing things you haven’t put together before (Hill 2018a).
Another method of buying less, and saving money while decluttering your wardrobe, is Clothes
swaps. Set a date with friends and spice up your wardrobes by trading cool pieces you’ve been
eyeing, and you’ll have a “new” outfit for the weekend (Hill 2018a).
Choose well
Today, we have an increasing variety of brands shifting their production and materials to a more
sustainable model, called ‘slow fashion. In this new way, consumers can access all the specifics of
the production process, to confirm the company is reducing its environmental footprint, and has
ethical suppliers. A further key aspect of the slow fashion model is to avoid trends, as slow fashion is
based on the traditional two collections per year. It also puts emphasis on the art of clothes making
and celebrates the skills of the craftspeople who make them (Hill 2018b).
A number of online platforms showcase high-quality, sustainable brands, including, Well Made
Clothes and Thread Harvest. The clothes are somewhat pricier, but approach these garments like
long-term investments. Many brands featured on these sites use fabrics that require less use of
resources and are of high quality; they are made to last (Hill 2018a).
25
Better choices could be made by associating particular brands with providing longer-lasting products
(WRAP 2012), potentially assessed by having a;
Lengthy guarantee against faults.
‘Durability index’ on the garment label (for instance, ‘lasts 150 washes’).
When buying high-quality brands from less commercial stores or online platforms, you will often
come across boutique and local designers. Supporting a local designer often means you are also
investing in artisan skills, and a conscious approach to fashion (Hill 2018a).
Also, consider looking for pre-loved quality clothing at second-hand charity stores, where you may
find hidden gems (Hill 2018a).
For fashion conscious people a Capsule Wardrobe is a useful way to manage choices. This concept
refers to a collection of 30-40 practical and versatile pieces of clothing put together to create an
entire wardrobe for a season. While the concept isn’t new, in the age of fast fashion it represents a
shift in thinking about how we wear clothes which could inspire important change in our
consumption habits (Wolfe 2020).
Building a capsule wardrobe is about choosing a logical selection of clothing that you not only love to
wear, but that is practical and versatile. To begin the process you may need to pull everything out of
your closet and take stock. To help you make decisions about what should stay and what can go, ask
questions about each item, like: have I worn it in the last year? Does it fit my day-to-day lifestyle?
Does it go with my other clothing? Do I Love it? (Wolfe 2020).
The content of your capsule wardrobe will vary depending on the season and your individual style.
But importantly, you want to have a balance of tops, bottoms, layers, and accessories. Neutral
colours that pair well are also key (Wolfe 2020).
Make it last
Researchers say that the lifecycle of a piece of clothing could be between 100-200 wears, but
currently only a fraction of garments ever stay in our wardrobes that long. Extending the life of
clothing by consumers is a major factor in reducing the environmental footprint of the clothing
industry (Chalmers University of Technology 2017).
The life of clothes can be extended by repairing them, or updating them by retailoring the clothes to
modernise the style. You may be able to make repairs to your own clothes (Hill 2018c). Otherwise,
be aware of tailoring services such as styling, repair and alterations (WRAP 2012).
A big factor that affects clothing longevity is how it is looked after. Paying attention to the care
instructions is key to making clothing last. Buying a good detergent (wool wash for delicate clothing)
and using things like delicate bags will prevent your clothes from wearing out too soon (Hill 2018a).
26
Minimise transfer of microfibres to the environment
Washing clothes is the major source of microfibre pollution of rivers and oceans. However, as
consumers we can minimise the loss of microfibres to the environment by how we operate our
washing machines. Based on research (Lant et al. 2020), there are four main practical
recommendations to reduce loss of microfibres, to;
Run full washing loads.
Preferentially use cold water (with detergents that are effective in cold water).
If using warm or hot water, to minimise washing time.
Make clothes last (microfibre loss rates are minimised after the first 4 washes).
In addition, consumers can use microfibre filters in machine, or install externally, to capture
microfibres, Table 7.
Table 7 Microfibre removal technology for domestic washing machines
Type of filter
(model)
Company
Price
Efficiency of
removal
Comment
Microfibre Filter
Wash Bag, 50 x 70
cm
Wolven Threads
US$18
Up to 90%
Suitable for
small loads,
particular for
active wear
Microfiber Laundry
Ball
Cora
US$37.99
Only 26% on
average
Easy to use,
best in
combination
with another
filter type
Washing Machine
Lint Filter
Filtrol 160
US$149.99
Up to 89%
Install
externally
inline to the
waste pipe
Washing Machine
Lint Filter (Lint
LUV-R)
Environmental
Enhancements
US$145.00
87% on average
Install
externally
inline to the
waste pipe
†, Fernanda (2020); , Peer reviewed report (McIlwraith et al. 2019).
Processing textile microfibres?
What to do with collected microfibres? The default position is to dispose waste microfibres to
landfill. However, there are a number of emerging better alternatives.
Collected microfibres are likely a mixture of different types of textile fibres, and therefore can be
processed like other mixed plastic materials. For instance, the Newtecpoly company utilizes a Collins
Mixer-Melter to make outdoor furniture from mixed plastic materials (Newtecpoly 2020). While this
is a down-cycling process, it does keep these materials out of landfill and the natural environment.
Further, the Licella company utilises a wide range of feedstocks, of non-food biomass materials,
including non-edible agricultural residues, and waste and industrial residues, including waste
plastics, which could include mixed textile microfibres, to initially be processed by a catalytic
hydrothermal reactor. The reactor produces a renewable biocrude oil, which can be refined using
conventional refinery infrastructure to form second-generation biofuels and valuable renewable
chemicals. For instance, production of biocrude oil could be integrated into conventional refineries
27
and biocrude oil be blended with conventional petroleum crude. Chemicals produced can include;
resins, for use in adhesives; and aromatic chemicals for a range of uses (Licella 2020).
Alternatively, textile microfibres, along with other plastic waste materials, could potentially be
treated by cold plasma pyrolysis, to convert waste plastics into hydrogen, methane and ethylene
(Phan 2018). The resulting hydrogen can be used as a clean fuel, and the ethylene as the basic
building block to create new plastics. Burning plastics to generate energy would normally be far
better than wasting them. This type of burning, however, does not recover all materials for reuse,
and so is also down-cycling. Also, if the conditions are not tightly controlled, it could have
detrimental effects on the environment such as air pollution (Phan 2018).
Send your clothes you do not need to others to give them more use
Charity organisation's stores accepted donations when they were open, but ask people to think
about the quality of clothes they donate. In general, charity organisations do not accept poor
quality, damaged or stained/dirty clothing, as these cost them to dispose to landfill. If you wouldn't
give it to a friend, then don't donate it (Hartley 2019).
On the other hand, people are sending good quality clothes they don’t need to landfill. In Australia
key charities are running a campaign called ‘Move the Needle’ (Moving the Needle 2019), to
persuade people to think about sustainability of the clothing sector, to think first to decide if clothes
they don’t need are of sufficient quality to donate to charities (ABC TV 2020). If so, then take them
to a charity shop. If you have a large amount of quality clothing, some organisations can arrange to
pick them up from your home (Hartley 2019).
How the fashion and clothing industry can do better
Transforming all fashion and clothing sectors to usher in a new textiles economy requires system-
level change with an unprecedented degree of commitment, collaboration, and innovation. Existing
activities focused on sustainability or partial aspects of the circular economy should be
complemented by a concerted, global approach that matches the scale of the opportunity. Such an
approach would rally key industry players and other stakeholders behind the objective of a new
textiles economy, set ambitious joint commitments, kick-start cross-value chain demonstrator
projects, and orchestrate and reinforce complementary initiatives (Ellen Macarthur Foundation
2017).
A collective approach is supported by the collective impact model (Kania and Kramer 2011). The
Five conditions of collective success are: a common agenda, shared measurement systems, mutually
reinforcing activities, continuous communication, and backbone support organizations. Collective
action is required to meet six key requirements, to:
1. Phase out substances of concern and microfibre release.
2. Implement safer and better employment conditions.
3. More flexibly meet demand by providing more options for the way clothes are sold or
rented, to break free from their increasingly disposable nature.
4. Radically improve durability, reuse and recycling by transforming clothing design.
5. Radically improve recycling and collection systems.
6. Make more effective use of resources and move to renewable inputs.
1. Phase out substances of concern and microfibre release
Significant opportunity exists for the industry to capture value by creating safe material cycles while
addressing the devastating health and pollution impacts of textiles production. So, first and
foremost, in a new textiles economy material input would be safe and healthy to allow it to cycle in
28
the system and avoid negative impacts during the production, use, and after-use phases. This means
that substances which cause concern to health or the environment are designed out and no plastic
microfibres are released into the environment and ocean (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017).
Actions are needed in two areas to phase out chemical substances of concern and microfibre
release. The first is to align industry efforts to create safe material cycles in order to scale up the use
of existing alternative technologies. The second is to develop new materials and production
processes that prevent the release of plastic microfibres, while simultaneously increasing the
effectiveness of technologies that capture unavoidably released microfibres (Ellen Macarthur
Foundation 2017).
