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Autobiographical memory 1
Short title: autobiographical memory
“Look at me”:
eye movements during autobiographical retrieval in face-to-face interactions
Quentin LENOBLE 1, 2
Mohamad EL HAJ 3, 4, 5
1 Univ. Lille, CNRS, CHU Lille, UMR 9193 - SCALab - Sciences Cognitives et
Sciences Affectives, F-59000 Lille, France
2 Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 - LilNCog - Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-
59000 Lille, France
3 Nantes Université, Univ Angers, Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (LPPL -
EA 4638), F-44000 Nantes, France
4 Unité de Gériatrie, Centre Hospitalier de Tourcoing, Tourcoing, France
5 Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
Correspondence concerning this manuscript should be addressed to :
Mohamad EL HAJ
Faculté de Psychologie, LPPL – Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire, Université
de Nantes, Chemin de la Censive du Tertre, BP 81227, 44312 Nantes Cedex 3, France. E-
Mail: mohamad.elhaj@univ-nantes.fr
Autobiographical memory 2
There has been a surge in social cognition and social neurosciences research comparing
laboratory and real eye movements. Eye movements during retrieval of autobiographical
memories (i.e., personal memories) in laboratory situations is also receiving more attention.
We compared eye movements during retrieval of autobiographical memories using a strict
laboratory design vs. a design mimicking social interactions. In the first design, eye movement
were recorded during autobiographical memory retrieval while participants were looking at a
blank screen; in the second design, participants wore eye-tracking glasses and communicated
autobiographical memories to the experimenter. Compared with the “screen” design, the
“glasses” design yielded more fixations (p < .05), shorter duration of fixations (p < .001), more
saccades (p < .01), and longer duration of saccades (p < .001). These findings demonstrate how
eye movements during autobiographical memory retrieval differ between strict laboratory
design and face-to-face interactions.
Keywords: autobiographical memory; eye movements; fixations; saccades
Autobiographical memory 3
Autobiographical memory refers to the recollection of past personal experiences
(Conway, 2005; Rubin, 2005). At the physiological and behavioral level, autobiographical
memory has been associated with particular neural substrates (Bauer, Pathman, Inman,
Campanella, & Hamann, 2017; St Jacques, Carpenter, Szpunar, & Schacter, 2017; Svoboda,
McKinnon, & Levine, 2006), particular cardiovascular and electrodermal activities (Labouvie-
Vief, Lumley, Jain, & Heinze, 2003; Robertson, Swickert, Connelly, & Galizio, 2015; Schaefer
& Philippot, 2005), and particular activities in facial expressions (El Haj, Antoine, & Nandrino,
2016, 2017; El Haj, Daoudi, Gallouj, Moustafa, & Nandrino, 2018; Gandolphe et al., 2017).
Autobiographical memory has also been studied with respect to eye movements. This paper
extends these studies by assessing eye movements during autobiographical retrieval in
naturalistic vs. laboratory settings.
Eye movements during autobiographical memory retrieval was previously evaluated in
a study in which participants were invited to retrieve autobiographical memories, and, in a
control condition, to count aloud; an eye-tracker recorded the scan path of participants in both
conditions (El Haj et al., 2014). Analysis demonstrated a lower number of fixations but a higher
number, longer amplitude, and longer duration of saccades during autobiographical memory
retrieval than during counting. Eye movements activity, as observed during autobiographical
memory retrieval, was attributed to the attempt of the visual system to create and manipulate
mental representations of the retrieved memories (El Haj et al., 2014). A similar assumption
was made in a study comparing eye movements during retrieval of neutral autobiographical
memories and emotional autobiographical memories (El Haj, Nandrino, Antoine, Boucart, &
Lenoble, 2017). Participants were asked to remember emotional autobiographical memories
and neutral autobiographical memories while their scan path was recorded by an eye-tracker.
Analysis demonstrated that autobiographical emotional memories triggered more fixations and
saccades but shorter fixation duration than neutral autobiographical memories. Another study
Autobiographical memory 4
compared eye movements during retrieval of autobiographical memories and during future
thinking (El Haj & Lenoble, 2017). Participants were invited to retrieve autobiographical
memories and to imagine future scenarios while their scan path was recorded by an eye-tracker.
