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Effects of Judo on Neurocognitive Indices of Response Inhibition in Preadolescent Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Abstract
Introduction: Although exercise is suggested to benefit inhibitory control in children and adolescents, the current evidence is limited to exercise-induced improvements for its interference control subtype. In contrast, the potential of exercise to facilitate response inhibition still remains unclear. However, the neurocognitive profile of martial arts athletes suggests that this sports category promises benefits for cognitive control processes related to response inhibition. The present randomized controlled trial therefore examined the effects of judo on behavioral and neurocognitive indices of response inhibition (N2, P3a, P3b) in preadolescent children.
Methods: Participants (N=44) were randomly allocated to a martial arts group, who completed 120 min judo per week over three months, and a wait-list control group. At baseline and follow-up, participants completed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and a physical work capacity test on a bicycle ergometer (PWC170). Additionally, a computerized Go/NoGo task with simultaneous electroencephalographic recordings was administered.
Results: In the martial arts group, a greater decrease in NoGo error rate and a higher increase of NoGo N2 amplitude was found in comparison to the control group. These behavioral and neurocognitive changes were correlated. In contrast to N2, the P3a/b amplitude, MABC-2 and PWC170 did not change differently between groups over the intervention period.
Conclusions: The present findings indicate that judo promises benefits for response inhibition that are independent of alterations in motor skills and cardiorespiratory fitness. A change towards more effective conflict monitoring seems to underlie this improvement in cognitive performance.
... It's noteworthy that participants with no previous experience in any form of combat sports or martial arts, at least in the previous three months, were recruited for these interventions. The reviewed studies comprised varied participant samples, including two studies involving healthy individuals (Lo et al., 2019;Ludyga et al., 2021), two studies with children and adolescents diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Ludyga et al., , 2023, one study examining participants with intellectual disabilities (Davis & Byrd, 1975), and one study involving Hispanic immigrant adolescents identified as predelinquent (Fleisher et al., 1995). All the interventional studies were randomised controlled trials, except for those by Lo et al. ...
... The interventional studies used a sample of 370 children and adolescents (8 to 16 years, boys: 62%). The duration of interventions varied, ranging from 8 weeks (Lo et al., 2019) to 12 weeks (Davis & Byrd, 1975;Ludyga et al., 2021Ludyga et al., , 2022Ludyga et al., , 2023, with the longest intervention extending up to one year (Fleisher et al., 1995). The intervention protocols lasted from 24 (Lo et al., 2019;Ludyga et al., 2021Ludyga et al., , 2022Ludyga et al., , 2023 to 36 sessions (Davis & Byrd, 1975) with moderate intensity (RPE ≈ 13) in studies that reported it (Ludyga et al., 2021(Ludyga et al., , 2023, each lasting 60 minutes, and was conducted over a period of 2 or 3 months. ...
... The duration of interventions varied, ranging from 8 weeks (Lo et al., 2019) to 12 weeks (Davis & Byrd, 1975;Ludyga et al., 2021Ludyga et al., , 2022Ludyga et al., , 2023, with the longest intervention extending up to one year (Fleisher et al., 1995). The intervention protocols lasted from 24 (Lo et al., 2019;Ludyga et al., 2021Ludyga et al., , 2022Ludyga et al., , 2023 to 36 sessions (Davis & Byrd, 1975) with moderate intensity (RPE ≈ 13) in studies that reported it (Ludyga et al., 2021(Ludyga et al., , 2023, each lasting 60 minutes, and was conducted over a period of 2 or 3 months. Studies reported adherence was >80% (n=3/5 studies, 60%) and consistently showed low attrition rates (<10%) (n=3/5 studies, 60%) (Ludyga et al., 2021(Ludyga et al., , 2023. ...
This scoping review aims to map existing evidence on the effects of judo and wrestling on cognitive performance in youth. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) was followed, retrieving documents from inception up to March 2025. The search encompassed six electronic databases: Web of Science, SCOPUS, PubMed, Sport Discus, ERIC, and PsycInfo; and other identification methods. Eligible studies included original studies involving judo or Olympic wrestling practices, with or without control groups, acute or chronic, of both sexes, age >6 and <18 years old, from any competitive level. Quantitative assessments of executive functions, cognitive performance, or academic achievement were required for inclusion. A total of 1368 studies were initially identified, and after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 10 articles were included in this scoping review, encompassing a combined sample of 683 participants (50% males). As a result, despite the heterogeneous nature of interventions with varying types and characteristics, the studies consistently revealed a positive association between judo or wrestling practice and behavioral and neurocognitive variables. Notwithstanding, it is essential to note that the suboptimal overall quality of the included studies. The findings suggest potential executive function benefits from judo or wrestling in youth. However, results require cautious interpretation due to limited rigorous research. Future studies should examine dose-response relationships considering age, maturation, experience, and include active control groups.
... The outcomes shown in Table 2 refer to the examined motor competence (MC)the overall, locomotor, and/or object control skills observed in JG, RG, and CG [30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45]. The authors of the 16 studies analyzed in the review used a research methodology that involved various assessment tools-MC tests and tests based on fundamental motor skills. ...
... The authors of the 16 studies analyzed in the review used a research methodology that involved various assessment tools-MC tests and tests based on fundamental motor skills. A battery of ten motor tests was repeated in two studies only [32,33], and the authors of two other studies applied the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (MABC-2) [44,45]. The most important observed results are shown below. ...
... Shorter interventions, for example, of 3.5-6 months, also brought some effects, especially in the areas of muscular endurance [38,42]. Only two interventions, lasting 3 and 8 months, respectively, showed no significant effect [43,44]. The best results were achieved with training 2-3 times per week, for a minimum of 45 to 90 min per session [32,33,37]. ...
Background: Physical activity, including its organized form, is of key importance in the motor development of children and adolescents. Among the increasingly popular physical activities in this age group are martial arts, particularly judo. In addition to its educational and social values, this discipline, in its assumptions, gives practitioners the opportunity for motor development. This study aims to assess the development of motor competence in children and adolescents up to 15 years of age practicing judo. Methods: The study was conducted using seven databases (Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, Embase, OVID, CINHAL Ultimate and SPOLIT) across 15 years (from January 2009 to May 2024). The PRISMA methodology was used to include studies, and the CASP protocol was applied to assess the quality of these studies. Inclusion criteria were developed based on PICOS. Finally, 22 studies that met the established criteria were included. Results: Most of the studies (21) were observational, and only one was a randomized controlled trial. The review indicated that regular judo training significantly improved muscle strength, endurance, speed, coordination, flexibility, balance and body posture compared to control groups. In contrast to some other sports, judo demonstrated comparable benefits in the development of motor abilities. Conclusions: Judo is a sport discipline that significantly affects the motor development of children and adolescents. Furthermore, regular participation in training helps to achieve the daily dose of moderate-to-vigorous activity recommended by the World Health Organization in this age group.
... School practitioners in the study by Triki et al. [23], at the age of ten, trained in judo four times per week for 90 min. In Ludygaet al. [24], judokas with an average age of ten practised twice per week for 60 min. The judokas in Jankowicz-Szymanska et al.'s [25] and Maślinski et al.'s [26] studies were aged 11-12 and received judo lessons three times per week for 90 min. ...
... The last 5-10 min are devoted to active regeneration. Ludyga et al. [24] also present a programme for school children beginning judo at an average age of ten. Each judo session consists of playful physical fitness exercises and judo techniques, including falling techniques and Randori (fighting). ...
... Furthermore, analysing the available data [3,16,17,20,21] on the length and frequency of the training itself, the training time for preschool children (4-6 years) is between 30 min and up to even 60 min with a frequency of 2-3 times per week. At school age, authors [23][24][25][26] recommend extending the time from 45 to 90 min with a frequency of 3-4 times per week. ...
When organising judo training for children, it is essential to ensure maximum safety, and use an appropriate training methodology adapted to the age of the youngest judo athletes. This paper aims to review the current literature containing judo training principles and safety-related considerations for preschool (4–6 years) and school-age (7–12 years) children as an organised physical activity. Data were collected until October 2021 from eight international scientific databases (PubMed, Scopus, UpToDate, Web of Science, Cochrane, EBSCOhost, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar). In the overviews, we found various times and frequencies of judo training for children. In preschool, the training time was 30–60 min with a frequency of 2–3 times per week, whereas in the school-age group, the training time was extended from 45 to 90 min 3–4 times per week. The most common injuries included upper arm injuries, followed by those of the lower limbs. In the future, it would be an advantage to systematise the methodology of judo training as an organised form of physical activity that can complement the daily dose of exercises recommended by the World Health Organization for maintaining children’s general health.
... Born at the end of the XIX century in a period of strong societal changes in Japan, judo was developed by Professor Jigoro Kano as an existential educational discipline [25,35]. Because of its multifaceted nature, judo can be considered a tool of (i) physical education, where techniques-both in structured (i.e., kata) and free (i.e., randori) practice-build physical competence [31][32][33]; (ii) cognitive achievement, as practitioners learn to read opponents and respond effectively, maturing mental agility, strategic thinking, and adaptability [16,61,[65][66][67]; and (iii) social and moral development, since its values of "gentleness" (jū) and mutual welfare and benefit (jita kyōei) guide behaviours both on and off the mat [18,43,53,68,69]. Overview of guidelines for intergenerational judo activities based on the judo fundamentals [25], systematic literature reviews [43,[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64], and online judo courses contents and methods [38,40] ...