Three key actions could support the creation of safe material cycles: aligning existing industry efforts
to harmonise standards and improve transparency; driving collective innovation efforts to develop
and scale safe alternative chemicals and production processes; and moving to regenerative
agriculture for production of natural fibres (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017).
The management of substances of concern is costly, particularly where the use of chemicals is
strongly regulated, for example through special storage and transportation requirements, personal
protection measures for workers, or wastewater treatment measures. Businesses could also find
themselves exposed to remediation costs if substances of concern leak out into the environment
(Chemsec 2017: p. 13).
However, the phase-out of substances of concern can have various economic benefits. The Pulse of
the fashion industry report estimates that eliminating today’s negative health impacts, due to poor
chemicals management in the industry, would have an economic benefit of EUR 7 billion (USD 8
billion) annually in 2030 (Global Fashion Agenda & The Boston Consulting Group 2017: p. 21).
Firstly, businesses that move quickly to replace substances of concern with safer chemicals can avoid
costs associated with the use of such substances, including correct storage and handling, measures
to protect employee health, handling of hazardous waste, and the cost of environmental
remediation if these substances leak out (Chemsec 2017: p. 13).
Secondly, eliminating substances of concern can provide the full value of a closed-loop economic
system. Rapidly eliminating substances of concern from textiles production can enable healthy and
efficient flows of materials in a circular textile economy, along with methods to remove those that
remain in circulation from existing textiles (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017).
Widespread adoption of collaborative industry-led practices that phase out substances of concern
could create rapid momentum towards a new circular textile economy, since shared supply chains
mean that this change cannot be driven by one brand alone. This would involve adoption of agreed
restricted substances lists (RSLs), manufacturing restricted substances lists (MRSLs), and voluntary
standards (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017).
The Apparel and Footwear International RSL Management (AFIRM) Group provides a forum to
advance the global management of restricted substances in apparel, and has a common RSL (AFIRM
2020). Many well-known brands and retailers are members of AFIRM (AFIRM 2021). Including
manufacturers in harmonisation efforts would support the implementation of changes. Further, The
Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) programme has created a common MRSL for the
textiles industry (ZDHC 2020), which has been adopted by a group of signatories including major
brands, and textile and chemical manufacturers (ZDHC 2021).
29
Further, clear guidelines for chemicals that can be used safely, with relevant information on
functional characteristics, costs, and ecotoxicological information, could empower brands and
retailers to make better sourcing decisions, and in return increase demand for non-hazardous
alternatives. This would also help identify gaps where innovation is needed to provide the desired
functionality (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017).
Safe production of textiles can be achieved both through the development and use of safe chemical
alternatives, or more innovative solutions that rethink production processes to avoid chemical use.
For example, many natural and synthetic dyes are effective replacements for toxic synthetic dyes, in
particular synthetic azo-dyes, Figure 5.
As a first step, where safe chemical alternatives exist, these should replace substances of concern.
The current low transparency and complexity of the textiles supply chain will require collaboration of
all actors: innovators, fibre producers, chemical suppliers, textile mills, and brands. This is needed to
drive faster solutions to avoid the use of substances of concern, to create a common innovation
agenda, and to identify and focus on priority processes where safe alternative options do not yet
exist (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017).
The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) provides a significant guide for minimising the
environmental and ethical impacts in clothing production, along with transparency information of
textile processing. GOTS was founded by four well-recognised organisations: Organic Trade
Association (OTA, USA), Internationaler Verband der Naturtextilwirtschaft (IVN, Germany), The Soil
Association (UK) and Japan Organic Cotton Association (JOCA, Japan). GOTS came about from the
desire to harmonise these standards so that they were internationally recognised. The GOTS
organisation draws on the advice of, and input from, other relevant international stakeholder
organisations and experts for regular standard updates (Global Organic Textile Standard 2020a).
With the implementation of GOTS Version 6.0, chemical formulator companies are required to
implement product stewardship practices and undergo an on-site audit for environmental
management systems, as well as occupational health and safety. Chemical requirements include
(FibreBio 2021):
All chemical inputs (for instance, dyes, adjuvants and processing chemicals) must be
evaluated and must comply with a number of basic toxicity and biodegradability/disposal
requirements.
The use of synthetic finishes is limited, sizing and weaving oils must not contain heavy
metals.
Bleaching agents must be oxygen-based (no chlorine).
Critical inputs such as heavy metals, formaldehyde, aromatic solvents, functional
nanoparticles, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their enzymes are completely
banned.
Synthetic azo-dyes, that release carcinogenic amine components, are prohibited.
A list of currently approved chemicals is provided by GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard 2020b).
30
Figure 5 Blanket coloured with natural vegetable dyes. Many natural and synthetic dyes are
effective replacements for synthetic toxic dyes, in particular synthetic azo-dyes. Image source, the
author.
Safer and more sustainable production of natural fibres
For producing natural fibres, a significant opportunity exists to transition to the use of regenerative
methods in agriculture. These methods can include, for example, organic farming, no-till, and
restorative grazing (SYSTEMIQ et al. 2017: p. 80).
To promote maximum soil regeneration, and therefore land productivity and farm profitability,
several of these methods are often combined. A regenerative agricultural system preserves the
integrity of a farm’s natural ecosystem, increasing its biological health, biodiversity, and resilience
(Cummins 2020). In particular, no toxic substances are used, nutrient losses are minimised, and soil
health is not only preserved but enhanced. Regenerative farming avoids the negative health impacts
associated with pesticide and fertiliser use, such as groundwater pollution and pesticide poisoning.
Progress is already being made towards improved cotton production, but uptake of fully
regenerative methods remains low. Certified organic cotton, which bans inputs of synthetic
fertilisers and pesticides, represents less than 1 percent of the global cotton market, while Better
Cotton Initiative (BCI) cotton, which reduces these inputs, accounts for roughly 3 percent (Dodd and
Caldas 2017: p. 22).
31
Long-term relationships and collaboration with suppliers could help many farmers who do not have
the resources needed to make the shift to regenerative methods. Such a shift can take significant
time and might need new capital and financing mechanisms. Indeed, CottonConnect points out that
connecting farmers to buyers willing to pay a fair price for cotton is the “long term solution to
address poverty and create resilient rural communities” (CottonConnect 2017: p. 3).
Drastically reduce plastic microfibre release
Two key actions have been identified to drastically reduce plastic microfibre release: develop new
materials and production processes to design out microfibre shedding, and increase the
effectiveness and scale of technologies that capture the microfibres which are unavoidably released
(Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017).
Building a better evidence base and understanding in the industry of the causes of microfibre release
would focus actions and highlight the areas where innovation is needed to address the challenge.
For instance, the Mistra Future Fashion research programme reports that reducing brushing (which
is used to create surfaces such as fleece) or replacing traditional cutting methods with ultrasound or
laser cutting could reduce the number of microfibres released (Roos et al. 2017: p.1). Material
design such as fibre length, yarn spinning, weaving, and dyeing processes are all suspected to have
an impact on microfibre loss (Ocean Clean Wash 2018: p. 3).
Research has indicated that there is a role not only for garment producers, but also for washing
machine producers, detergent manufacturers, and waste management service providers to have an
impact on reducing the release of microfibres into the environment (Ellen Macarthur Foundation
2017).
In the long term, there is a need to radically rethink the materials used and to phase out those
materials that cannot be prevented from losing microfibres. This will likely involve designing new
materials from scratch that are either biodegradable or do not shed microfibres, and which have
properties needed for high-performance applications (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017).
Role for government
Governments have a role to guide industry sectors, provide public procurement policies to drive
demand for textiles from safe production, and step in where industry practices fall short. Also,
regulatory intervention to increase reporting and transparency on chemical use could help set a level
playing field. Policymakers could also support the uptake of technologies related to deducing the
loss and capture of microfibres.
2. Implement safer and better employment conditions
Addressing the serious issues in poor working conditions and pay will require fashion companies to
measure social as well as environmental sustainability performance across the entire supply chain,
set goals for improvements, and to help suppliers to reduce their negative impacts, and hold
suppliers accountable if they don’t. These actions to be supported by guidance and or regulation by
government. Without improvements in how clothing is made, these serious issues will continue to
grow proportionally as more clothes are produced (Remy et al. 2016).
In part, while productivity increases are important to profitability, main alternatives to depressing
salary payments to workers are in the form of new technology, for instance new more efficient or
more flexible sewing machines, better operational efficiency with electricity energy supply (Wolf
2018).
32
Importantly, the European Commission has undertaken some preliminary steps, including publishing
a study and conducting public consultations, towards a possible legislative initiative on mandatory
due diligence (Zamfir 2020). Raphaël Glucksmann, vice-chair of the European Parliament's Human
Rights Subcommittee, is working on the legislative initiative that would make human rights and
environmental due diligence mandatory for European parent companies through their entire supply
chain, based on a duty of care, which is a legal obligation to adhere to a standard of reasonable care
(Biondi 2020). In 2021 the work programme of the European Commission includes a proposal for a
directive on sustainable corporate governance that would also cover human rights and
environmental due diligence (Zamfir 2020).
3. More flexibly meet demand by providing more options for the way clothes are sold or
rented, to break free from their increasingly disposable nature.