Autobiographical memory retrieval and future thinking were accompanied by similar durations
of fixations and saccades, as well as by similar amplitudes of saccades. The fixations and
saccades during autobiographical memory retrieval were attributed to attempts by the visual
system to find (through saccades) and activate (through fixations) stored memory
representations.
While the previous literature has highlighted how autobiographical memory retrieval
activates eye movements, its experimental design does not allow firm conclusions about eye
movements to be made, as it may occur during autobiographical memory retrieval in everyday
interactions. Until now (El Haj, Boutoleau-Bretonnière, & Janssen, 2020; El Haj et al., 2014;
El Haj & Lenoble, 2017; El Haj, Nandrino, et al., 2017; Lenoble, Janssen, & El Haj, 2018),
participants had to retrieve autobiographical memories while looking at a blank screen/wall
under which the eye-tracker was positioned. While this design is useful to record eye
movements in a restricted visual field (i.e., the screen), it does not accurately reflect
autobiographical memory retrieval in everyday interactions. Autobiographical memory is
typically retrieved to share and communicate our personal experiences with others in social
interactions. (Bartoli & Smorti, 2018; Bluck, Alea, Habermas, & Rubin, 2005; Fivush,
Habermas, Waters, & Zaman, 2011; Mahr & Csibra, 2017; Nelson & Fivush, 2004). It therefore
follows that eye movements during autobiographical memory retrieval may be better
understood with an experimental design mimicking these face-to-face interactions.
Thanks to recent advances in eye movements technology, it is now possible to record
gaze in face-to-face interactions; eye-tracking glasses can be used to track and record gaze in
these interactions. The face-to-face approach, as implemented in our study, can be compared
Autobiographical memory 5
with the research in social cognition and social neurosciences comparing eye movements in
laboratory vs. everyday interactions. For instance, Laidlaw, Foulsham, Kuhn, and Kingstone
(2011) compared participants’ tendency to look at other people in a video and in live conditions.
Participants wearing a head-mounted eye-tracker were instructed to wait in a room. For half of
the participants, there was a person sitting in the room and for the other half there was a
videotape of the same person. The study therefore compared gaze in the room where the
potential for social interaction existed or not. Results demonstrated that participants looked at
the person, as depicted in the videotape, for a longer duration than when the person was present.
Eye movements in social interactions was also evaluated by Wu, Bischof, and Kingstone
(2014) who evaluated how participants gazed to provide information to other people while
eating. Participants tended to 1) look away when a person began to bite 2) look down at their
food just before taking a bite, and 3) look down when a person looked down, signaling that a
bite was forthcoming. These findings demonstrate how eye movement can be influenced by
social norms (e.g., looking away when people eat). Building on these findings, we implemented
in this study an experimental design in which eye movements was recorded while participants
shared autobiographical memories with the experimenter. In our view, this face-to-face design
may yield better understanding of eye movements as triggered by autobiographical retrieval in
social interactions.
To summarize, eye movements during autobiographical retrieval may be better
understood by using experimental designs in which social interactions are mimicked. We
therefore compared 1) data from our previous study (El Haj & Lenoble, 2017) in which eye
movements was recorded during autobiographical memory retrieval while participants were
looking at a blank screen (i.e., screen design) vs. 2) data recollected in the present study in
which participants wore eye-tracking glasses and communicated autobiographical memories to
the experimenter (i.e., glasses design). We expected significant differences in eye movement
Autobiographical memory 6
between the “screen” and “glasses” design. More specifically, we expected more fixations and
saccades in the “glasses” that in the “screen” design, probably because participants would have
a richer environment to explore in the “glasses” than in the “screen” condition. Our hypothesis
aimed to throw light on the following issue: are eye movements different when triggered by
autobiographical memory retrieval in a strict laboratory design and in a design mimicking
social interactions?