... Born at the end of the XIX century in a period of strong societal changes in Japan, judo was developed by Professor Jigoro Kano as an existential educational discipline [25,35]. Because of its multifaceted nature, judo can be considered a tool of (i) physical education, where techniques-both in structured (i.e., kata) and free (i.e., randori) practice-build physical competence [31][32][33]; (ii) cognitive achievement, as practitioners learn to read opponents and respond effectively, maturing mental agility, strategic thinking, and adaptability [16,61,[65][66][67]; and (iii) social and moral development, since its values of "gentleness" (jū) and mutual welfare and benefit (jita kyōei) guide behaviours both on and off the mat [18,43,53,68,69]. This umbrella review synthesised 16 systematic literature reviews published in the last 10 years (2013-2024), drawing insights from a vast sample size (n = 372,655). ...
In alignment with European policies regarding intergenerational sports, this study seeks to integrate existing evidence- (i.e., umbrella review) and eminence- (i.e., international validated educational courses for coaches) based knowledge on judo training across the lifespan. For evidence knowledge, searches of the Google Scholar, ISI-WoS, PubMed, and Scopus databases (PROSPERO ID: CRD42024535420) for studies focused on training youth and older judo practitioners, with no time restriction up to April 2024, were conducted. This resulted in 16 systematic reviews meeting the inclusion criteria, with an “excellent” (n = 6), “good” (n = 7), and “fair” (n = 3) quality according to the NIH tool. With a large sample size (n = 372,655), the reviews focused on wellbeing (n = 9; bone status, injuries, and psychophysical effects) and performance (n = 7; athlete success, combat time, rapid weight loss, and the Special Judo Fitness Test), examining athletic levels (novices to Olympics), sex, and age (children to older adults). For eminence knowledge, the International Judo Federation Academy courses encompassed the “Undergraduate Certificate as Judo Instructor” (UCJI), which provides a comprehensive structure for teaching judo, including techniques, moral code, roles, responsibilities, refereeing, safety, and age-specific belt examination requirements and progression, and the “Educating Judo Coaches for Older Practitioners” (EdJCO) curricula, which provide theoretical and applied modules (e.g., ageing, health, and organisation) to train older judo practitioners. The findings were summarised in a framework, highlighting the most relevant aspects of intergenerational judo programmes (i.e., aims, key characteristics, coaches’ roles, barriers, and facilitators). To develop a comprehensive educational intergenerational judo methodology, future research should examine coaches’ and practitioners’ opinions on intergenerational judo activities carried out in different national contexts.
... 15,16 This may be explained by an altered neurocognitive profile as in previous experimental trials, improvements in children's behavioral performance were accompanied by greater effectiveness of conflict monitoring processes following physical activity interventions. 17,18 Similarly, higher aerobic fitness has been related to more flexible upregulation of conflict monitoring on tasks with higher relative to lower inhibitory demands. 19,20 Given that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) is related to aerobic fitness, 21 this intensity range may be crucial for adaptations in conflict monitoring. ...
... We further examined whether event-related potential components indexing conflict monitoring and resolution (i.e., N200, PSW) underlie stress-induced changes in behavioral performance on the inhibitory control task. Based on previous findings, 17,18,27 we expected children with higher levels of MVPA to show less pronounced impairments in inhibitory control and a mediation of this relation by N200 or PSW amplitudes. ...
Background
Evaluation stress can impair inhibitory control, limiting the ability of children to perform cognitively. However, evidence on protective factors is lacking as stress-induced cognitive impairments are poorly understood. High physical activity has been related to better inhibitory control and has the potential to buffer the response to a stressor. We investigated the association of physical activity and stress-induced changes in inhibitory control as well as its underlying cognitive control processes (i.e., conflict monitoring and resolution).
Method
Participants (10 to 13 y) with either low (N = 55) or high moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (N = 55) completed the Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C) and a control task in a randomized order. During both conditions, salivary cortisol was collected. Additionally, a computerized Stroop task was administered before and after the experimental conditions. The N200 and positive slow wave (PSW) components of event-related potentials elicited by the Stroop task were recorded using electroencephalography.
Results
In comparison to the control task, the TSST-C elicited a pre-to post-test decrease of accuracy on incompatible trials. Path-analyses further revealed that this decrease was related to low physical activity and a reduced PSW amplitude. However, both the N200 and PSW amplitudes did not mediate the relation between physical activity groups and performance on the Stroop task.
Conclusion
In children, evaluation stress decreases inhibitory control partly due to a reduced effectiveness of conflict resolution processes. Only children with high physical activity maintain inhibitory control after facing the stressor. However, this protective effect cannot be attributed to changes in conflict monitoring and resolution.
... However, evidence showing sustained improvements in inhibitory control following exercise engagement was mainly generated by studies that investigated interference control rather than response inhibition. This lopsided focus requires to be resolved, given that poor response inhibition is associated with engaging in unhealthy and unwanted behaviours that cannot be drawn from the interference control of the individual (Ludyga et al., 2021b). For example, substance abuse, internet gaming addiction (Argyriou et al., 2017), and alcohol addiction (Peeters et al., 2012) are all associated with a deficit of response inhibition. ...
... Third, no change was found in performance on the Go/No-go task after physical activity with the primary goal of improving cardiorespiratory fitness (Wen et al., 2018), which might be due to the absence of a mediating role for cardiorespiratory fitness in the relationship between acute exercise and response inhibition. Conversely, improvements in motor skills following exercise interventions that induced cognitive and coordination challenges have been found to affect benefits in response inhibition (Chang et al., 2015;Ludyga et al., 2021b;Pesce et al., 2016). Therefore, the absence of the effect of acute exercise on response inhibition may be due to the fact that the acute exercise intervention in this study was aimed at enhancing cardiorespiratory fitness. ...
... (Yogi & Kyan, 2021) Weiterhin sollten die Veränderungen der Impulskontrolle, die scheinbar unabhängig von fitnessbezogenen Merkmalen ist, näher untersucht werden. (Ludyga et al., 2021) Die Lehre von Judo, wenn es im Sinne Kanos und seiner Visionen, sowie der Philosophie gelehrt wird, könnte eine Chance bieten, gerade in für Kinder und Jugendliche aktuell unsicheren und krisengeplagten Zeiten, eine identifikationsstiftende und moralisch wertvolle Freizeitgestaltung zu geben, die psychomotorische mit normorientierte Perspektiven verbindet, um eine stabile Charakterbildung zu gewährleisten. ...
Judo eignet sich besonders für das Mit- und Gegeneinander Kämpfen im Schulsport. Die Philosophie mit ihren Prinzipien und Werten, die hinter dem Judo steht und die Begründer Jigoro Kano lebte und weitergab, wird jedoch nur teilweise angenommen und weiter gegeben. Lehrkräfte sollten sich weiterbilden und sollten Judo als höhere Kultivierungs- und Bildungsform untersuchen und bewerten, als es als reinen Kampfsport zu betrachten.
... The test was completed upon approaching a heart rate of 170 bpm. 22 ...
... The test was completed upon approaching a heart rate of 170 bpm. 22 ...
... Bu testte A versiyonundan farklı olarak kısa süreli belleğe de ihtiyaç vardır. 12Literatürde, nörobilişsel yetenekleri ve fiziksel performansı ayrı ayrı testlerle değerlendiren çalışmalar mevcuttur.[15][16][17][18][19] Fakat bu yetenekler, spor müsabakasında aynı anda işlev görür ve birbirini etkiler. ...
... balance, flexibility, and agility) similarly to judo, and in comparison to typical aerobic exercise 6 . Very recently, Ludyga et al. observed that the judo training program elicited benefits for response inhibition in preadolescent children 36 . Moreover, researchers have proposed that there is a meaningful relationship between response inhibition in the Stroop Colour and Word Test and driving performance 37 . ...
Programmed exercise interventions modulating both physical fitness and cognitive functions have become a promising tool to support healthy aging. The aim of this experiment was to determine the effect of a 12-week judo training (JEX) on cognitive processing and muscle function among the elderly. Forty participants were divided into two groups: the JEX group and the control group (CTL). Before and after 12-week of JEX, participants performed a battery of physiological and psychological tests. The peripheral level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was analyzed. A 12-week JEX intervention led to improved Stroop performance reflected by a shortening of the response time related to Stroop “naming” interference. In addition, the peripheral concentration of BDNF was significantly increased following the JEX compared with the CTL group. In response to JEX, balance and lower limb strength significantly increased. The current results suggest that JEX could have beneficial effects on cognitive functions, denoted by elevated peripheral BDNF, as well as on balance and strength abilities. A combination of positive effects with respect to movement and cognition makes JEX an ideal preventive lifestyle modification for the aging population.
Although numerous reviews and meta-analyses have examined the effects of physical activity on cognition, no previous meta-analysis has comprehensively explored the role of contextual factors. In this systematic review, we examined the role of contextual moderators along with more commonly investigated individual (e.g., age) and physical activity-related moderators (e.g., intensity, type). A multilevel meta-analysis was applied to 171 chronic (654 effect sizes) and 68 acute studies (305 effect sizes) involving 48,625 participants from preschool to older adulthood. On average, small positive effects on cognition were found for participation in both chronic (g = 0.25, 95% CI [0.19, 0.31]) and acute physical activity (g = 0.21, 95% CI [0.12, 0.30]). Physical activity effects on cognition seem to be jointly moderated by contextual and physical activity-related factors. The largest effect sizes were depicted for chronic practice of outdoor physical activity of moderate-to-vigorous intensity (g = 0.63, 95% CI [0.41; 0.85]) and with high cognitive demand (g = 0.53, 95% CI [0.15, 0.91]), and for acute bouts of outdoor physical activity of moderate intensity (g = 0.71, 95% CI [0.42, 0.99]). These results may inform the design of future chronic and acute physical activity trials to foster a more comprehensive understanding of the intersection between multiple moderators.