Designing and producing clothes of higher quality and providing access to them via new business
models would help shift the perception of clothing from being a disposable item to being a durable
product. Increasing the number of times clothes are worn could be the most powerful way to
capture value, reduce pressure on resources, and decrease negative impacts.
To disrupt the current linear pathway for clothes, a range of new models to access and maintain
clothes are essential. Models, that are not centred on ownership, are needed to address fast-
changing needs and styles, for instance, clothing rental. Further, models that explicitly offer high
quality, great fit and additional services are needed to respond to segments that value durability,
such as; sales with warranties, clothing-on-demand, clothing resale, and repair services.
Economic opportunities already exist for many of these models, and brands and retailers could
exploit these through refocused marketing. These models would also lead to the design and
manufacture of clothes that last longer, which could be further supported by industry commitments
and policies.
This leads to three key actions that could start the shift away from a throwaway culture for clothes:
scaling up short-term clothing rental; making durability more attractive; and increasing clothing
utilisation further through brand commitments and policy.
Toward new clothing textile circular economy model
In a new textile circular economy, a diversity of sales and rental service types for different types and
uses of clothing would satisfy customers’ needs and wants while meeting the demand for high
utilisation rates. There is no one-size-fits-all solution to accessing clothes in a new textile circular
economy. Instead, a range of options would be on offer to match the various customer types,
alongside an increased emphasis on the durability of clothes from the outset. Four main types of
sale or rental service are included in the new clothing textile model, Table 8.
33
Table 8 Main types of sale or rental services
Type of sale or
rental service
Description
Clothing industry
segments
Examples
Short-term
Rental
Customers rent garments for one-off
occasions and needs.
Baby and children’s
clothes, maternity
wear, formalwear,
sportswear, luxury
items.
Occasion
wear hire,
Vigga, Rent
the
Runway
Rental
subscription
Customers pay a monthly fee to have a
fixed number of garments on loan at
any one time and get frequent outfit
change.
‘Fast fashion’ items,
all types of clothing.
YCloset,
Kleiderei,
Gwynnie
Bee
Sale of highly
durable clothes
Customers specifically select high-
quality, durable garments that
come with a warranty, an increased
personalisation, and that can be easily
repaired.
Staples, nonseasonal
styles, workwear,
intimate wear.
Patagonia,
Houdini,
MUD Jeans
Resale
Customers buy garments that have
been used by others beforehand and
could have been refurbished /
renewed.
All types of
Clothing.
Renewal
Worshop,
Filippa K,
ThredUp,
second-
hand stores
Source (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 76).
To understand the clothing market, it is important to look at people’s relationship with clothing,
which is particularly complex. People wear and purchase clothes for a variety of motives. In addition
to practical motivations such as warmth, clothing fulfils more subtle emotional and societal desires,
such as the expression of identity and the demonstration of values. The act of purchasing clothes can
also be an experience in itself, sometimes called ‘retail therapy’. It is, then, essential to recognise
clothing’s role as a satisfier of human needs in a societal context to ensure that this role can be
enhanced by a new textile economy. So, to illustrate the needs for a diversity of sales and rental
service, we look at the six generic types of fashion customers and their particular needs, Table 8.
Then, by comparing Tables 8 and 9, we can assess which types of sale and rental services are utilised
by different types of customers, Table 10.
The desire for novelty and variety would be met by a vibrant rental market and an appealing resale
market, offering flexibility and choice for users and new opportunities for businesses. The need for
long-lasting garments would be met by offering quality guarantees and repair services for new
purchases. Market research is also required to fully understand the size of the respective markets in
different regions, so that the appropriate business models can be adopted to meet the demands for
clothing in each area.
34
Table 9 Generic types of fashion customers
Customer
type
Description
Comment
Bargain
Seeks out bargains.
Shops in sales, attracted by promotional offers, buys
second hand, goes to designer outlets, warehouse sales,
sources vouchers and deals on the Internet.
Stand-Out
Wants to stand out
from the crowd.
Buys from independent stores and boutiques, makes an
effort to seek out new trends and ideas, makes own
clothes or customises, shops in street markets.
Fitting In
Wants to fit in and
belong to a group.
Buys similar style to friends, connects to peers via social
media, shops where friends shop, fits their personal style
with chosen ‘tribe’.
Avoid
Tries to avoid
clothes shopping.
Shops infrequently for clothes purchasing mainly
for replacement items, shops online, does not browse and
heads straight for required item, abandons store if queue
to pay is too long.
Celebrity
Aims to look like a
celebrity.
Reads celebrity gossip magazines, is attracted to
stores and websites that contain celebrity fashion trends,
would queue to purchase special collections.
Environment
Cares about the
environment.
Tries to buy from ethical fashion brands, tries to find uses
for their unwanted items, does not buy ‘fast fashion’, likes
smaller local fashion labels.
, In reality a single individual might belong to various customer types simultaneously, and choose a
different type of sale or rental service depending on the nature of clothes sought and the specific
situation. Source (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 75).
Table 10 Types of sale and rental services utilised by different types of customers
Customer type
Type of sale or rental service
Short-term
Rental
Rental
subscription
Sale of highly
durable clothes
Resale
Bargain
Y
Y
Y
Stand-Out
Y
Y
Fitting In
Y
Y
Y
Avoid
Y
Celebrity
Y
Y
Environment
Y
Y
Y
Y
Source (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 76).
Building preference for higher durability of clothing
While rental can capture the value of durability by sharing clothing between many different users,
for certain clothing types and customer segments, high quality and durability can be of value even
when there are only one or a few users. Many customers value high-quality, durable clothes but a
lack of information often prevents them from making choices that are best suited to their needs and
desires (Niinimäki and Hassi 2011).
In regions where the cost of new clothing is low relative to the cost of labour and existing activities
are mainly motivated by lifestyle choices, the number of times a new garment is worn is relatively
small, while consumer buy ever more garments. However, as the physical durability and emotional
and ethical preference for durable garments increases, through effective marketing, the demand for
more durable clothing should increase. Moreover, as the market for more durable clothing increases
35
the increased scale of manufacturing should lead to decreased prices. Indeed, commitments by
brands and retailers to sell more durable garments could create momentum and should be
welcomed at this era when brands are increasingly being held accountable for the impact of their
clothes and supply.
Focus on delivering quality purchases that last longer also encourages the use of new technologies
that offer better fit and customisation for maximum customer satisfaction. For clothes that become
unwanted but are still durable enough to be used again, enhanced resale models offer an attractive
opportunity. For customers who want to retain their clothes for longer, appropriate care should be
encouraged and facilitated.
A clear business opportunity for more durable clothes exists in certain market segments. For
segments such as wardrobe staples, non-seasonal styles, functional clothing, and intimate wear,
quality is a key concern for customers. These items reflect ongoing clothing needs with styles
evolving slowly over time. This segment includes coats, jumpers, jeans, socks, hosiery, and
underwear, which represents 64 percent of garments produced globally for both women and men
(Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 83).
Further, labelling clothes for the level of durability will allow customers to better judge the value of
their purchases. Criteria for assessing durability and quality, could include the number of washes an
item withstands or the minimum number of times an item can typically be worn without showing
signs of wear and tear.
Where durability comes at a higher production price, quality assurance is an important factor in
ensuring that customers recognise the value they can capture by buying longer-lasting items.
Offering warranties, to repair or replace any product or component that fails, demonstrates a high
commitment to durability. Several brands such as L.L. Bean, Nudie Jeans, Patagonia, and Houdini are
already providing extensive warranties. A number of others also provide lifetime guarantees
(FashionBeans 2019).
4. Radically improve durability, reuse and recycling by transforming clothing design
Designing durability
There are significant opportunities to increase durability that are near cost-neutral, profitable, or
that have clear financial benefits due to enhanced brand reputation. Practical guidelines for the
design phase of garments are available, such as those released by WRAP as part of the Sustainable
Clothing Action Plan (WRAP 2017a). This would be optimally supported by concrete goals and
targets around durability, as required to move to the implementation phase and achieve scale.
Tools and strategies to make clothes last longer are increasingly being brought into focus. Ways of
increasing durability could include using durable materials, strong seams, and lasting dyes and prints
that can withstand multiple use cycles. Enhanced knowledge, transparency, and accountability must
be built in throughout the supply chain to ensure that better quality can be pursued as a goal. This
will enable a shift in focus throughout the processes of design, sourcing, and construction to create
garments that last and can easily be repaired.
Already, major brands have created supply-chain mechanisms to ensure fair labour rights and non-
toxic products, and such communication and transparency efforts could be expanded to focus on the
quality of production.
Manufacturers and retailers can improve both transparency and efficiency by investing in technology
to track products and materials. Easy-to-scan product coding that does not wear off with use enables
36
both easy tracking of inventory as well as sorting of materials after use. Such systems already exist
for professional textile products that are laundered centrally, such as hospital textiles or uniforms.
Danish baby clothing subscription model Vigga is employing such established techniques by
introducing RFID tagging and tracking for their logistics (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 81).
Tracking can also be facilitated through customers’ online accounts, where they can mark products
as being received or shipped back.