Method
Participants
The study included 35 graduate/undergraduate students at the University of Lille. The
study aimed at comparing 1) data from our previous study (El Haj & Lenoble, 2017) in which
we recorded the eye movements of 18 participants (10 females, M age = 23.89 years, SD =
6.62, M education = 14.72 years, SD = 5.13) during autobiographical memory while they were
looking at a blank screen (“screen condition”), and 2) data collected in the present study in
which 17 participants (10 females, M age = 24.09 years, SD = 6.11, M education = 14.92 years,
SD = 4.87) wore eye-tracking glasses and communicated autobiographical memories to the
experimenter (“glasses condition”). All participants were native French speakers. Exclusion
criteria were a history of psychiatric or neurological disorders. Informed consent was obtained
in accordance with the principles laid down by the Helsinki Declaration. The participants
recruited for the present study were matched with those from our previous study according to
sex ratio [χ2(1, N = 35) = .21, p > .10], age [t(33) = .14, p > .10], and educational level [t(33) =
.15, p > .10]. The two groups were also matched according to verbal episodic memory as
evaluated by the test of Grober and Buschke (1987). In this test, participants try to retain 16
words, each describing an item belonging to a different semantic category. After a 20-second
distraction phase, they recall as many words as possible, the maximum score being 16 points.
Autobiographical memory 7
The mean score of the participants in the “screen” and “glasses” conditions was 13.03 (SD =
2.31) and 13.50 (SD = 3.31) [t(33) = .23, p > .10], respectively. We matched the two groups
regarding verbal memory to ensure that any differences in eye movement between the “screen”
and “glasses” would not be influenced by differences in memory encoding/retrieval.
Procedures and materials
As early emphasized, procedures consisted of two conditions: a “screen” condition and
a “glasses” condition. Although procedures of the “screen” condition are detailed in our
previous study (El Haj & Lenoble, 2017), we provide here a concise summary. Participants
were seated in front of a 21-inch flat blank-displayed screen, under which an eye-tracker was
positioned. The eye-tracker was a remote pupil-tracking system that uses infrared illumination
(RED-m, Senso-Motoric Instruments) with a gaze position accuracy of < 0.1°. Participants
were free to explore all parts of the screen and were asked not to look outside its borders, their
gaze location being recorded throughout. Prior to each autobiographical retrieval, calibration
was checked by displaying five successive test positions (center, top-left, top-right, bottom-
left, bottom-right).
In the “glasses” condition, participants wore SMI (Senso-Motoric Instruments,
Germany) eye-tracking glasses. These glasses are binocular, thereby allowing pupil dilation to
be recorded by two infrared cameras (one for each eye) integrated in the inner eyeglass frame.
The pupils are tracked by infrared illumination (RED-m, Senso-Motoric Instruments) with a
gaze position accuracy of < 0.1°. We performed a 1-point calibration for each subject.
Participants were seated in front of the experimenter, there was a white wall behind the
experimenter, and the distance between the subjects and experimenter was approximately 30
to 40 cm. As mentioned above, this face-to-face design mimicked remembering in everyday
life, since autobiographical memory mainly serves to communicate and share personal
Autobiographical memory 8
experiences (Fivush et al., 2011; Mahr & Csibra, 2017; Nelson & Fivush, 2004; Westerhof,
Bohlmeijer, & Webster, 2010).
The lightness of the room (60-watt fluorescent lamp) was the same in both conditions
to ensure that differences in eye movements were not caused by differences in retinal
illumination. We used BeGaze software (Senso-Motoric Instruments) to analyze the data. In
both conditions, participants were tested individually and were informed that the experiment
was concerned with memory, in order not to influence their performance. They were not
provided with any further details about the relationship between autobiographical memory and
eye movements.
In both conditions, participants were invited to verbally generate one autobiographical
memory. They were asked to remember a personal event in detail. The event had to be
experienced personally in the past, and the description had to be precise and specific (e.g.,
when and where the event occurred, what they were doing during it, who was present, what
their feelings were, etc.). Two minutes was allocated to generate each autobiographical
memory, and the duration was made clear so that the participants could structure their
memories accordingly.