Physical activity is a meaningful part of life, which starts before birth and lasts until death. There are many health benefits to be derived from physical activity, hence, regular engagement is recommended on a weekly basis. However, these recommendations are often not met. This raises the question: when and why are people motivated to be physically active? Attempts to explain the motivation for physical activity (or lack thereof) have been the research interest for many years and disciplines. In this review, we provide evidence suggesting that physical activity behavior and the psycho-physiological foundations thereof are influenced by evolution, genetics, life stage, and the environment. The psycho-physiological foundations in turn comprise motivational and volitional factors as described in traditional psychological theories, psychological states and traits such as affective and stress reactions, as well as physiological states and systems (e.g. anatomical development and neural networks and transmitters). Importantly, physical activity elicits differential physiological responses and subjective experiences, which may impact future physical activity behavior and motivation. In summary, the interplay of psycho-physiological mechanisms and the importance of examining the ultimate mechanism for physical activity behavior are emphasized. The synthesis of knowledge provided in this review provides impetus for theory development and can facilitate the promotion of physically active lifestyles.
Enhancing executive function in children and adolescents can have significant positive impact on their current and future daily lives. Upregulation of executive function associated with motor skill acquisition suggests that motor learning scenarios provide valuable developmental opportunities to optimize executive function. The present systematic review aimed to identify key motor learning features that contribute to executive function enhancement in children and adolescents. A January 2024 database search identified 62 eligible studies, involving a total of 4,163 children and adolescents, aged 3–17 years, from developmentally typical (35 studies) and atypical or clinical (27 studies) populations. Schools (51%), sports (22%), laboratory (11%), or home (5%) settings with 8- to 12-week programs for primarily fundamental or perceptual-motor skills but also sport, dance, and musical instrument skills were implemented to evaluate executive function outcomes in domains including working memory (55%), inhibitory control (55%), attention (48%), and cognitive flexibility (41%). Enhanced executive function was most frequently associated with gross and discrete or serial motor skill characteristics, closed or stationary regulatory environments, and variable practice conditions. Studies frequently omitted the assessment of motor learning outcomes or lacked sufficient methodological detail needed to classify motor skill and practice design features that might contribute to executive function enhancement.
Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in motor skills, with gross and fine motor dysfunction being the main symptom. This condition greatly impairs children’s daily life, learning, and social interaction. Symptoms typically appear during preschool or school age, and if left untreated, they can persist into adulthood. Thus, early assessment and intervention are crucial to improve the prognosis. This study aims to review the existing literature on DCD, providing a comprehensive overview of the assessment for children with DCD in terms of body functions and structures, activities and participation, and environmental factors within the framework of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health - Children and Youth (ICF-CY). Additionally, specific rehabilitation interventions will be described, offering valuable insights for the clinical assessment and intervention of children with DCD.
The purpose of the study is to identify effect of taekwondo training program on executive functions among school going female adolescents of Bahrain. This study was conducted on a sample of eighty (N=80) female adolescents, which includes experimental group (n = 40) and control group (n = 40) age of in between 12-16 years from the Indian School of Bahrain was selected as subjects. The data was collected by using an executive skills questionnaire 'self-made questionnaire on Executive Function skill 'for adolescents of Bahrain (2023) which include the 36 items. Paired sample t-test was applied to assess the differences between experimental group and control group school going female adolescents of Bahrain. For testing the hypotheses, the level of significance was set at 0.05. The result revealed that there is a significant difference in executive function between the experimental group and control group after 6 weeks of taekwondo training program on executive functions among school going female adolescents of Bahrain. It is recommended that a similar study may be repeated on large sample to make the study more valid and authentic.
Introduction: Very preterm birth and ADHD are associated with impairments in response inhibition that often persist beyond childhood. Athletes skilled in martial arts show a neurocognitive profile that is associated with an improved inhibition processing stream, suggesting that engagement in this kind of sport has the potential to reduce impairments in this cognitive function. We investigated the behavioral and neurocognitive effects of judo training on response inhibition in children born very preterm and children with ADHD by a combined analysis of two randomized controlled trials.
Methods: In both the CHIPMANC (N = 65) and JETPAC (N = 63) studies, participants were randomly allocated to a wait-list or a 12-week judo training program in a 1:1 ratio. At pre- and posttest, participants completed a Go/NoGo task, the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 and a physical work capacity test on a bicycle ergometer. During the cognitive task, event-related potentials (N2, P3a, P3b) were recorded via electroencephalography.
Results: The effects of the judo training were moderated by the study group. In contrast to children with ADHD (JETPAC), judo training reduced the commission error rate on the Go/NoGo task and increased the P3a amplitude in children born very preterm (CHIPMANC). No treatment effects were found for N2, P3b and physical fitness outcomes.
Conclusions: The neurodevelopmental condition influences the cognitive benefits of judo training. Whereas judo may be ineffective in children with ADHD, children born very preterm can expect improved response inhibition due to a more effective engagement of focal attention to resolve the task-related response conflict.
Background
Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) face deficits in working memory capacity that often persist into adulthood. In healthy peers, exercise targeting motor skill acquisition benefits visuospatial working memory, but its potential to reduce ADHD-related deficits remains unclear. We investigated the effect of a judo training program targeting motor skills on behavioral and neurocognitive indices of working memory capacity in children with ADHD.
Methods
Children with ADHD aged 8 to 12 years (N=57) were randomly allocated to a judo training group and a wait-list control group. The training program encompassed 120 min of judo per week over three months. Before and after the intervention period, patients completed a bilateral Change Detection task with low and high memory load conditions and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2). The contralateral delay activity (CDA) elicited by the cognitive task was recorded using electroencephalography.
Results
Compared to the control group, the judo training group showed a higher K-score on the Change Detection task and an increased negativity of the CDA on the high load condition following the intervention, when pretest scores (and confounders) were accounted for. In contrast, no group differences were found for MABC-2 score.
Conclusion
In children with ADHD, judo training may complement pharmacological treatment by increasing the effectiveness of working memory maintenance processes. On a behavioral level, this improvement is accompanied with an increased capacity to store visuospatial information.
As cognitive function is linked with academic achievement, career success and mental health, there is a need to understand how the cognitive benefits of long-term exercise can be optimized. Our meta-regression included 80 randomized controlled trials and examined moderators of the effects of exercise on cognition in healthy individuals. The summary effect was small and did not differ between cognitive domains. Higher benefits of exercise on cognitive function were found after coordinative exercise compared with other exercise types. With longer intervention length, the effect size increased with longer session duration. Exercise was less effective in female compared with male individuals, and the dose–response relationship differed between sexes. Our findings suggest a general rather than domain-specific effect of exercise on cognition, which is influenced by sex, exercise type and reciprocal relationships between dose parameters. We derive sex-specific recommendations on how cognitive benefits can be optimized by exercise intensity, its progression and exercise type.
Developing academic skills and cognitive abilities is critical for children's development. In this article, we review evidence from recent research on the bidirectional relations between academic achievement and cognitive abilities. Our findings suggest that (a) reading/mathematics and cognitive abilities (i.e., working memory, reasoning, and executive function) predict each other in development, (b) direct academic instruction positively affects the development of reasoning, and (c) such bidirectional relations between cognitive abilities and academic achievement seem weaker among children with disadvantages (e.g., those with special needs or low socioeconomic status). Together, these findings are in line with the theory of mutualism and the transactional model. They suggest that sustained and high‐quality schooling and education directly foster children's academic and cognitive development, and may indirectly affect academic and cognitive development by triggering cognitive‐academic bidirectionality.
Developing academic skills and cognitive abilities is critical for children's development. In this article, we review evidence from recent research on the bidirectional relations between academic achievement and cognitive abilities. Our findings suggest that (a) reading/mathematics and cognitive abilities (i.e., working memory, reasoning, and executive function) predict each other in development, (b) direct academic instruction positively affects the development of reasoning, and (c) such bidirectional relations between cognitive abilities and academic achievement seem weaker among children with disadvantages (e.g., those with special needs or low socioeconomic status). Together, these findings are in line with the theory of mutualism and the transactional model. They suggest that sustained and high‐quality schooling and education directly foster children's academic and cognitive development, and may indirectly affect academic and cognitive development by triggering cognitive‐academic bidirectionality.
Given accumulating evidence indicating that acute and chronic physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness are related to modulation of the P3b‐ERP component, this systematic review provides an overview of the field across the last 30+ years and discusses future directions as the field continues to develop. A systematic review was conducted on studies of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness on P3b. PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched from database inception to March 28, 2018. Search results were limited to peer‐reviewed and English‐written studies investigating typically developed individuals. Seventy‐two studies were selected, with 39 studies examining cross‐sectional relationships between chronic physical activity (n = 19) and cardiorespiratory fitness (n = 20) with P3b, with 16 and 17 studies reporting associations of P3b with physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness, respectively. Eight studies investigated the effects of chronic physical activity interventions, and all found effects on P3b. Eight studies investigating P3b during acute bouts of physical activity showed inconsistent results. Nineteen of 23 studies demonstrated acute modulation of P3b following exercise cessation. Conclusions drawn from this systematic review suggest that physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with P3b modulation during cognitive control and attention tasks. Acute and chronic physical activity interventions modulate the P3b component, suggesting short‐ and long‐term functional adaptations occurring in the brain to support cognitive processes. These summary findings suggest physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness are beneficial to brain function and that P3b may serve as a biomarker of covert attentional processes to better understand the relationship of physical activity and cognition.