Existing frameworks and tools offer guidelines on how brands can adopt a focus on durability, such
as the Higg Index and its Design and Development Module (Sustainable Wear 2020), the Waste &
Resource Action Programme’s (WRAP) Clothing Longevity Protocol (WRAP (2014a; b), or the recent
Design for Longevity platform from the Danish Fashion Institute for the European Clothing Action
Plan (Designforlongevity 2020). However, these practices should be implemented across all industry
players.
At the more exploratory end of high-quality fashion, CuteCircuit garments include ‘wearable
technology’, for instance, incorporating built-in hepatic actuators that activate touch through
broadcast music and can also be controlled through a mobile app (CuteCircuit 2021).
Introducing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) focused on textiles can be an enabler for
increased utilisation of clothing and as a financial incentive for resale models, rental models, and
high-quality clothing. The scope of an EPR scheme could include actions to increase quality and
durability further. Once an EPR is in place, third parties could provide financial incentives to their
members who design and make clothes with high quality standards. EPRs are discussed further in
the next main section.
Improving preference for durability by Involving personal consumer engagement in creating clothing
A preferred durable item is an item that is highly valued by its owner (Chapman 2015). Participation
of the user in the design or repair of clothing has the potential to foster a more connected and active
relationship with the garments. For instance, for quality clothing boutiques, preference for durability
can be enhanced by involving the user in the making or remaking of their garment. In this case the
clothing may be tailormade, custom-ordered and or designed or redesigned by staff at the boutique.
Taking a personal interactive approach also leads to reduced clothing waste, as clothes are
individually made on demand. That is in contrast to normal generic supply, where a boutique shop
makes or buys a seasonal range of clothes, with different sizes, and annually for each season, which
may lead to many garments not being bought by end of season, and therefore be regularly discarded
to waste (ABC TV 2020).
Further, new technologies are emerging that adapt clothing to individual body shapes and styles,
allowing custom-made clothing to be delivered at scale, on demand. 3D body-scanning technologies
are already available to provide body-mapping analysis which, along with a fitting guide, could
customise the perfect garment for the customer. This means that on-demand manufacturing could
result in relatively short times for a customer to acquire the new garment. For instance, the Fame
and Partners company has developed a technology platform and supply chain that allows custom-
made clothing to reach customers between two to five days after ordering. Women can specify their
height for improved fit, choose from 20 colours, and select from a number of design options (Decker
2017). An additional advantage of on-demand manufacturing is that it would also reduce the need of
manufacturers and retailers to discard overproduced items.
37
Improving the usable life of clothes by designing clothes to adapt to changing user needs
Designing clothes that will adapt to changing user needs has begun. Clothing that is designed to be
multi-purpose, adaptable, and upgradable could increase the frequency with which customers use
an item, and lower the number of items they keep in their closet.
There is an opportunity for designers to create modular garments that can be adapted by users over
time, via the concept of mass customization. In this approach garments that can be worn inside out,
or are made up of a fixed base together with removable sections that are offered in multiple colours,
would allow one garment to match several outfit combinations. Further the design can flexibly
provide modular garments for people of different sizes (Cileroglu and Nadasbas 2018). There are
already examples of this kind of multifunctional design, such as the concept of the Little Navy Dress,
which consists of a ‘blank canvas’ onto which customers can zip decorative attachments (Connor-
Crabb et al. 2016). Adaptable materials that are easily upgraded represent a new area of innovation,
whether they are garments that can be re-dyed or refashioned at home, or are self-adaptive. For
example, Petit Pli’s children’s clothes are pleated in such a way that they grow with the child and fit
a wide range of sizes (Petit Pli 2021).
Large-scale adoption of clothing repair and restyle services could significantly increase clothing
utilisation. Easily accessible services and widespread support for users to maintain their clothes for
longer (for instance, through repairing or restyling, and adequate washing and storing) could help to
preserve the integrity of clothes and keep them at their highest perceived and actual value.
Toward aligning clothing design with the requirement to better recycle clothing
Radically improving recycling would allow the industry to capture the material value of clothes that
can no longer be used. Currently, less than 1 percent of textiles produced for clothing is recycled into
new clothes. Most of the material being treated is down-cycled to lower-value applications. Down-
cycled textiles are used as cleaning cloths, insulation material, and mattress stuffing. These
applications are typically not (economically) recyclable after use, so this generally adds just one
additional use before materials are discarded (Mistra Future Fashions 2021).
Globally, most used textiles end up in landfill. Such poor waste management leads to a loss of the
value in the material and takes up landfill space, which costs money and is scarce in many countries.
Once discarded in this way, clothing still causes negative environmental impacts.
A further issue is that clothing-to-clothing recycling at scale is hindered by a disconnect between
design and recycling processes. The way clothing is made, including the way fabric is constructed and
chosen for clothing, rarely considers the recyclability of the materials. Specifically, the ever-
increasing number of materials and blends brought to the market makes it hard for recyclers to
capture the full material value of clothes they receive. To put this in perspective, the Higg Index, a
self-assessment tool developed by the Sustainable Apparel Coalition (Sustainable Apparel Coalition
2021b), lists 78 base materials that can be produced using 241 different processes to create more
than 165,000 possible material combinations (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017: p 92).
The current poor rate of recycling textiles represents a lost opportunity of more than US $100 billion
annually and high costs for landfilling and incineration. This is a significant opportunity for the
industry to capture more of it. Using recycled rather than virgin materials also offer an opportunity
to drastically reduce non-renewable resource inputs and the negative impacts of the industry on the
environment.
38
Coordinated action is required to capture the opportunity to introduce clothing recycling at scale,
involving designers, buyers, textile collectors (including cities and municipalities), recyclers, as well
as innovators. Four areas of actions could start the process of capturing that value:
Aligning clothing design and recycling processes;
Pursuing technological innovation to improve the economics and quality of recycling;
Stimulating demand for recycled materials; and
Implementing clothing collection at scale.
These actions should optimally be coordinated well across the value chain.
Optimally clothing is first reused as clothing. Then, at the end of useful life there are optimally a
range of options for recycling clothing for the circular textile economy. Through recycling, material
value of textiles can be captured at different levels, Figure 6. As materials are cycled further up the
value chain, these allow more flexible use, though the retained inherent value decreases, as a trade-
off. Each of these have different levels are an option, related to cost, the appropriate output quality,
and scaling.
Further, all of the re-manufacturing technologies may be applied to offcuts from clothing
production, as well as unwanted garments collected after use.
Extended Producer Responsibility
Introducing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) focused on textiles can be an enabler for
increased utilisation and recycling of clothing, as well and as a financial incentive for resale, rental,
and high-quality clothing.
EPR has been successfully pioneered in France since 2007 for clothing and will be extended for home
textiles in 2020. Primarily, companies are obliged to either set up a recycling and waste management
system for the clothes they put on the market, or pay a contribution to an organisation that will
financially support third parties to manage clothing waste (Legifrance 2020).
Although this EPR focuses on recycling, overall rates for reusing clothing have increased as a result of
increased collection rates, and additional policy measures could keep clothes at a higher value by
ensuring the sorting of collected materials according to quality specifications (Elander et al. 2017). A
mandatory EPR programme could be a financial incentive for brands to set up their own take-back
and repurposing system, whether through rental or resale. It could also bring more third parties into
play to handle collection, refurbishment, and redistribution at scale.
Further, the waste management coordinator Eco TLC in France offers a 50 percent discount on the
eco-contribution fee relative to EPR for members who use at least 15 percent recycled fibres as
input in their products (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 89).
39
Figure 6 options for recycling clothing textile materials. The collection & sorting system can
preferentially provide clothes for second-hand retail apparel shops, while remanufacturing is the
next option. In remanufacturing, textile materials may be chemically separated and or
remanufactured at different material levels, from monomers to fabrics. Adapted from (Ellen
Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 95).
40
Align clothing design and recycling processes
Converging towards an optimised palette of materials, including blends where these are needed for
functionality, and developing these alongside highly efficient recycling processes for those materials
is a crucial step in scaling up recycling. This also includes developing new materials where no current
ones are suitable to provide both the desired functionality as well as recyclability.
Creating industry-wide design guidelines would support process alignment and increase value
captured through recycling. As upstream decisions such as material choices or labelling information
will later impact the ability to sort and recycle clothing after use, clear design guidelines would
facilitate greater value capture.
Guidelines would need to consider; convergence towards a reduced palette of materials;
requirements for new material innovations; and cross-industry alignment on systems for labelling,
tracking, and tracing.
To promote these requirements, existing initiatives are starting to build links between designers and
recyclers. For example, the research programme Trash-2-Cash is running a cross-disciplinary
challenge to develop processes for indefinite chemical recycling of textiles. The project involves
designers and material scientists early on to ensure usability of the recycled materials (Trash2Cash
2021). Also, brands, such as Vaude, Fjällräven, Houdini, Paramo have already changed the design of
some of their garments to be made from 100 percent polyester, including zippers, buttons, and
seams, instead of using different materials (Greenpeace 2017: p. 81).