Variables
We calculated the number of fixations, fixation duration, number of saccades, saccade
duration, and total amplitude. Fixation and saccade counts were expressed as the number of
fixation or saccades per minute. We applied a ratio, because the retrieval of some participants
ended before the two-minute interval was over. Average fixation and saccade durations were
expressed as the mean duration of fixation/saccades in milliseconds. Total amplitude size was
expressed as the total angle covered by the saccades. Blinks were identified by the typical loss
of corneal reflection and were automatically excluded from the data. Gazes were also excluded
when the horizontal deviation of gaze exceeded 2° (5% of our dataset). Besides eye movements
Autobiographical memory 9
variables, we measured the total duration of recording in order to determine whether the two
conditions had triggered a similar reconstruction time.
Results
We compared the characteristics of eye movements between both conditions. Because
data were not distributed normally as observed by Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests, the non-
parametric Mann-Whitney U test for between-subject designs was used to compare the results.
When reporting significant values, we provided effect sizes by using Cohen’s d (Cohen, 1992):
0.20 = small, 0.50 = medium, 0.80 = large. Cohen’s d was calculated for non-parametric tests
according to the recommendations of Rosenthal and DiMatteo (2001) and Ellis (2010).
Eye movements.
Eye movements data is summarized in Table 1. Compared with the “screen” condition,
the “glasses” condition triggered more fixations (Z = -1.96, p < .05, Cohen’s d = .70), shorter
duration of fixations (Z = -3.89, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 1.80), more saccades (Z = -2.66, p <
.01, Cohen’s d = .89), and longer duration of saccades (Z = -4.98, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 3.16).
However, amplitude of saccades (Z = -1.55, p = .12, Cohen’s d = .52) and duration of recording
(Z = -.22, p > .1, Cohen’s d = .07) were similar in both conditions.
[INSERT TABLE 1 APPROXIMATELY HERE]
Discussion
We investigated eye movements during autobiographical memory retrieval as it may
occur in everyday interactions. Eye movements were compared in two conditions: when
participants retrieved autobiographical memories while looking at screen under which eye-
tracker was positioned vs. when they wore eye-tracking glasses and communicated
autobiographical memories to the experimenter. The “glasses” condition triggered more
fixations, shorter duration of fixations, more saccades, and longer duration of saccades.
However, amplitude of saccades was similar in both conditions.
Autobiographical memory 10
The main finding of this paper was the significant differences in eye movements, except
for the amplitude of saccades, between both conditions. More fixations and saccades were
observed in the “glasses” condition. In other words, during autobiographical memory retrieval,
participants explored the environment more when wearing eye-tracking glasses than when
looking at the screen. This might be because they had a richer environment to explore in the
“glasses” condition. When wearing the glasses, they were exposed to more stimuli (e.g., the
experimenter), so this triggered more visual exploration than when looking at the screen. The
higher number saccades in the “glasses” condition can also be attributed to a potential shift in
gaze from the experimenter to the environment, perhaps due to the need to look at nothing
when retrieving memories. According to Ferreira, Apel, and Henderson (2008), looking at
nothing is important for the visual system to find and activate stored memory representations.
In this view, fixations reflect the attempt to activate memories. This shift can also be attributed
to the emotional weight of memories, participants preferring to look away when retrieving
emotional material. However, this is only hypothetical as we did not ask them to retrieve
emotional memories.
Participants also demonstrated shorter fixations but longer saccades when wearing the
glasses. These findings mirror previous research in which participants looked at the person in
a video for longer than when the person was present (Laidlaw et al., 2011). In normal social
interactions, staring at others may be interpreted as infringing specific moral and social codes
(e.g., staring at others may be interpreted as intimidatory). For example, Wu et al. (2014)
demonstrated how we tend to look away when a person begins to bite. They found that social
codes may shape eye movements in face-to-face interactions, so it is likely that these social
codes shaped eye movements when our participants told memories to the experimenter.