Exercise training is widely promoted as a method to enhance both physical health and cognitive function. Although routine exercise engenders physiological adaptations to the body and brain, its effects on mental processing are uncertain. Our review of the experimental evidence reveals that acknowledging the role of skill acquisition may help clarify the exercise– cognition relation. Instructional methods that optimize physical and mental challenge provide the conditions necessary to produce long-term changes in the way individuals process information, make decisions, select movements, and experience the consequences of actions. Main conclusions drawn by intersecting theory-based research on the linkages between chronic exercise and cognitive function and research on the associations of both sport and performance arts with cognitive function are as follows: (1) Exercise may be but one of many types of movement activities that can benefit cognition; (2) the process of skill acquisition provides a parsimonious explanation for outcomes across exercise, sport, and performing art studies; (3) the allocation of mental resources required during skill acquisition, independently from or interactively with the level of physical energy expenditure, is essential for reaping the largest cognitive benefits; and (4) cognitive benefits obtained via skill-acquisition interventions are enduring. This review also highlights issues that call for future research to provide convergent evidence for the relation between skill training and cognition; the inclusion of outcome measures other than executive functions; and a naturalistic translational
approach to complement controlled experiments in chronic exercise and cognition and skill learning research.
In the present meta-analysis all available evidence regarding the efficacy of different behavioral interventions for children's executive function skills were synthesized. After a systematic search we included experimental studies aiming to enhance children's (up to 12 years of age) executive functioning with neurodevelopmental tests as outcome measures. The results of 100 independent effect sizes in 90 studies including data of 8,925 children confirmed that it is possible to foster these skills in childhood (Diamond & Lee, 2011). We did not find convincing evidence, however, for the benefits to remain on follow-up assessment. Different approaches were effective for typically and nontypically developing samples. For nontypically developing children (including children with neurodevelopmental disorders or behavior problems) acquiring new strategies of self-regulation including biofeedback-enhanced relaxation and strategy teaching programs were the most effective. For typically developing children we found evidence for the moderate beneficial effects of mindfulness practices. Although small to moderate effects of explicit training with tasks loading on executive function skills in the form of computerized and noncomputer training were found, these effects were consistently weaker for nontypically developing children who might actually be more in need of such training. Thus, atypically developing children seem to profit more from acquiring new strategies of self-regulation as compared with practice with executive function tasks. We propose that explicit training does not seem to be meaningful as the approaches that implicitly foster executive functions are similarly or more effective, and these activities are more enjoyable and can be more easily embedded in children's everyday activities.
Objective
To synthesise randomised controlled trials (RCTs) regarding the effects of chronic exercise interventions on different domain-specific executive functions (EFs) among children and adolescents.
Design
Systematic review with meta-analysis.
Data sources
PsycINFO, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Academic Search Premier, Embase and Web of Science were searched.
Eligibility criteria for selecting studies
RCTs or cluster RCT design, which employ chronic exercise interventions and target healthy children (age 6–12 years) and adolescents (age 13–17 years). We defined chronic exercise as physical activity (PA) which consists of multiple exercise sessions per week and lasts for an extended period of time (typically over 6 weeks).
Results
We included 19 studies, with a total of 5038 participants. The results showed that chronic exercise interventions improved overall EFs (standardised mean difference (SMD)=0.20, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.30, p<0.05) and inhibitory control (SMD=0.26, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.45, P<0.05). In meta regression, higher body mass index was associated with greater improvements in overall EFs performance (β=0.03, 95% CI 0.0002 to 0.06, p<0.05), whereas age and exercise duration were not. In subgroup analysis by intervention modality, sports and PA programme (SMD=0.21, 95% CI 0.12 to 0.31, p<0.05) and curricular PA (SMD=0.39, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.69, p<0.05) improved overall EFs performance, but integrated PA did not (SMD=0.02, 95% CI −0.05 to 0.09, p>0.05). Interventions with a session length < 90 minutes improved overall EFs performance (SMD=0.24, 95%CI 0.10 to 0.39, p=0.02), but session length ≥ 90 minutes did not (SMD=0.05, 95%CI -0.03 to 0.14). No other moderator was found to have an effect.
Conclusions
Despite small effect sizes, chronic exercise interventions, implemented in curricular or sports and PA programme settings, might be a promising way to promote multiple aspects of executive functions, especially inhibitory control.
Improving executive functions (EFs) is desirable as they are considered to be critical for academic attainment and mental wellness in children. The aim of this study was to explore the effect of Judo training on the set-shifting function using a spatial task-switching paradigm. Protocol 1 compared the set-shifting ability of Judo players with age-matched healthy individuals. Protocol 2 compared the difference in EFs between children who underwent Judo training (intervention) and age-matched controls. EFs were assessed by a spatial task-switching test. Error rates and response times were analysed using two-way repeated-measures ANOVA. Protocol 1. The group effect on error rates was significant. The trial type × group effect was significant in the Judo group. Error rates in the Judo group were lower in the switch trials than the control group ( p = 0.001). No significant group difference was seen in the repeat trials ( p = 0.764). Protocol 2 . The time × trial type × group effect was significant. Post hoc analysis showed significantly lower error rates by the intervention group on switch trials compared to the control group ( p = 0.006). Regular Judo training may potentially be an option for improving EFs in schoolchildren or in populations with executive dysfunction.
Longitudinal studies of autistic people show that the behavioral features of autism generally endure into adulthood. Yet the prognostic indicators remain far from certain, especially for cognitively able individuals. Here, we test the predictive power of specific cognitive skills, namely theory of mind and executive function, measured in childhood, on young people’s autistic features and adaptive behavior 12 years later. Twenty-eight young autistic people (2 female) were seen twice within the space of 12 years. At Time 1 (M = 5 years; 7 months, SD = 11 months), participants were assessed on components of executive function (planning, inhibition and cognitive flexibility) and theory of mind (false-belief understanding). At Time 2, 12 years later (M = 17 years 10 months, SD = 1 year; 2 months), we measured participants’ autistic features and adaptive behavior. Only Time 1 executive function skills predicted significant variance in autistic adolescents’ autistic features, over and above variance attributable to early age, intellectual ability and theory of mind skills. Furthermore, early EF skills, in addition to early verbal ability and nonverbal ability, predicted significant variance in young people’s adaptive behavior at the 12-year follow-up. These long-term longitudinal findings clearly demonstrate that executive function measured in early childhood has prognostic significance in a sample of young autistic people approaching emerging adulthood and underscore their importance as a key target for early intervention and support.
The study investigated the effect of mini-trampoline physical activity on the development of executive functions (EF) in Chinese preschool children. Fifty-seven children aged 3–5 were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n=29) and a control group (n=28) . The children in the intervention and control group had the same classes and care service in the preschool, but children in the intervention group had an extra 20 min of trampoline training after school for 5 school days per week in the 10-week intervention. Spatial conflict arrow (SCA), animal Go/NoGo (GNG), working memory span (WMS), and flexible item selection (FIS) were used to assess children’s EF before and after the intervention. Results revealed that no significant differences emerged in the SCA, GNG, WMS, and FIS tests between two groups postintervention. Findings indicated that a 10-week trampoline PA training may not be sufficient to trigger the improvement of preschool children’s EF. Future research with larger representative samples is warranted to discern the dose-response evidence in enhancing young children’s EF through physical activity.
Context:
Physical activity can improve cognitive and mental health, but the underlying mechanisms have not been established.
Objective:
To present a conceptual model explaining the mechanisms for the effect of physical activity on cognitive and mental health in young people and to conduct a systematic review of the evidence.
Data sources:
Six electronic databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, SCOPUS, Ovid Medline, SportDiscus, and Embase) were used.
Study selection:
School-, home-, or community-based physical activity intervention or laboratory-based exercise interventions were assessed. Studies were eligible if they reported statistical analyses of changes in the following: (1) cognition or mental health; and (2) neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral mechanisms.
Data extraction:
Data relating to methods, assessment period, participant characteristics, intervention type, setting, and facilitator/delivery were extracted.
Results:
Twenty-five articles reporting results from 22 studies were included. Mechanisms studied were neurobiological (6 studies), psychosocial (18 studies), and behavioral (2 studies). Significant changes in at least 1 potential neurobiological mechanism were reported in 5 studies, and significant effects for at least 1 cognitive outcome were also found in 5 studies. One of 2 studies reported a significant effect for self-regulation, but neither study reported a significant impact on mental health.
Limitations:
Small number of studies and high levels of study heterogeneity.
Conclusions:
The strongest evidence was found for improvements in physical self-perceptions, which accompanied enhanced self-esteem in the majority of studies measuring these outcomes. Few studies examined neurobiological and behavioral mechanisms, and we were unable to draw conclusions regarding their role in enhancing cognitive and mental health.
Background. Research on sports has revealed that behavioral responses and event-related brain potentials (ERP) are better in expert than in novice athletes for sport-related tasks. Focused attention is essential for optimal athletic performance across different sports but mainly in combat disciplines. During combat, long periods of focused attention (i.e., sustained attention) are required for a good performance. Few investigations have reported effects of expertise on brain electrical activity and its neural generators during sport-unrelated attention tasks. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of expertise (i.e., skilled and novice martial arts athletes) analyzing the ERP during a sustained attention task (Continuous Performance Task; CPT) and the cortical three-dimensional distribution of current density, using the sLORETA technique. Methods. CPT consisted in an oddball-type paradigm presentation of five stimuli (different pointing arrows) where only one of them (an arrow pointing up right) required a motor response (i.e., target). CPT was administered to skilled and novice martial arts athletes while EEG were recorded. Amplitude ERP data from target and non-target stimuli were compared between groups. Subsequently, current source analysis for each ERP component was performed on each subject. sLORETA images were compared by condition and group using Statistical Non-Parametric Mapping analysis. Results. Skilled athletes showed significant amplitude differences between target and non-target conditions in early ERP components (P100 and P200) as opposed to the novice group; however, skilled athletes showed no significant effect of condition in N200 but novices did show a significant effect. Current source analysis showed greater differences in activations in skilled compared with novice athletes between conditions in the frontal (mainly in the Superior Frontal Gyrus and Medial Frontal Gyrus) and limbic (mainly in the Anterior Cingulate Gyrus) lobes. Discussion. These results are supported by previous findings regarding activation of neural structures that underlie sustained attention. Our findings may indicate a better-controlled attention in skilled athletes, which suggests that expertise can improve effectiveness in allocation of attentional resources during the first stages of cognitive processing during combat.