Building an evidence base on commonly used materials and their recycling options would enable the
development of guidelines that support convergence towards a smaller range of materials, and that
focus efforts on recycling technology innovation. For instance, Circle Economy, along with collectors,
sorters, and recycling experts, is running the Fibersort project, which will result in an overview of the
different material blends and the volumes of these that are used in collected clothing in Europe
(Circle Economy 2021). Also, Fashion Positive has launched a collaborative membership programme
called Circular Materials, bringing together a community of brands, designers, and suppliers to work
together to “design circular fashion from the materials up”. By building the Fashion Positive Critical
Materials List, the group aims to identify high-volume, commonly used materials that require
innovation as a priority to form part of a circular economy (Fashionpositive 2021).
The development of guidelines to only use materials that can be recycled will also reveal gaps where
existing materials offer a specific function, but are unlikely to be economically recyclable after use.
Collective action by designers, material experts, and recyclers is needed to identify where innovation
efforts should focus to find alternative materials that can be economically recycled. Innovators
seeking new materials could work in collaboration with retailers, manufacturers, and recyclers to
understand functional requirements and ensure ultimate recyclability.
5. Radically improve recycling and collection systems
Pursue technological innovation to improve the economics and quality of recycling
The economics and output quality of existing recycling technologies for common materials need to
be drastically improved to capture the full value of materials in recovered clothing. Technical
innovation presents an opportunity to address a significant bottleneck in the shift towards a new
textile economy, by providing solutions that can offer recycled materials which can compete with
virgin materials on cost and quality (GFA 2020).
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A shared innovation agenda is needed to focus efforts and investments on recycling technologies for
common materials. Improved sorting technologies are also needed to provide high-quality feedstock
to recyclers.
Radically improving clothing-to-clothing recycling will require effective infrastructure globally for
collection, tracking and tracing, sorting, and recycling.
Fabric recycling
Fabric recycling of production offcuts is relatively widely adopted already. For example, Nurmi
Clothing, uses remanufactured leftover fabric materials, mainly cotton, supplied by Pure Waste
Textiles (Nurmi Clothing 2021; Pure Waste Textiles 2021). Leftover fabrics from factories are useful
to make clothes, as these fabrics are high quality and do not have complicated trimmings, such as
buttons or seams, to be removed. The European fashion chain Lindex also uses remanufactured
cotton, along with recycled polyester from used polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, to make
new clothes (Lindex 2021).
The Reverse Resources company provides software to manufacturers and their buyers to work
together on making profitable use of factory offcuts. The software measures the quantity of
production offcuts, maps them by type, and allows the manufacturer to share relevant data with
buyers (Reverse Resources 2017: p. 30).
At small scales, there is increasing appetite from small designer companies to make bespoke
garments from leftover material (ABC TV 2020).
Yarn recycling
While simple in theory, the concept of yarn recycling is largely unexplored in practice and is not
found at scale in the industry today. Difficulties in producing a garment from just one yarn that
would not potentially unravel by itself would need to be addressed for this concept to be scaled.
Nevertheless, it is possible that technological solutions could be found for this. Clothing company
Benetton has implemented such a design, enabling yarn recycling with its single-thread knitwear
produced using a special high-tech Japanese knitting machine and just one 450-metre-long yarn
(Brismar 2016).
Fibre recycling
This type of recycling has been used for nearly 250 years and is applicable at scale through a
standardised mechanical shredding process (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 98). Resource
needs for chemicals, dyes, and water are minimal as there is often no need for bleaching and re-
dyeing because textiles are normally sorted by colour.
However, fibre recycling does not currently offer the quality of recycled fibres needed to produce a
100 percent recycled garment from the output, except for wool that is recycled for the first time
(Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 98). This issue is due to shortening of the fibres during the
shredding process.
Therefore, to provide the quality needed for use in a garment, recycled cotton is usually blended
with longer fibres, which are mostly virgin cotton or, for cost reasons, polyester. Currently, the
amount of recycled cotton in yarn, in general varies from 20 percent to 30 percent, to maintain
quality (H&M Group 2020). Though, for denim fabric, recent technological improvements have
managed to increase recycled cotton, from discarded jeans, to 40 percent (Ellen MacArthur
Foundation 2020).
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In future, chemical recycling may practically increase the size of extracted fibres, as the technology
advances to commercially efficient use (Notman 2020).
Mechanical polymer recycling
Mechanical polymer recycling only works for single-variety plastic-based fibres, and is currently most
promising as a solution for polyester recycling. For example, the clothing company Dutch
aWEARness develops workwear that guarantees a pure material input for the recycling process,
enabling the same feedstock to be recycled several times. That is, using 100 percent recycled
material. In addition, the company has proposed adapting the traditional investment chain (Follow
The Money (2020), which is linear, to circular form. The aim being to have all stakeholders in the
circular textile economy, from manufacturer to consumer, to share financial investment in the
garments, and therefore each have a reason to continue the cycle (Circle Economy 2016).
Chemical polymer recycling
Both cotton and other cellulose-based fibres (for example, lyocell and viscose) as well as plastic-
based fibres, such as polyester, can be recycled using solvent-based technologies. Chemical polymer
recycling of cotton is already at a commercial level, while technologies are also being developed for
blends, and are moving from R&D stages into pilot and industrial developments.
For pure cotton, the result of the current chemical polymer recycling process to recycle cotton is a
cellulose pulp which can be used to produce other regenerated cellulose-based fibres. The recovery
process is theoretically repeatable several times but currently the polymer chain degrades with each
repetition.
The H&M Foundation in partnership with The Hong Kong Research Institute for Textiles and Apparel
has developed a new process to separate cotton-polyester blends (H&M Foundation 2017a). This
has now been successfully tested at pilot scale (H&M Foundation 2020).
Chemical monomer recycling
Currently, monomerisation technologies only exist for plastic-based fibres. Polymers like polyester
and polyamides, such as nylon, can be depolymerised to extract the monomers from which they
have been produced (Achilias et al. 2012). These can then be used as building blocks for the
production of new polymers. Technologies are mature and proven for both polyester and nylon. For
instance, the Econyl company produces regenerated nylon from plastic wastes, including fishing
nets, fabric scraps, carpet flooring and industrial plastic, which is then processed into textile yarn
and carpet yarn and for the fashion and interior industries (Econyl 2021).
Currently, RESYNTEX, an EU collaboration project, is researching such opportunities for recycling
discarded textiles, that include cotton, PLA, PET, and wool (Bell et al. 2017). The aim is to recycle all
textile components to monomers and then remanufacture these to make new chemicals for
different markets (RESYNTEX 2018). This is important for two reasons: firstly, providing chemical
monomer recycling for polyester alone is not yet cost competitive, mainly because separating out
the monomers from the dyes, coatings, and other contaminants is costly and energy intensive;
secondly, all components are provided with economic value, for the circular economy.
Improve and scale of sorting technologies
Improving and scale of sorting technologies in required to substantially increase recycling output
efficiency and quality. Once clothing is collected, effective sorting and identification of garments into
separate streams appropriate for different recycling systems is required. Transparency on the
materials flowing through the system is key to improving recycling rates.
43
Accurate and rapid sorting of garments would be greatly supported by universally aligned tracking
and tracing technology. Universal tracking and tracing technologies, integrated in the design of
clothing and aligned to processes across the value chain, will support the identification of materials
in the system to improve both the efficiency and output quality of the recycling process. The
company Adetexs is researching the applicability of an RFID thread attached to individual garments
at the manufacturing stage that contains a digitised ingredients list (Notman 2020). The thread looks
and feels like a normal thread and is still detectable after a long use. In this collaborative project
Adetexs runs the production and development of the RFID thread, and EON is the exclusive global
sales partner (H&M Foundation 2017b).
Blockchain technology is a further instance of how digital advances can improve transparency and
provide sorters, collectors, and recyclers with reliable information on material composition of
garments, as these collectively can be described as a product supply chain (Provenance 2015).
Digital technologies would then provide recyclers with all the information needed to efficiency sort
and recycle the garment. Recycling technologies also rely on accurate materials detection and
sorting to ensure well-defined material streams (either a single material or well-defined
combinations of materials including blends).
Correct labelling and materials identification is therefore paramount to accurately sorting collected
clothing for recycling, yet currently information given on labels does not always provide the full
picture. For example, the US Federal Trade Commission clarifies that a product can be labelled 100
percent cotton even if it contains noncotton trims (Federal Trade Commission 2014).
Until correct labelling and materials identification are implemented at scale, continued development
and introduction of optical sorting technologies could improve the speed of garment sorting, which
is mostly carried out manually today. According to WRAP, automated optical sorting technologies
play a critical role in scaling up recycling and making it cost competitive with virgin resources (WRAP
(2017b). While automated garment sorting technologies exist, their current accuracy and speed at
sorting complex materials limits their application.
Stimulate demand for recycled materials
Increasing demand for recycled materials could drastically speed up the development towards
circularity in the apparel sector. Driving up demand for recycled materials would bring economies of
scale and inspire innovation to improve their quality. Enhanced transparency, together with
matchmaking mechanisms that connect designers and buyers with producers of recycled materials,
coupled with strengthened ‘pull’ effects that generate demand for recycled materials could lead the
way.
Fashion companies could contribute towards increasing the amount of clothing-to-clothing recycling
by making commitments to use recycled materials. This would stimulate and guarantee a certain
demand and generate a ‘pull’ effect to improve recycling.