Therefore, these social codes might result in shorter fixation times, as observed in our
participants when wearing the glasses. Furthermore, in the “glasses” conditions, the relatively
Autobiographical memory 11
short duration of fixations was accompanied by longer saccades, so the participants spent more
time exploring the environment than staring at it. The opposite was observed in the “screen”
condition with longer saccades and shorter duration of staring. When wearing the glasses,
participants might have benefited from a richer environment to explore than when looking at
the blank screen, so they probably spent more time staring at it.
Because the “glasses” condition triggered longer saccades than the “screen” condition,
it was reasonable to expect that their amplitude would be longer with the glasses. In terms of
their spatiotemporal dynamics, saccades tend to be larger in conditions of unconstrained action
than in the laboratory (Hart et al., 2009). In our study, although the amplitude of saccades was
longer in the “glasses” than in the “screen” condition, the difference was not significant,
probably because the two conditions involved different subjects or even because of the
relatively small sample size. Despite this sample size, however, all other effects (e.g., number
of fixations and saccades) had a satisfactory effect size. Another aspect to be considered is the
potential effect of the glasses regarding the comfortability of participants with this
measurement tool, although this effect is probably small owing to the light design on the glasses
(e.g., their tiny weight = 22.75 gram).
Regardless of the potential limitations of this study, its findings pave the way for new
research into the effects of social interactions on eye movements during retrieval of
autobiographical memory. One avenue would be to assess mutual gaze during autobiographical
retrieval by utilizing two pairs of glasses to track the gaze of the transmitter and receiver of the
memory. This would build upon the work of Kendon (1967) who identified a general
asymmetry in the behavior of speakers and recipients; whereas recipients tend to maintain their
gaze on speakers, the latter tend to alternate their gaze toward and away from recipients as they
speak. Supporting this assumption, Ho, Foulsham, and Kingstone (2015) used eye-tracking
glasses and demonstrated that participants tended to begin a speaking turn with an averted gaze
Autobiographical memory 12
and ended the turn with a direct gaze toward the receiver. These findings could be investigated
by testing autobiographical retrieval in face-to-face interactions. Future research could also
assess mutual gaze for emotional memories as they may trigger more mutual gaze than neutral
ones. Such research would demonstrate how eye movements during autobiographical memory
retrieval is a two-way process in which each person signals as well as reads gaze information
during retrieval. This would be crucial to understanding the social function of autobiographical
memory.
To summarize, laboratory investigations of memory offer only a limited view of how
the real world functions. The present study sought to understand eye movements during
retrieval of autobiographical memory using a design mimicking face-to-face interactions.
Thanks to the use of eye-tracking glasses, we found that eye movements during retrieval of
autobiographical memory in face-to-face interactions differs from that observed in previous
research in which participants retrieved autobiographical memories while looking at a screen.
The differences in eye movements between the “glasses” and “screen” conditions may reflect
the freedom of immersed participants in the “glasses” condition to move their head and eyes
and the social constraints involved when telling memories to other people. By reporting these
differences and suggesting their potential causes, our paper provides an insight into the eye
movements triggered by the retrieval of autobiographical memory in social interactions. It also
paves the way for new research into eye movements, and more generally into non-verbal
communication, during autobiographical memory retrieval.
Autobiographical memory 13
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Autobiographical memory 15
Table 1. Characteristics of eye movements in both conditions
Screen
Glasses
Fixation count per min
98.44 (30.27)
153.76 (93.56)*
Fixation duration in ms
593.66 (312.83)
377.25 (158.68)***
Saccade count per min
95.22 (29.02)
160.24 (70.89)*
Saccade duration in ms
35.15 (13.93)
121.52 (38.55) ***
Total amplitude of saccades
1173.23 (938.65)
1549.75 (547.71) ns
Duration of recording in msec
85327.11 (29622.13)
88543.22 (32212.11) ns
Note. Standard deviations are given between brackets; maximum duration of recording was
120 000 msec; the difference with the following group was significant at: *p < .05, **p < .01; ns
the difference with the following group was not significant.
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