The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (M-ABC-2) is one of the most commonly used tests for the diagnosis of specific developmental disorders of motor function (F82). The M-ABC-2 comprises eight subtests per age band (AB) that are assigned to three dimensions: manual dexterity, aiming and catching, and balance. However, while previous exploratory findings suggested the correctness of the assumption of factorial validity, there is no empirical evidence that the M-ABC-2 subtests allow for a valid reproduction of the postulated factorial structure. The purpose of this study was to empirically confirm the factorial validity of the M-ABC-2. The German normative sample of AB2 (7-10 years; N=323) was used as the study sample for the empirical analyses. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to verify the factorial validity of the M-ABC-2 (AB2). The incremental fit indices (χ2=28.675; df=17; Bollen-Stine p value=0.318; RMSEA=0.046 [0.011-0.075]; SRMR=0.038; CFI=0.960) provided evidence for the factorial validity of the M-ABC-2 (AB2). However, because of a lack of empirical verification for convergent and discriminant validity, there is still no evidence that F82 can be diagnosed using M-ABC-2 (AB2).
Since the 1960’s, hundreds of articles have been published on the effects of exercise on cognition and more recently on executive functions. A large variety of effects have been observed: acute or long-lasting, facilitating or debilitating. Several theoretical frameworks have been proposed to explain these effects with plausible mechanisms. However, as yet none of these models has succeeded in unifying all the observations in a single framework that subsumes all effects. The aim of the present review is to revisit the strength model of self-control initiated by Baumeister and his colleagues in the 1990’s in order to extend its assumptions to exercise psychology. This model provides a heuristic framework that can explain and predict the effects of acute and chronic exercise on effortful tasks tapping self-regulation or executive functions. A reconsideration of exercise as a self-control task results from this perspective. A new avenue for future research is delineated besides more traditional approaches.
Objective:
To assess the effect of a physical activity (PA) intervention on brain and behavioral indices of executive control in preadolescent children.
Methods:
Two hundred twenty-one children (7-9 years) were randomly assigned to a 9-month afterschool PA program or a wait-list control. In addition to changes in fitness (maximal oxygen consumption), electrical activity in the brain (P3-ERP) and behavioral measures (accuracy, reaction time) of executive control were collected by using tasks that modulated attentional inhibition and cognitive flexibility.
Results:
Fitness improved more among intervention participants from pretest to posttest compared with the wait-list control (1.3 mL/kg per minute, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.3 to 2.4; d = 0.34 for group difference in pre-to-post change score). Intervention participants exhibited greater improvements from pretest to posttest in inhibition (3.2%, 95% CI: 0.0 to 6.5; d = 0.27) and cognitive flexibility (4.8%, 95% CI: 1.1 to 8.4; d = 0.35 for group difference in pre-to-post change score) compared with control. Only the intervention group increased attentional resources from pretest to posttest during tasks requiring increased inhibition (1.4 µV, 95% CI: 0.3 to 2.6; d = 0.34) and cognitive flexibility (1.5 µV, 95% CI: 0.6 to 2.5; d = 0.43). Finally, improvements in brain function on the inhibition task (r = 0.22) and performance on the flexibility task correlated with intervention attendance (r = 0.24).
Conclusions:
The intervention enhanced cognitive performance and brain function during tasks requiring greater executive control. These findings demonstrate a causal effect of a PA program on executive control, and provide support for PA for improving childhood cognition and brain health.
Abstract This study tested the association between aerobic fitness and executive function and the impact of enhanced, cognitively challenging physical activity on executive function in overweight and lean children. Seventy children aged 9-10 years were assigned to either a 6-month enhanced physical education programme including cognitively demanding (open skill) activities or curricular physical education only. Pre- and post-intervention tests assessed aerobic capacity (Leger test) and two components of executive function: inhibition and working memory updating (random number generation task). Indices of inhibition and memory updating were compared in higher- and lower-fit children and intervention effects were evaluated as a function of physical activity programme (enhanced vs. curricular) and weight status (lean vs. overweight). Results showed better inhibition in higher- than lower-fit children, extending the existing evidence of the association between aerobic fitness and executive function to new aspects of children's inhibitory ability. Overweight children had more pronounced pre- to post-intervention improvements in inhibition than lean children only if involved in enhanced physical education. Such intervention effects were not mediated by aerobic fitness gains. Therefore, the cognitive and social interaction challenges inherent in open skill tasks, even though embedded in a low-dose physical activity programme, may represent an effective means to promote cognitive efficiency, especially in overweight children.
This study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the influence of a 9-month physical activity program on task-evoked brain activation during childhood. The results demonstrated that 8- to 9-year-old children who participated in 60+ min of physical activity, 5 days per week, for 9 months, showed decreases in fMRI brain activation in the right anterior prefrontal cortex coupled with within-group improvements in performance on a task of attentional and interference control. Children assigned to a wait-list control group did not show changes in brain function. Furthermore, at post-test, children in the physical activity group showed similar anterior frontal brain patterns and incongruent accuracy rates to a group of college-aged young adults. Children in the wait-list control group still differed from the young adults in terms of anterior prefrontal activation and performance at post-test. There were no significant changes in fMRI activation in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) for either group. These results suggest that physical activity during childhood may enhance specific elements of prefrontal cortex function involved in cognitive control.
Neural activity underlying executive functions is subject to modulation as a result of increasing cognitive demands and practice. In the present study, we examined these modulatory effects by varying task difficulty, as manipulated by reaction time deadline (RTD), on inhibitory control during a single Go/Nogo training session (8 blocks; 70% Go). Sixty adults were randomly assigned to one of three task difficulty conditions: High (n = 20), Medium (n = 20) and Low (n = 20), with RTDs of 300, 500 or 1000 ms, respectively. Task performance, Event-related potentials (ERPs) and task-related arousal (indexed by Skin Conductance Level) were examined for training effects. Results indicated that improvements in behavioural Go/Nogo proficiency were optimised during conditions of moderate rather than low or high inhibitory demands. An across-session increase in task-related arousal did not differ between conditions, indicating a generalised increase in the mobilisation of mental resources with time-on-task. In contrast, training-related changes in ERPs were dependent on task demands such that the Low task difficulty condition showed an enhanced centroparietal Nogo P2, while a training-induced augmentation in the Nogo > Go P3 effect was greater in the High than Medium condition. The High condition also showed the greatest reduction in the Nogo N1. Although further research is needed in this area, these findings implicate the potentially key role of task difficulty in training inhibitory control and suggest that practice-related changes are reflected by qualitative changes in brain activity.
Executive functions (EFs) make possible mentally playing with ideas; taking the time to think before acting; meeting novel, unanticipated challenges; resisting temptations; and staying focused. Core EFs are inhibition [response inhibition (self-control-resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively) and interference control (selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking "outside the box," seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). The developmental progression and representative measures of each are discussed. Controversies are addressed (e.g., the relation between EFs and fluid intelligence, self-regulation, executive attention, and effortful control, and the relation between working memory and inhibition and attention). The importance of social, emotional, and physical health for cognitive health is discussed because stress, lack of sleep, loneliness, or lack of exercise impairs EFs. That EFs are trainable and can be improved with practice is addressed, including diverse methods tried thus far. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology Volume 64 is November 30, 2012. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
Abstract— Effortful control (EC) and executive function (EF) are 2 constructs related to children’s self-regulation that have historically been the subject of research in separate fields, with EC primarily the focus of temperament research and EF the focus of cognitive neuroscience and clinical psychology. This article selectively reviews and compares the EC and EF literature. The review indicates considerable similarities and overlaps in the definitions, core components, and measurement of EC and EF. Differences between the 2 literatures seem to primarily reflect differences in research focus as influenced by each field’s “tradition” rather than “real” differences in EC and EF as developmental constructs. Thus, developing an integrated theory of self-regulation encompassing the EC and EF perspectives is critical for reducing overlap and confusion in future research. The article provides a number of recommendations on how to integrate the theory and methodology of EC and EF in future research for (a) the components and organization of self-regulation, (b) the relation of self-regulation to children’s adaptive functions, (c) the neurological basis of self-regulation and its development, and (d) the development and evaluation of interventions targeting children’s self-regulation.
The influence of cardiorespiratory fitness on the modulation of cognitive control was assessed in preadolescent children separated into higher- and lower-fit groups. Participants completed compatible and incompatible stimulus–response conditions of a modified flanker task, consisting of congruent and incongruent arrays, while ERPs and task performance were concurrently measured. Findings revealed decreased response accuracy for lower- relative to higher-fit participants with a selectively larger deficit in response to the incompatible stimulus–response condition, requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control. In contrast, higher-fit participants maintained response accuracy across stimulus–response compatibility conditions. Neuroelectric measures indicated that higher-fit, relative to lower-fit, participants exhibited global increases in P3 amplitude and shorter P3 latency, as well as greater modulation of P3 amplitude between the compatible and incompatible stimulus–response conditions. Similarly, higher-fit participants exhibited smaller error-related negativity (ERN) amplitudes in the compatible condition, and greater modulation of the ERN between the compatible and incompatible conditions, relative to lower-fit participants who exhibited large ERN amplitudes across both conditions. These findings suggest that lower-fit children may have more difficulty than higher-fit children in the flexible modulation of cognitive control processes to meet task demands.