The Global Fashion Agenda’s call to action for a circular fashion system has been signed by 64
fashion companies, representing 143 brands. With a combined total revenue of USD 133 billion,
though the signatories represent approximately just 7.5 percent of the global fashion market.
Increasing the transparency of recycled material properties and user specifications would enable
better matching of supply and demand. Open dialogue between recyclers, textile mills, and brands
could facilitate alignment on the key properties required for materials in different applications.
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An online platform that brings together suppliers and buyers of recycled materials could support
easier connections and facilitate greater transparency and better alignment between supply and
demand.
Public procurement represents a significant amount of purchasing power, and so offers the ability to
stimulate market demand. In Europe, for example, it amounts to 14 percent of GDP (European
Commission 2020). Hence, procurement guidelines that provide buyers with the information needed
to favour recycled materials in their sourcing decisions can lead the way towards a greater uptake of
recycled materials for clothes through large-scale orders.
Progress towards such guidance is underway by the European Clothing Action Plan (ECAP), which is
currently researching the role of public procurers and has published reports to help them to reach
environmental goals by using their buying power to stimulate a circular approach to workwear
(European Clothing Action Plan 2021).
Policymakers also play an important role in stimulating demand by incentivising the use of recycled
materials and/or disincentivising the use of virgin materials. For example, policy could include
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). EPR policies give producers significant responsibility,
financial and/or physical, to treat or dispose of their post-consumer products. Assigning such
responsibility could provide incentives to prevent wastes at the source, promote product design for
the environment and support the achievement of public recycling and materials management goals
(OECD 2020).
In comparison to voluntary schemes, mandatory policies have the advantage of targeting the entire
industry equally. For instance, France introduced a law in 2006 that obliges companies to provide or
manage recycling options at their products’ end-of-use (Legifrance 2020).
Implement clothing collection at scale
Clothing collection needs to be scaled up dramatically alongside recycling technologies and,
importantly, implemented in locations where it currently does not exist. Creating demand for
recycled materials, as discussed above, will increase markets for recycled fabric components, and
therefore dramatically improve the opportunity for collectors to capture value from these materials.
Guidelines based on current best practices and further research on optimal systems could help scale
up collection. Such guidelines may be applied to a set of country or city types, allowing for regional
variation but building on a set of common principles.
A variety of systems currently exist to collect used clothing, see Table 11 for an overview. Collection
rates, and the type of schemes to collect used textiles, vary significantly, both nationally and
regionally.
Where collection schemes do exist, the collection landscape for clothes recycling after use is often
characterised by fragmentation, lack of scale, and lack of location-appropriate collection systems.
Systems across retailers, charities, and municipalities require expansion and scaling up.
Therefore, it is critical that collection, sorting, and recycling processes need to be scaled up at the
same time, in a co-ordinated way, to create demand and improve the economic attractiveness of
collection.
Further it is important to implement after-use clothing collection where it currently does not exist,
particularly in developing countries.
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Table 11 Range of methods used for collecting clothes from consumers
Collection type
Description
Examples
Main
advantages
Main disadvantages
MUNICIPAL
WASTE
COLLECTION
Garments are
collected
through
municipal waste
collection
Most
countries
High
convenience
Suitable for
large scales
Textiles mixed with
other waste need to
be separated out and
also accumulate dirt
from other waste
KERBSIDE
COLLECTION
Separate
kerbside
collection of
unwanted
clothes
Some
municipalities
including in
the
US, UK, and
China
Potential for
large scale
Households need to
separate out clothing
for collection.
Separate logistics
needed
HOME PICK-UP
Ordered courier
collects textiles
British Heart
Foundation
High
convenience
for user
Can be combined
with return of rented
items. Work-intensive
and tailored routing
needed
NEIGHBOURHOOD
COLLECTION
CONTAINERS
Users take
garments to
local collection
containers
Red Cross,
TEXAID, San
Francisco
Relatively
convenient if
container
density is high.
Large scale
possible
Separate logistics
needed
BRAND MAIL-
BACK
Users are asked
to mail their
unwanted
clothes back to
brands
Patagonia,
Eileen Fisher
Can be
combined
with incentive
system
Users have to mail
items
RETAILER DROP-
OFF
Users bring
garments back
to retailer
H&M, Zara
Can be
combined
with incentive
system.
Large scale
possible
Users have to
remember to take
items along
CHARITY SHOP
DROP-OFF
Users take
garments to
charity shops
Oxfam,
Red Cross,
British Heart
Foundation
Implicit
incentive
system
Large scale
possible
Users have to bring
items to a shop
Source (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p 104).
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In countries where used clothing collection already exists, barriers need to be addressed to further
scale these initiatives. This would require actions to improve the economic incentives for collectors
and make it more convenient for users to keep materials in the circular textile economic system.
A set of global collection types, allowing for regional variation but building on a set of common
principles, could support the scaling up of clothing collection after its final use and the
implementation of systems where there are currently none. Guidelines would support alignment
between collectors and sorters when working together to realise value-capture opportunities and
also align collection and recycling facilities globally, to better connect the material streams to the
recycling facilities and create a closed-loop system.
In the context of value-capture collection systems should be selected according to cost-effectiveness
and convenience to consumers. Operation of collections should be supported by campaigns to
improve awareness and trust by consumers.
Policymakers at various levels play roles in scaling up clothing collection. Directly, policymakers
responsible for waste management, usually at the municipal level, could invest or incentivise
investment in infrastructure, for example by pursuing public-private-partnerships. This could speed
up the implementation of the necessary collection infrastructure where it currently does not exist or
create additional and better schemes to increase uptake, for example through running pilots in
partnership with fashion companies.
Other options at the disposal of policymakers to help scale up clothing collection include setting
targets or incentives for collection, extending producer responsibility schemes, discussed above,
removing barriers caused by the definition of used textiles as waste, and removing barriers to trade
such as import or export bans. Collection rates could be rapidly increase by ‘push’ mechanisms.
These could include banning textiles from landfill and incineration altogether.
6. Make more effective use of resources and move to renewable inputs
A new textiles economy would be regenerative and restorative, phasing out the use of non-
renewable resources. This would involve replacing non-renewable resources with recycled feedstock
and reducing throughput in the system by maximising clothing utilisation.
However, virgin material input will likely always be required. Where such input is needed and no
recycled materials are available, it should increasingly come from renewable feedstock produced in
regenerative ways.
In addition, transitioning to more effective and efficient production processes that generate less
waste, need fewer inputs of resources, such as fossil fuels and chemicals, reduce water use in water-
scarce regions, are energy efficient, and run with renewable energy, can further contribute to
reducing the need for non-renewable resource input.
In addition, to being essential for a system that works in the long term, achieving this ambition
would allow the industry to reduce risks related to resource price volatility and security of supply,
and to capture value through direct cost savings. Resource price and supply risks pose a threat to
profitability. Therefore, a business-as-usual approach to such resource use will present a long-term
risk to business profitability. The price of oil has been historically volatile, exposing businesses to
unexpected input cost spikes for polyester and other plastic-based fibres (Ellen MacArthur
Foundation et al. 2016). The industry’s generally resource-hungry approach creates other problems
as well. For example, at present, many of the key cotton-producing countries are under high water
stress, including China, India, the US, Pakistan, Turkey, and Brazil. Water management and other
47
environmental conditions have significant impacts on the availability of cotton, and therefore lead to
price fluctuations.
Four key actions have been identified to support a more effective use of resources and move to
renewable inputs:
Accounting for the costs of negative externalities to incentivise good systems-level resource
management;
Finding sources for renewable feedstock where resource input is needed;
Removing barriers to adopt more effective textiles production methods at scale; and
Innovating processes to use fewer resources.
Account for the costs of negative externalities to incentivise good system-level resource management
Brands that understand the impacts of sourcing decisions will be better informed to demand
improved processes and materials from their supply chains. This can be made more transparent by
accounting for the cost of externalities of supply, such as pollution or health impacts on workers.
A report by the Global Leadership Award in Sustainable Apparel (GLASA) states that resources and
services from natural systems are not adequately priced by market economics, and as they are not
financially valued, there is no market incentive to manage them (Maxwell et al. 2016: p. 30). For
example, it has been estimated that if the true cost of conventional cotton cultivation in India
accounted for negative environmental and societal externalities, it would equate to EUR 3.65 (USD
4.28) per kilogram, around seven times the actual market price (IDH and True Price 2016: p. 15).
Puma, part of the Kering Group, has driven efforts to increase transparency in their production
process, and was the first brand to introduce an Environmental Profit and Loss (EPL) methodology in
2011. The EPL recognises that Puma’s core business depends on a variety of resources and values
these services, as well as the impacts of their business activities on natural systems, by using a
monetary value across the supply chain. Following successful implementation of EPL as a pilot
program at Puma, Kering has adopted the EPL at group level (Kering 2019: p. 47), as well as at
company level (PUMA 2018). As a result, PUMA has attributed more than 50 percent of its
environmental impact to material and raw material production. The company then placed a priority
on the large-scale use of more sustainable raw-materials. This included setting targets for more
sustainable raw materials used in producing apparels, such as cotton and polyester, and also for
footwear leather, polyurethane and cardboard (PUMA 2020: p. 76).