Theories of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) posit either executive deficits and/or alterations in motivational style and reward processing as core to the disorder. Effects of motivational incentives on electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory control and relationships between motivation and stimulant medication have not been explicitly tested.
Children (9-15 years) with combined-type ADHD (n = 28) and matched typically developing children (CTRL) (n = 28) performed a go/no-go task. Electroencephalogram data were recorded. Amplitude of two event-related potentials, the N2 and P3 (markers of response conflict and attention), were measured. The ADHD children were all stimulant responders tested on and off their usual dose of methylphenidate; CTRLs were never medicated. All children performed the task under three motivational conditions: reward; response cost; and baseline, in which points awarded/deducted for inhibitory performance varied.
There were effects of diagnosis (CTRL > ADHD unmedicated), medication (on > off), and motivation (reward and/or response cost > baseline) on N2 and P3 amplitude, although the N2 diagnosis effect did not reach statistical significance (p = .1). Interactions between motivation and diagnosis/medication were nonsignificant (p > .1).
Motivational incentives increased amplitudes of electrophysiological correlates of response conflict and attention in children with ADHD, towards the baseline (low motivation) amplitudes of control subjects. These results suggest that, on these measures, motivational incentives have similar effects in children with ADHD as typically developing CTRLs and have additive effects with stimulant medication, enhancing stimulus salience and allocation of attentional resources during response inhibition.
Physical activity and aerobic exercise in particular, promotes health and effective cognitive functioning. To elucidate mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of physical fitness and acute exercise, behavioral and electrophysiological indices of task preparation and response inhibition as a part of executive functions were assessed in a modified version of an Eriksen flanker task subsequent to an acute bout of aerobic exercise and a period of rest, respectively. 35 higher- and lower-fit adolescents between 13 and 14 years of age participated in a controlled cross-over study design. Results indicate that higher-fit individuals show significantly greater CNV amplitudes, reflecting enhanced task preparation processes, as well as decreased amplitudes in N2, indexing more efficient executive control processes. P3 amplitudes associated with the allocation of attentional and memory control neither showed influences of physical fitness nor the acute bout of exercise. Furthermore, acute aerobic exercise was not related to any of the dependent measures. The current findings suggest that physical fitness, but not an acute bout of aerobic exercise enhances cognitive processing by increasing attentional allocation to stimulus encoding during task preparation.
Background: Although accumulating evidence suggests that motor and cognitive development is interrelated, only a few studies have investigated links between executive function and motor control. Therefore, the present cross-sectional study examined the
relationship between motor competences and core components of executive functioning, including inhibitory control, working memory and cognitive flexibility. Methods: In 89 preadolescent children, motor competences were assessed using the MOBAK-5
test battery. Additionally, all participants completed computer-based versions of the Flanker task, which included standard and switch blocks, and the 2-Back task. Results: Partial correlations (correcting for age, gender and body mass index) revealed that
locomotor skills were associated with the adjusted hit-rate on the 2-Back task (r = 0.34) whereas object control was linked with conflict score on the Flanker task (r = −0.39). In contrast, there was no correlation between switch costs and motor competences. Conclusion: In preadolescent children, high competences in locomotor skills and object control skills are associated with high performance on specific executive function tasks. This finding supports the current view that motor competences and cognitive performance share some common underlying processes.
A considerable body of research indicates that children's executive function (EF) skills and related school readiness constructs are important for early learning and long-term academic success. This review focuses on EF and a related construct, motor skills with a focus on visuomotor integration, as being foundational for learning, and describes how these skills codevelop in young children in bidirectional and synergistic ways. The review discusses definitional and conceptual issues, connects EF and visuomotor integration to relevant theoretical perspectives, discusses measurement issues and advancements, and reviews intervention evidence to support the malleability of these skills in young children. Discussion emphasizes how these skills develop together and suggests that research examining children's learning from a codevelopment perspective can help promote children's health and well-being.
Problems related to the capacity to successfully engage response inhibition are considered a risk factor for the development of substance use disorders (SUDs), but the evidence has been predominantly cross-sectional. In this commentary, we argue that recent longitudinal studies with multi-modal measures of response inhibition can improve understanding of how response inhibition may intersect with substance use among adolescents. Most Stop-Signal studies suggest that slower response inhibition predicts substance use progressions, with one multi-site study showing greater fronto-parietal activity indicative of risk. Most Go-NoGo studies suggest that blunted activation of prefrontal cortical areas during response inhibition predicts substance use progressions, while commission errors are less effective in identifying adolescents at risk. Studies differ in subject populations, outcome measures, statistical methods, and BOLD response contrasts, which challenge the capacity to compare and generalize findings. We encourage research teams throughout the globe to undertake multi-modal, longitudinal studies to assess brain functioning with large sample sizes, and when possible, before significant substance use potentially obscures interpretation of findings. Systematic review and meta-analysis of this growing literature are also important goals for future research.
The present study investigated the effects of an exercise intervention, which was implemented during school-break time, on the P300 component of event-related potentials and inhibitory control. Adolescents aged 12–15 years were allocated to an exercise and control group. The exercise group performed 20 min of aerobic and coordinative exercise per school day over a period of 8 weeks. Before and after the intervention, stimulus-locked event-related potentials were recorded during a Stroop task using electroencephalography. Cluster-based permutation testing revealed a greater increase of the P300 amplitude in the exercise compared to the control group, most pronounced for the parieto-occipital region. Additionally, increases in P300 amplitude were associated with decreases in incompatible reaction time on the Stroop task. An exercise program implemented during school-break time enhances adolescents’ inhibitory control. This benefit seems to be due to an improved allocation of attentional resources towards the cognitive task.
Objective
The objective was two-fold: i) to assess the effect of physical activity (PA) interventions on children’s and adolescents’ cognition and metacognition; and ii) to determine the characteristics of individuals and PA programs that enhance the development of cognitive and metacognitive functions.
Method
We systematically searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science and PsycINFO databases from their inception to October 16, 2016. Intervention studies aimed at examining the exercise–cognition interaction at a developmental age were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled effect size (ES) values and their corresponding 95% CIs. Subgroup analyses were conducted to examine the effect of participants’ and PA programs’ characteristics.
Results
Thirty-six studies were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis. Pooled ES estimations were: i) non-executive cognitive functions 0.23 (95% CI: 0.09 to 0.37); ii) core executive functions 0.20 (95% CI: 0.10 to 0.30), including working memory (0.14 [95% CI: 0.00 to 0.27]), selective attention-inhibition (0.26 [95% CI: 0.10 to 0.41]) and cognitive flexibility (0.11 [95% CI: -0.10 to 0.32]); and iii) metacognition 0.23 (95% CI: 0.13 to 0.32), including higher-level executive functions (0.19 [95% CI: 0.06 to 0.31]) and cognitive life skills (0.30 [95% CI: 0.15 to 0.45])
Conclusion
PA benefits several domains of cognition and metacognition in youth. Curricular physical education interventions and programs aimed at increasing daily PA seem to be the most effective.
Previous research has demonstrated that Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) has multiple negative effects in psychological functioning and health. This makes the identification of its underpinnings, such as response inhibition, essential for the development of relevant interventions that target these core features of the disorder resulting in more effective treatment. Several empirical studies have evaluated the relationship between response inhibition deficits and IGD using neurocognitive tasks, but provided mixed results. In this study, we conducted a meta-analysis of studies using three neurocognitive tasks, the Go/No Go, the Stroop, and the Stop-Signal tasks, to integrate existing research and estimate the magnitude of this relationship. We found a medium overall effect size (d = 0.56, 95% CI [0.32, 0.80]) indicating that compared with healthy individuals, individuals with IGD are more likely to exhibit impaired response inhibition. This finding is in alignment with literature on inhibition and addictive and impulsive behaviors, as well as with neuroimaging research. Theoretical implications regarding the conceptualization of IGD as a clinical disorder, shared commonalities with externalizing psychopathology, and clinical implications for treatment are discussed.
Executive functions are a collection of cognitive abilities necessary for behavioural control and regulation, and are important for school success. Executive deficits are common across acquired and developmental disorders in childhood and beyond. This review aims to summarize how studies using event-related potential (ERP) can provide insight into mechanisms underpinning how executive functions develop in children from preschool to adolescence. We specifically focus on ERP components that are considered to be well-established markers of executive functioning, including the ability to resist distraction (inhibition, N200), hold scenes in mind (visuospatial working memory, contralateral delay activity), attend to specific stimuli (information processing, P300), follow rules (response monitoring, error-related negativity [ERN], and error-related positivity [Pe]), and adjust to feedback (outcome monitoring, feedback-related negativity). All of these components show developmental changes from preschool to adolescence, in line with behavioural and neuroimaging findings. These ERP markers also show altered developmental trajectories in the context of atypical executive functions. As an example, deficits in executive function are prominently implicated in attention-deficit–hyperactivity disorder. Therefore, this review highlights ERP studies that have investigated the above ERP components in this population. Overall, ERPs provide a useful marker for the development and dysfunction of executive skills, and provide insight into their neurophysiological basis.
Background:
Self-regulation (SR) is central to developmental psychopathology, but progress has been impeded by varying terminology and meanings across fields and literatures.