Benefits of applying the EPL methodology, as reported by the Kering group, which includes PUMA,
include better understanding of the risks and opportunities for raw materials, better relationships
with suppliers as they work together to manage environmental challenges, and building greater trust
with stakeholders through increased transparency. In 2019, Kering reported a fall in EP&L intensity
(€ EP&L/k€ Revenue), based on reduced greenhouse gas emissions, supply-chain waste, and water
consumption, from 47, in 2015, to 33, in 2019, that is, a 30 percent reduction (Kering 2020: p. 5).
These savings are driven by greater transparency in the supply chain, allowing the company to avoid
high-impact sources, coupled with changes in product design and material choices. Proactively
making small-scale changes in sourcing options, such as replacing materials with recycled
alternatives, can result in significant EP&L savings (Kering 2020: p. 7).
Kering has made the methodology open-source, offering a tangible way to build collaboration at
scale and acknowledging the power of such actions being driven by all retailers that use shared
supply chains (Kering 2019).
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Also, the Natural Capital Protocol is a framework that builds on existing techniques to identify,
measure, and value natural capital in the context of business decisions (Natural Capital Coalition
2016a). Created by the Natural Capital Coalition, a global multi-stakeholder collaboration bringing
together over 200 global initiatives and organisations, the protocol acknowledges that natural
capital impacts are often specific to the sector in which a business operates, and has developed an
apparel sector guide, though which refers specifically to clothing, excluding footwear and
accessories (Natural Capital Coalition 2016b).
Further, tools such as the Sustainable Apparel Coalition’s Higg Index, can also provide a first step to
understand the wider impacts of production based on the entire textiles value chain (Sustainable
Apparel Coalition 2021b). Such tools could also gather information from all industry efforts in one
place. Brands and manufacturers could use this to support sourcing decisions and to create
transparency on the impacts across their entire supply chain. Once the true value of production is
measured and understood, the textiles supply chain would be able to work collaboratively to find
solutions to better manage resources.
Find sources for renewable feedstock where resource input is needed
Move to renewable feedstock for plastic-based fibres
Bio-based or CO2-based feedstocks could offer a solution for avoiding fossil fuel inputs for plastic-
based fibres. Plastics can be made from biomass sources including plants, such as sugar cane or corn,
or from waste materials, such as waste vegetable oil, or from algae (Ellen MacArthur Foundation et
al. 2016: p. 92). Biomass feedstocks that create biodegradable plastics could potentially also offer a
solution to plastic microfibre release into the environment.
Move to regenerative farming methods for cotton and other cellulose-based fibres
In cotton production, non-renewable resource inputs can be reduced by introducing regenerative
agricultural practices, which minimise use of synthetic pesticides or fertilisers, and avoid other
negative impacts on natural systems.
Of particular interest are Viscose and similar cellulose-based fibres, which are mainly made from
wood, and sometimes contributing to the deforestation of ancient and endangered forests or
leading to the loss of habitats. In 2018 it was estimated that more than 150 million trees were
logged that year and turned into cellulosic fabric, a number which is expected to continue to double
about every five years (CanopyStyle 2018).
It is recommended that regenerative methods for sourcing cellulose materials be preferred, that
include agricultural crop residual materials, recycled cotton, and seeking out fast-growing plant
species that do not need prime agricultural land, such as hemp and flax, and can be farmed in a way
that makes them part of a thriving ecosystem (CanopyStyle 2021).
Developing new renewable materials suitable for a circular textile system
A common innovation agenda is required to optimally provide a clear vision and guidelines on the
direction for materials in a circular textile system. This needs to be guided by fashion company
brands, in collaboration with designers and material innovators, to align with their material
specifications.
Accelerator programmes, like Fashion for Good, could help coordinate these efforts, and connect
fashion company brands to small innovators (Fashion for Good 2018). Such efforts require an agenda
with a clear vision and guidelines on the direction for materials in a circular system. This needs to be
guided by brands, in collaboration with designers and material innovators, to align with their
material specifications.
49
To start, alternatives at small-scale are emerging from using waste products, such as by the Orange
Fiber company, which uses waste from orange juice production to make cellulose-based fibres,
which are formed into silk-like cellulose yarn that can blend with other materials (Orange Fiber
2021a). Italian high-fashion brand Salvatore Ferragamo has subsequently employed Orange Fiber in
producing one of its collections. Further, its product was utilised to produce apparels for the
‘Conscious Exclusive 2019’, the premium H&M collection made only with recycled and sustainable
materials Orange Fiber (2021b).
Similarly, QMilch uses leftover milk from dairy production to create casein-based fibres (Weebly.com
2019), AgraLoop uses food and agricultural crop waste to create cellulose-based fibres (Beach 2018)
and AlgaeFabrics makes cellulose-type fibres from algae (. Also, fashion company EcoAlf turns used
coffee grounds into fibres, though these are necessarily combined with recycled polyester or nylon
to make clothing (Ecoalf 2021).
Other explorations into new fibres include artificial silk fibres, such as by the Biosteel or Bolt Threads
companies. Luxury brand Stella McCartney has developed two demonstration outfits made from Bolt
Threads’ artificial silk, in 2017 (Wendlandt 2017), and started selling clothing containing the
innovative material in 2019 (Bolt Threads (2021). Bolt Threads also produces artificial leather, made
from materials produced by fungi, to form products that will be available from Adidas, Lululemon,
Stella McCartney, and more, starting in 2021 (Mylo 2020).
Remove barriers to adopting more efficient textiles production methods at scale
Brands and retailers have a significant opportunity to work collaboratively with their suppliers to
implement best practices.
Examples of reducing energy use, water use, and offcut waste already exist across the industry.
However, there are barriers to adopting them more widely, including low awareness of best
practices, a lack of technical skills to implement them, misaligned incentives in current pricing
schemes, and difficulties in funding investments. There are few incentives for suppliers to invest in
technologies to reduce their environmental footprints, or to improve production methods. This
situation occurs as decisions are often made from a short-term and cost optimisation perspective,
due to squeezed profit margins and the lack of long-standing relationships between buyers and
suppliers. Recycled materials are also available for textiles production, and have the potential to
reduce the input of non-renewable resources, yet they, too, suffer challenges for large-scale
adoption, including issues with quality and a lack of cost competitiveness.
However, Walmart, for example, made a public commitment that by 2017, 70 percent or more of
the products it sources directly from suppliers would come from factories with energy-management
plans. The company offers its suppliers software tools to help them find opportunities for using
energy and other resources more efficiently (Remy et al. 2016).
Making information on viable improvements more easily available, as well as closer cooperation
between brands and manufacturers, including long-term commitments towards improved resource
use, could help overcome these barriers.
Business cases exist for more efficient production methods
Significant opportunities exist to reduce the waste generated during the production of garments in
the form of offcuts of materials. It has been generally estimated that the waste in clothing
manufacturing is around 10 percent to 20 percent of the materials bought (Lau 2015). However, field
research analysing waste from seven garment factories concluded that, on average, 25 percent of
material is cut off during production (Reverse Resources 2017: p. 6). Further, in some cases even up
50
to 47 percent of the fibres and fabrics bought by a factory were wasted (Reverse Resources 2017: p.
7).
Fortunately, methods are being developed to reduce the offcuts through direct reuse in the
production process. An example of such a method is provided by Reverse Resources, which has
developed software that allows manufacturers to analyse and then reduce their offcuts (Reverse
Resources 2017). Analysis of such solutions suggests that a positive business case exists for both
manufacturers and buyers, though collaboration between the two is needed to overcome currently
misaligned incentives (Reverse Resources 2017: p. 9-10).
Business cases also exist for the reduction of energy and water use in production processes. This is
particularly true as volatile energy prices and increasing environmental and regulatory pressures
present a favourable context to shift towards more resource-efficient and renewable-based
production in order to increase cost-competitiveness (Global Fashion Agenda & The Boston
Consulting Group (2017).
Case studies conducted by the Georgia Technical Institute on air-jet weaving machines found that
reducing air leakage from 12 percent to 6 percent resulted in an expected electricity cost saving of
US $440,000 each year for a system operating 500 weaving machines (Hasanbeigi 2010: p. 28). One
example of a company succeeding with implementing substantial energy efficiency is Viyellatex
(Viyellatex 2013). Likewise, better water management can deliver cost and productivity
improvements and reduce risks to continued operations (Maxwell et al. 2016).
Innovate processes to use fewer resources
Innovation in production processes could additionally capture value by finding alternatives to
conventional chemical use, and also reduce energy use, water use, and waste.
Water can be reduced through process improvements during production and processing. Water-
saving practices in cotton production include avoiding areas where irrigation is needed and moving
to rain-fed production or, where irrigation is used, shifting from furrow to drip-fed irrigation: the
latter has been shown to achieve a 20 percent reduction in water use (Maxwell et al. 2016: p. 36).
Dyeing and finishing processes also require heavy use of water, for example to dissolve dyes or wash
fabrics afterwards. Mechanisation and water reuse technologies offer a first step to reducing water
use in the dyeing process (Maxwell et al. 2016: p. 37). Innovation towards low or zero water-use
processes for dyeing are emerging. Due to the need for water use during dyeing, such improved
processes can also result in energy or chemical reduction. For cotton, ColorZen offers pre-treatment
that modifies the chemical structure of cotton to make it more receptive to dye without the
discharge of hazardous substances and claims to reduce water use by 95 percent, and energy use by
75 percent, compared to conventional cotton treatment (Maxwell et al. 2016: p. 37).
Another innovator, DyeCoo has developed a disruptive technology called Drydye that does not use
any water and significantly reduces solvent use in the dyeing process, by using compressed carbon
dioxide as a solvent in a closed-loop system. Using this technique, 95 percent of the carbon dioxide
can be recovered and reused, and while the capital investment in the equipment is higher than for
conventional dyeing, it can reduce operating costs by 45 percent, due to energy savings of 50
percent (Maxwell et al. 2016: p. 38). Currently, the Drydye technology can only be used on plastic
based fibres, but dyes suitable for cotton are being investigated. While the current high capital cost
of installing the technology remains a barrier to large-scale adoption, some brands, such as Adidas
and Nike, have started to integrate waterless dyes into their collection (Hepburn 2015). This
51
increased uptake by major players will help to bring costs down and make such advances accessible
to a larger number of manufacturers.
Examples of successful innovation in manufacturing processes include the improved production of
cellulose-based fibres. The traditional viscose process uses large amounts of solvents to extract the
cellulose and transform it into fibres that can be spun into yarn. These solvents are hazardous, and
without proper treatment are lost during processing in factory effluents (Clean by Design 2012). The
lyocell process, in contrast, can recover more than 99 percent of the solvent and reuse it (Tencel
2020). The fibres emerging from both processes possess slightly different properties, but the overall
resource inputs, as well as leakage of chemicals, are significantly reduced.
Make viable improvements in production processes readily available to all garment and textile
manufacturers
Cross-value chain collaboration is needed for improving innovation to reach scale. To overcome the
high degree of fragmentation in the whole value chain, brands and retailers need to collaborate with
the people who are producing their clothing. Partnerships and shared investment opportunities
between innovators, brands, and manufacturers could identify and scale promising solutions that
would bring them to the mainstream market.
Brands can drive and support innovation in new technologies and materials through investment.
Currently, many brands and retailers are not allocating considerable budgets for research into
technologies and materials. Brands do perform R&D, as indicated by increasing numbers of patents
(Business of Fashion and McKinsey & Company 2019: p. 63), however, in general, R&D expenditure
tends to more dedicated to design and trend research, while less so into production technology.
Nevertheless, innovation can be particularly impactful in two areas: novel materials that avoid the
drawbacks of the current materials palette, and processes using fewer resources.
Increased transparency and information sharing through open-source platforms offers a route
towards rapid adoption of innovation and improved processes by sharing best practice examples
between a brand or retailer’s suppliers. This should be augmented by building trust through longer-
term relationships and potentially co-investing in technologies that improve output performance.
Knowledge could be made more readily available through the use of online toolboxes or platforms,
such as the Australasian Circular Textile Association, Euratex, European Technology Platform and
‘Energy Made-To-Measure’ platform, which gather best practice examples and makes these
available for free, including the aim of supporting Small to Medium Enterprises to reduce their
environmental footprints with attention to the circular textile economy (Australasian Circular Textile
Association 2021; Euratex 2019; European Technology Platform: Fibres Textiles Clothing 2021;
Energy Made-To-Measure 2021).
Move to joint investments and long-term collaboration between retailers and manufacturers
Brands that work with suppliers to implement process improvements will build trust and better
transparency on production processes. Despite potential long-term benefits, technological
improvements often require high upfront costs and involve long payback periods, which are seen as
too lengthy by some small manufacturers, particularly without guaranteed purchases in the future.
Mauro Scalia from the Euratex platform has highlighted the need for buyers and suppliers to work
together on process improvements because these, “can be difficult for a manufacturer with
revenues of under EUR 50 million [USD 59 million] to undertake alone, without the help of their
customers”. Building a collection of trusted suppliers can promote long-lasting relationships that
52
offer the opportunity to increase the consistency of quality while sharing the associated risks of
investments (Ellen Macarthur Foundation 2017: p. 116).
Fashion companies could also work with their suppliers to implement change and overcome barriers
of implementation. In the long run, this would benefit all parties, in the form of better margins from
energy efficiency and reduced reliance on non-renewable resources. This collaboration is needed, as
manufacturers hindered by a lack of knowledge, financial barriers, or low awareness of the
alternatives available, will struggle to create change in the production processes alone.
For example, Nike has launched a joint programme with its suppliers to implement best practices
and technologies along their supply chain. Contracted factories are measured on sustainability
performance, in addition to the traditional business metrics of quality, timely delivery, and cost (Nike
(2021). To measure sustainability, Nike created a Sustainable Manufacturing and Sourcing Index, to
assess environmental, health, safety, and labour practices, and performance, on a scale of red,
yellow, bronze, silver, and gold. By 2015, 86 percent of suppliers were rated bronze or better, which
was raised to 93 percent by 2019 (Nike 2020: p. 27). High-performing suppliers get access to training
in key areas to further improve their performance, including waste management, energy and water
efficiency, and implementation of lean practices (Nike 2021). This ‘pull’ model incentivises suppliers
to strive for the highest performance instead of just complying with minimum standards. This also
helps to create a generally more positive mindset towards improvements and efficiencies.
Conclusions and Recommendations
It is hard to imagine living in a world without textiles. Nearly everyone, everywhere comes into
contact with them nearly all the time, at home, work or in recreation. This is especially true of
clothing, the focus of this report.
Clothes provide comfort and protection, and for many represent an important expression of
individuality. The textiles industry is also a significant sector in the global economy, providing
employment for hundreds of millions around the world.
These benefits notwithstanding, the ways we design, produce, and use clothes have major
drawbacks that are becoming increasingly clear. The textiles system has mainly operated in an
almost completely linear way: large amounts of non-renewable resources are extracted to produce
clothes that are often used for only a short time, after which the vast volumes of materials are
mostly sent to landfill or incinerated.
More than US $500 billion of value is lost every year due to clothing underutilisation and the lack of
recycling. Furthermore, this make-buy-dispose linear model has substantially major negative
environmental and societal impacts. For instance, total greenhouse gas emissions from textiles
production, at 1.2 billion tonnes annually, are more than those of all international flights and
maritime shipping combined. Hazardous substances affect the health of both textile workers and
wearers of clothes, and they escape to negatively impact the environment. In addition, when
washed, most garments release microfibres, of which around half a million tonnes every year
contribute to ocean pollution, with increasing the risk of damage to marine organisms.
Yet, trends point to these negative impacts rising inexorably, with the potential for catastrophic
outcomes in future. This linear system is ripe for disruption.
53
How the fashion and clothing industry can do better
This report outlines a vision for a system that works, delivering long-term benefits, from a new
textile circular economy based on the principles of a circular economy. To achieve this vision a
collective approach is needed to meet six major requirements, to:
1. Phase out substances of concern and microfibre release.
2. Implement safer and better employment conditions.
3. More flexibly meet demand by providing more options for the way clothes are sold or
rented, to break free from their increasingly disposable nature.
4. Radically improve durability, reuse and recycling by transforming clothing design.
5. Radically improve recycling and collection systems.
6. Make more effective use of resources and move to renewable inputs.
This vision offers a sustainable direction of track on which the industry, stakeholders and consumers
can agree and focus their collective efforts. In a new textile circular economy, clothes, textiles, and
fibres are kept at their highest value during use and re-enter the economy afterwards, never
significantly ending up as waste.
Complementary to this vision are ongoing efforts to make the textile system more sustainable by
minimising its negative environmental and social impacts. With specific emphasis on innovation
towards a sustainable system, a new textile circular economy that presents an opportunity to deliver
substantially better societal and environmental as well as economic outcomes. Better social out
outcomes for workers will involve more focus on their universal human rights.
Transforming the industry to usher in a new textile circular economy requires system-level change
with an unprecedented degree of commitment, collaboration, and innovation. Existing activities
focused on sustainability or partial aspects of the circular economy should be complemented by a
concerted, global approach that matches the scale of the opportunity. That is, to inclusively include
clothing companies and suppliers in both developed and developing countries.
Such an approach would rally all clothing industry players, from global companies to local boutique
designers and other stakeholders, including charities that collect second-hand clothing, and
consumers, behind the objective of a new textile circular economy. Then to set ambitious joint
commitments, kick-start joint-value chain demonstrator projects, and orchestrate and reinforce
complementary initiatives, particularly through national industry clothing associations. Maximising
the potential for success would require establishing a coordinated agenda that guarantees alignment
and the pace of delivery necessary.
What you can do personally
As an individual you can significantly help improve sustainability of the clothing industry. To buy less,
choose well, make clothing last (including repair), minimise transfer of clothing microfibres to the
environment, and give quality clothes you don’t need to others.
Further, you to consider buying clothes from fashion companies that have strong ethical and
environmental policies.
54
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... Further designed obsolescence, for instance in 'fast fashion', is designed to increase wants (Rouch 2021a). The production that supplies these goods and services, since it is perceived to render undiminished utility, also remains of undiminished importance (Galbraith 1998: p. 121). ...
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