Methods:
The present review attempts to move that discussion forward by noting key sources of prior confusion such as measurement-concept confounding, and then arguing the following major points.
Results:
First, the field needs a domain-general construct of SR that encompasses SR of action, emotion, and cognition and involves both top-down and bottom-up regulatory processes. This does not assume a shared core process across emotion, action, and cognition, but is intended to provide clarity on the extent of various claims about kinds of SR. Second, top-down aspects of SR need to be integrated. These include (a) basic processes that develop early and address immediate conflict signals, such as cognitive control and effortful control (EC), and (b) complex cognition and strategies for addressing future conflict, represented by the regulatory application of complex aspects of executive functioning. Executive function (EF) and cognitive control are not identical to SR because they can be used for other activities, but account for top-down aspects of SR at the cognitive level. Third, impulsivity, risk-taking, and disinhibition are distinct although overlapping; a taxonomy of the kinds of breakdowns of SR associated with psychopathology requires their differentiation. Fourth, different aspects of the SR universe can be organized hierarchically in relation to granularity, development, and time. Low-level components assemble into high-level components. This hierarchical perspective is consistent across literatures.
Conclusions:
It is hoped that the framework outlined here will facilitate integration and cross-talk among investigators working from different perspectives, and facilitate individual differences research on how SR relates to developmental psychopathology.
Practicing sport at top level requires excellent physical and cognitive skills. The goal of the present study was to investigate whether specific sport practice may affect the preparation-perception-action stages of processing during a visuo-motor task requiring perceptual discrimination and fast response. We recruited 39 participants (two groups of professional fencers and boxers, and a control group; N=13 for each group) and measured behavioral performance and event-related potentials (ERPs) while performing a go/no-go task. Results revealed that athletes were faster than controls, while fencers were more accurate than boxers. ERP analysis revealed that motor preparation, indexed by the Bereitschaftspotential (BP), was increased in athletes than controls, whereas the top-down attentional control, reflected by the prefrontal negativity (pN) component, was enhanced only in fencers when compared to controls. Most of the post-stimulus ERPs i.e. the N1, the N2, the P3, and the pP2, were enhanced in fencers. Combat sports require fast action execution, but the preparatory brain activity might differ according to the specific practice required by each discipline. Boxers might afford to commit more errors (as reflected by high commission error rate and by a small pN amplitude), while fencers have to be as much fast and accurate as possible (thanks to an enhanced pN amplitude). Although the possible influence of repetitive head blows on cerebral activity cannot be excluded in boxers, our results suggest that cognitive benefits of high level sport practice might also be transferred to the daily (i.e., no sport-related) activities.
Cognitive control theory suggests goal-directed behavior is governed by a dynamic interplay between areas of the prefrontal cortex. Critical to cognitive control is the detection and resolution of competing stimulus or response representations (i.e., conflict). Event-related potential (ERP) research provides a window into the nature and precise temporal sequence of conflict monitoring. We critically review the research on conflict-related ERPs, including the error-related negativity (ERN), Flanker N2, Stroop N450 and conflict slow potential (conflict SP or negative slow wave [NSW]), and provide an analysis of how these ERPs inform conflict monitoring theory. Overall, there is considerable evidence that amplitude of the ERN is sensitive to the degree of response conflict, consistent with a role in conflict monitoring. It remains unclear, however, to what degree contextual, individual, affective, and motivational factors influence ERN amplitudes and how ERN amplitudes are related to regulative changes in behavior. The Flanker N2, Stroop N450, and conflict SP ERPs represent distinct conflict-monitoring processes that reflect conflict detection (N2, N450) and conflict adjustment or resolution processes (N2, conflict SP). The investigation of conflict adaptation effects (i.e., sequence or sequential trial effects) shows the N2 and conflict SP reflect post-conflict adjustments in cognitive control, but the N450 generally does not. Conflict-related ERP research provides a promising avenue for understanding the effects of individual differences on cognitive control processes in healthy, neurologic and psychiatric populations. Comparisons between the major conflict-related ERPs and suggestions for future studies to clarify the nature of conflict-related neural processes are provided.
There is growing consensus that exercise improves cognitive functioning, but research is needed to identify exercise interventions that optimize effects on cognition. The objective of this pilot study was to evaluate Taekwondo implemented in public middle school physical education (PE). Two classes were randomly assigned to either: five sessions per week of PE or three sessions of PE and two sessions of Taekwondo. In PE sessions, evidence-based curriculum to address the Presidential Core Fitness Guidelines and California Physical Fitness Tests was implemented. Taekwondo sessions included traditional techniques and forms taught in an environment emphasizing respect and self-control. Sixty students were evaluated at baseline and during the last week of the intervention (nine months later). Differences in mean residualized change scores for parent-rated inhibitory behavioral control yielded a significant, large effect size (d = .95, p = .00), reflecting greater improvement among Taekwondo students. Results from an executive function computer-administered task revealed greater accuracy on the congruent trial (d = 2.00, p = .02) for Taekwondo students. Differences in mean residualized change scores for BMI z scores yielded a moderate, non-significant effect size (d = −.51, p = .16). The majority of Taekwondo students reported positive perceptions of Taekwondo and perceived self-improvement in self-control and physical fitness. Results suggest that Taekwondo is an exercise program that improves cognitive functioning and is both feasible and acceptable to implement in a public school setting.
Statement of problem
Growing evidence testifies that different types of physical activity (PA) interventions promote cognitive development, but the specific impact of the cognitive demands inherent in PA still remains underconsidered. This study investigated whether (1) increasing the cognitive demands of PA positively impacts children’s executive function and (2) this ‘enrichment’ also matches the ability/skill level of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD).
Methods
Two hundred and fifty children aged 5-10 years participated in different physical education interventions, lasting six months, with or without special focus on cognitively demanding PA. Before and after the intervention, children’s executive function was tested with the attention and planning subscales of the Cognitive Assessment System and their motor developmental level classified as typical, borderline, or DCD according to their performance evaluated by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children.
Results
Among indices of executive function, those of Attention showed a differential effect of PA type as a function of children’s motor developmental level: typically developing children gained greatest attentional benefit from PA with additional cognitive demands, while children with coordinative problems/impairment from the PA program without cognitive enrichment. Changes from DCD to borderline or normal developmental status did not differ in frequency as a function of intervention type.
Conclusions
Results showed that cognitively more or less challenging PA programs are differently efficacious for promoting attention development and highlight the need to find and continuously reset the degree of task complexity in PA to match the optimal challenge point of normal and special children populations.
Response inhibition paradigms, as for example stop signal and go/no-go tasks, are often used to study cognitive control processes. Because of the apparent demand to stop a motor reaction, the electrophysiological responses evoked by stop and no-go trials have sometimes likewise been interpreted as indicators of inhibitory processes. Recent research, however, suggests a richer conceptual background. Evidence denotes an association of a frontal-midline N200/theta oscillations with premotor cognitive processes such as conflict monitoring or response program updating, and an anterior P300/delta oscillations with response-related, evaluative processing stages, probably the evaluation of motor inhibition. However, the data are still insufficient to unambiguously relate these electroencephalographic measures to specific inhibitory functions. Beta band activity only recently has become a focus of attention in this task context because of its association with the motor system and regions involved in inhibitory control. Its functional role in response inhibition tasks needs further exploration though. Hence, as things stand, any deduction of differences regarding actual inhibitory capabilities or loads between subject groups or conditions based on electroencephalographic measures has to be treated with caution.
This study examined the association between automatic processes and drinking behavior in relation to individual differences in response inhibition in young adolescents who had just started drinking. It was hypothesized that strong automatic behavioral tendencies toward alcohol-related stimuli (alcohol-approach bias) were associated with higher levels of alcohol use, especially amongst adolescents with relatively weak inhibition skills.
To test this hypothesis structural equation analyses (standard error of mean) were performed using a zero inflated Poisson (ZIP) model. A well-known problem in studying risk behavior is the low incidence rate resulting in a zero dominated distribution. A ZIP-model accounts for non-normality of the data.
Adolescents were selected from secondary Special Education schools (a risk group for the development of substance use problems).
Participants were 374 adolescents (mean age of M = 13.6 years).
Adolescents completed the alcohol Approach Avoidance Task (a-AAT), the Stroop Colour Naming Task (Stroop) and a questionnaire that assessed alcohol use.
The ZIP-model established stronger alcohol-approach tendencies for adolescent drinkers (P < 0.01) and the interaction revealed a stronger effect of alcohol-approach tendencies on alcohol use in the absence of good inhibition skills (P < 0.05).
Automatically-activated cognitive processes are associated with the drinking behavior of young, at-risk adolescents. It appears that alcohol-approach tendencies are formed shortly after the initiation of drinking and particularly affect the drinking behavior of adolescents with relatively weak inhibition skills. Implications for the prevention of problem drinking in adolescents are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to characterize the adaptations imposed by four weeks of pre-competition judo training in youth athletes. It was hypothesized that anthropometric and sport-specific performance would improve during the preparation for a junior national championship event. Twenty youth athletes (mean±SD; chronological age: 13.1±3.2 years; training age: 5.3±3.5 years; judo experience: 7.8±2.5 hours/week) completed pre- and post-testing procedures. Child (≤ 12 years old; n=8) and Adolescent (≥13 years old; n=12) groups were evaluated to determine the anthropometric and sport-specific performance changes caused by four weeks of judo training conducted in preparation for the junior national championships. The Child group showed an increase in flexibility (+11.5%) and the Adolescent group showed a decrease in skinfold thickness (-12.2%), increased jumping power (+26.7%), force (+7.7%), and velocity (+19.0%), and improved judo-specific ability (-5.9%), as measured by the Special Judo Fitness Test Index. Additionally, the Special Judo Fitness Test Index for all of the study participants was shown to be inversely correlated to handgrip strength (r=-0.681), rope pull performance (r=-0.545), and jump height (r=-0.503). These results support the use of preparatory judo training in the improvement of anthropometric and sport-specific measures in adolescent athletes. Furthermore, the outcomes from this study provide direction for coaches and trainers in their efforts to impact physical performance and judo skills in children and adolescents through pre-competition training.
It is unknown how the estimation of aerobic fitness in children and adolescents compares among physical working capacity (PWC) protocols with different stage lengths. The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) compare PWC tests with 2-, 3-, and 6-min stage lengths in youth, and (2) examine the relationship between PWC at a heart rate (HR) of 170 beats min(-1) (PWC170) and peak oxygen consumption (VO(2)peak). Fifty youth (31 m, 19 f), aged 11-16 years participated. Each participant visited the laboratory twice and performed three PWC tests (2-, 3-, 6-min stages) on a cycle ergometer. Tests usually consisted of three stages of increasing loads with the goal of reaching HR ≥ 165 beats min(-1). Individual regression lines were created to predict workload at HR = 170 beats ∙ min(-1) for each test. Participants completed two VO(2peak) tests, both running and cycling. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare PWC170 values. Pearson correlation was used to assess the relationships between VO(2peak) and power output for different PWC170 stage lengths. The three PWC170 protocols differ significantly; therefore, it is not advisable to directly compare results from different protocols. Furthermore, PWC170 showed moderate associations with VO(2peak), with the 2-min protocol showing the best correlation.
Unlabelled:
The development of fundamental movement skills (FMS) is associated with positive health-related outcomes. Children do not develop FMS naturally through maturational processes. These skills need to be learned, practised and reinforced. The objective was to determine the effectiveness of motor skill interventions in children. The following databases were searched for relevant articles: Academic Search Premier, PsycArticles, PsycInfo, SportDiscus and ERIC. No date range was specified and each search was conducted to include all possible years of publication specific to each database. Key terms for the search included motor, skill, movement, intervention, programme or children. Searches were conducted using single and combined terms. Pertinent journals and article reference lists were also manually searched.
Inclusion criteria:
(1) implementation of any type of motor skill intervention; (2) pre- and post-qualitative assessment of FMS; and (3) availability of means and standard deviations of motor performance. A significant positive effect of motor skill interventions on the improvement of FMS in children was found (d= 0.39, P < 0.001). Results indicate that object control (d= 0.41, P < 0.001) and locomotor skills (d= 0.45, P < 0.001) improved similarly from pre- to post-intervention. The overall effect size for control groups (i.e. free play) was not significant (d= 0.06, P= 0.33). A Pearson correlation indicated a non-significant (P= 0.296), negative correlation (r=-0.18) between effect size of pre- to post-improvement of FMS and the duration of the intervention (in minutes). Motor skill interventions are effective in improving FMS in children. Early childhood education centres should implement 'planned' movement programmes as a strategy to promote motor skill development in children.
The purpose of this study was to examine specific aspects of the reliability and validity of age band 1 of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children--Second Edition (MABC-2) (Henderson, Sugden, & Barnett, 2007) in Greek preschool children. One hundred and eighty-three children participated in the study; the children ranged in age from 36 to 64 months old (M = 50 months, SD = 9 months). Test-retest reliability of the MABC-2 was evaluated using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Cronbach's alpha for the items of each motor domain was estimated to determine internal consistency. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the factorial validity of the MABC-2 test. Correlation coefficients among individual item scores and the total score were also calculated to further examine validity. The ICC for all test items was good, except for the drawing trail task, which was moderate. Cronbach's alpha coefficient values were .51, .70 and .66 for manual dexterity, aiming and catching, and balance, respectively. In the confirmatory factor analysis, goodness-of-fit indices suggested a satisfactory fit of the data to the model. The correlation coefficients between each test item and the total score were moderate. The results suggest that the MABC-2 can be a reliable and valid tool for the assessment of movement difficulties among 3-5-year-old children.
Behavioural performance in the Go/NoGo task was compared with caregiver and teacher reports of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity in 1,151 children (N = 557 boys; N = 594 girls) age 9- 10-years-old. Errors of commission (NoGo errors) were significantly correlated with symptom counts of hyperactivity-impulsivity, while errors of omission (Go errors) were significantly correlated with symptom counts for inattention in both caregiver and teacher reports. Cross-correlations were also evident, however, such that errors of commission were related to inattention symptoms, and errors of omission were related to hyperactivity-impulsivity. Moreover, hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention symptoms were highly intercorrelated in both caregiver (r = .52) and teacher reports (r = .70), while errors of commission and omission were virtually uncorrelated in the Go/NoGo task (r = .06). The results highlight the difficulty in disentangling hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention in questionnaires, and suggest that these constructs may be more clearly distinguished in laboratory measures such as the Go/NoGo task.
This study determined gender and ethnic differences in physical work capacity (PWC170) of 8-16-year-old American youth as they progress from elementary to high school. A multicohort group of 2,540 youth participated 50.4% girls (21.4% African Americans, and 78.6% Caucasians). PWC170 was predicted from cycle ergometer testing six times over a 7-year period. The absolute PWC170 of girls stabilized in early adolescence, while boys increased with each trial. The PWC170 relative to body weight of girls decreased steadily, whereas the boys remained stable. African Americans had greater absolute PWC170 values than Caucasians (p = .0001). The relative PWC170 was lower for African American girls than Caucasian girls (p = .0001), but there were no ethnic differences for boys (p > .05). Although correlations and grouping suggested moderate tracking; girls with high relative PWC170 tended to migrate to lower levels as they aged, where as high-peforming boys maintained their PWC170 as they aged.
In a recent ERP study of inhibitory control using the Stop-Signal Task [Pliszka, S., Liotti, M., Woldorff, M. (2000). Inhibitory control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Event-related potentials identify the processing component and timing of an impaired right-frontal response-inhibition mechanism. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 238-246], we showed that in normal children (age 10-12 years) the Stop Signals elicited a robust, right-frontal-maximal N200 (latency approximately 200 ms) that was strongly reduced in children with ADHD. To further investigate the mechanisms of response inhibition, this paradigm was applied to 11 healthy young adults. To better distinguish response-inhibition-related activity from early attentional effects, a "Stop-Signal-Irrelevant" condition was added, in which subjects performed the task while ignoring the Stop Signals. In the Stop-Signal-Relevant condition, the right frontal N200 to the Stop Signals was larger for Successful inhibition (SI) than for Failed inhibition (FI) trials. The timing and distribution of this effect was strikingly similar to that of the right-frontal ADHD deficit reported in Pliszka et al. (2000), supporting this activity being related to successful normal inhibitory control processes. In contrast, a posterior N200 was larger for Stop-Relevant than for Stop-Irrelevant trials, likely reflecting enhanced early sensory attention to the Stop Signals when relevant. Two longer-latency failure-specific ERP effects were also observed: a greater frontopolar negative wave (370-450 ms) to Failed than Successful inhibitions, and a greater parietal positive slow wave (450-650 ms) for Failed inhibitions than ignore-stop trials, likely reflecting differential recruitment of error detection and correction mechanisms following Failed attempts to inhibit a response.
Although an estimated 6.5 million United States (US) children aged 6-17 practiced a martial art in 2004, there have been no nationally representative studies comparing pediatric injuries among the three most popular disciplines, karate, taekwondo, and judo. Describe pediatric martial arts injuries presenting to a representative sample of US Emergency Departments (EDs) from 1990 to 2003. We reviewed all martial arts injuries captured by the US Consumer Product Safety Commission's (CPSC), National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS). An estimated 128,400 children </=17 years were treated in US EDs for martial arts-related injuries from 1990 to 2003. Injured tended to be male (73.0%) and had a mean age of 12.1 years. Most injuries were attributed to karate (79.5%). The most common mechanism of injury was being kicked (25.6%), followed by falling (20.6%) and kicking (18.0%). The majority of injuries occurred to the lower leg/foot/ankle (30.1%) and hand/wrist (24.5%). The most common injury diagnoses were sprains/strains (29.3%), contusions/abrasions (27.8%), and fractures (24.6%). Participants in judo sustained significantly higher proportions of shoulder/upper arm injuries than karate (IPR=4.31, 95% CI: 2.84-6.55) or taekwondo (IPR=9.75, 95% CI: 3.53-26.91) participants. There were also higher proportions of neck injuries sustained by judo participants compared to karate (IPR=4.73, 95% CI: 1.91-11.70) or taekwondo (IPR=4.17, 95% CI: 1.02-17.06) participants. Pediatric martial arts injuries differ by discipline. Understanding these injury patterns can assist with the development of discipline-specific preventive interventions.
The empirical and theoretical development of the P300 event-related brain potential (ERP) is reviewed by considering factors that contribute to its amplitude, latency, and general characteristics. The neuropsychological origins of the P3a and P3b subcomponents are detailed, and how target/standard discrimination difficulty modulates scalp topography is discussed. The neural loci of P3a and P3b generation are outlined, and a cognitive model is proffered: P3a originates from stimulus-driven frontal attention mechanisms during task processing, whereas P3b originates from temporal-parietal activity associated with attention and appears related to subsequent memory processing. Neurotransmitter actions associating P3a to frontal/dopaminergic and P3b to parietal/norepinephrine pathways are highlighted. Neuroinhibition is suggested as an overarching theoretical mechanism for P300, which is elicited when stimulus detection engages memory operations.
The Development of Academic Achievement and Cognitive 438
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Abilities: A Bidirectional Perspective
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