Content uploaded by Sara Rashid
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Sara Rashid on Feb 22, 2021
Content may be subject to copyright.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
1
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
An Exploratory Study On The Trailing Spouses‘
Adjustment On A Foreign Soil
Dr. Sara Rashid, Dr. Khurram Shakir, Arsalan Ahmed, Dr. Faheem Bukhari, Dr. Nazia Abdul Rehman
Abstract: Spouse adjustment is regarded as the most notable personal factor playing a vital role in the adjustment of an expat. This study focuses on
the determinants of trailing spouse adjustment overseas and their importance in the successful adjustment of an expatriate. The cooperation,
commitment and contribution of a partner to the personal and emotional wellbeing of an expatriate can‘t be overlooked. This study examines the factors
of spouse adjustment across national boundaries and highlights the importance of organizational support and cultural intelligence as factors that aid in
adjustment and adaptation of expats and their families in a foreign environment. An online administered survey was carried out in order to analyze the
determinants of adjustment of Pakistani trailing spouses in a foreign location. Data was collected using snowball sampling method. The findings of the
study emphasize the importance of trailing spouse adjustment in influencing an expatriate‘s adjustment during an overseas assignment.
Keywords: Trailing Spouse, Globalization, Cultural quotient, Organizational behavior, Cross cultural trailing, Organizational support.
————————————————————
1 INTRODUCTION
Globalization enabled organizations to conduct their
operations in foreign countries. This led organizations to
send their employees as expatriates for foreign
assignments. The relational and personal factors of an
expatriate play a vital role in his/her adjustment in a foreign
environment (Haile and White, 2019). Among the personal
factors, spouse adjustment has been acknowledged to play
a predominantly strong role in expat adjustment and
success of a foreign assignment. Spouse successful
adjustment depends upon the social involvement (Webber
and Vögel, 2019) and openness in attitude of the spouses
(Vainikka, 2016). As per literature a well-adapted and a
contented spouse advances the expatriate‘s performance at
work by progressing the interactional adjustment of the
expatriate at a rapid pace. The present literature is limited
to the expatriate adjustment of western expatriates (Du-
Babcock, 2000; Herleman et al., 2008; Takeuchi et al.,
2007). During the past two decades a large number of
Asian employees have migrated to foreign countries due to
work Moreover, many multinationals belonging to Asia have
shifted their businesses from domestic markets to foreign
markets. The current trend towards globalization of markets
and globalization of production has resulted in multi-cultural
work force. This has redirected the focus of International
human resource management researches towards the
adjustment process, determinants, outcomes and
antecedents of Asian expatriates and their families. The
present research studies the determinants of Pakistani
expat adjustment in a foreign culture and explores the
significance of perceived managerial assistance in effecting
the adjustment of expats and their spouses. Organizations
must consider the importance of family adjustment and
provide necessary support in adaptation to a foreign
environment (Vainikka, 2016). The success of an expatriate
depends upon the adjustment of the trailing spouse;
therefore, this fact increases the significance for
organizations to pay heightened consideration to the trailing
spouse adjustment and wellbeing (Eriksson and Lindström,
2013). Literature suggests that there are various reasons of
an expatriate‘s foreign assignment failure. These causes of
failure can be job related factors, personal factors or
organizational factors. Organizational factors include
expatriate selection and preparation, training and
development needs, and cultural adjustment (Haile and
White, 2019). Job related factors include organizational
strategic control and job dissatisfaction (Wang and Varma,
2019). However, the personal factors include cultural shock,
family dissatisfaction and incompetence to adjust in a new
environment and culture. Among these factors cultural
distance plays a dominant role in premature return of an
expatriate and it is moderated by management practices
(Wang and Varma, 2019). Cross cultural adjustment plays a
mediating role in effecting the association between
intelligence and expat adjustment (Chew, Ghurburn,
Terspstra-Tong and Perera, 2019). Organizations play a
crucial part in the adjustment of their expatriates in a new
environment (Salgado and Bastida, 2017). As per previous
research, one of the reasons for an expats failure in a
foreign country is the lack of ability of the trailing spouse in
adjusting in a foreign location (Gupta, Banerjee, and Gaur
2012). This results in an early return ofan expat (Forster;
2000). Human resource systems within organizations have
widely ignored the personal factors of an expatriate that aid
in the emotional wellbeing and adjustment of an expat. This
research highlights the importance of a trailing spouse in an
expat‘s adjustment in a foreign country. Spouses play the
vital part in the life of an individual. A spouse not only
serves as a counsellor, a companion and a care giver
rather a spouse plays an essential part in the success and
happiness of an individual. Unfortunately, Pakistanis
habitually overlook the needs of their female counter part in
terms of their career choices. Moreover, their professional
identity is often not recognized and acknowledged. In many
Asian countries including Pakistan, the perception of female
spouses is ignored while making crucial life decisions such
as job relocation (Iftikhar and Awan, 2019). Moreover,
Multinational enterprises have also consistently ignored the
importance of both physical and mental wellbeing of a
trailing spouse while planning, designing and executing
support systems for their expatriatesThe term ―Trailing
spouses‖ was first used by Mary Bralove in 1981 (Wall
Street Journal). It was used to describe the spouses of
expatriates that accompany them overseas (Mary Bralove,
Wall Street Journal 1981 as cited Cangià, 2018). A trailing
spouse not only worries about the obvious reasons such as
the general living conditions including housing, climate,
health conditions, education of children rather there are
other veiled reasons for their concern about living in a
foreign destination. These concealed reasons include the
loss of identity, foregoing their own career and leaving
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
2
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
behind family and friends. More and more trailing spouses
are concerned about their loss of professional identity and
career goals thus leading to unhappiness and lack of
adjustment in a foreign country (Parfitt and Jenkins,
2008). One of the most notable reasons of an expat failure
is the incapability of a trailing spouse and family to adjust in
the host country (Tung, 1982, 1987). Literature has
highlighted the importance of family adjustment as the most
notable factor affecting the success of an expatriate in a
foreign country (Selma, 2002). It is challenging for a
Multinational enterprise is to devise corporate strategies
keeping in view the expat family adaptability factors. This
study explores the roots of Pakistani trailing spouses‘
adjustment factors. The trailing spouses of expatriates
working in United States of America, Great Britain, Canada,
Australia, Malaysia, Singapore and Middle East countries
(including Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Kuwait) were
considered for this research. This study sheds light on an
importance of organizational support mechanisms and
practices in assisting expat family adjustment thereby
ensuring spouse loyalty towards the organization. Pakistan
has a rich culture that is different from western countries
while the work ethics of Pakistan is different from Shinto,
Confucianism and protestant work ethic. The culture of
Pakistan is marked by collectivism as opposed to
individualism (Islam, 2004). The Pakistani culture is not
marked by 100 percent work attendance every day, nor
does the culture encourages work from home or flexible
work hours. Therefore, when a Pakistani expat works in a
foreign environment then he has to adjust and adapt as per
the culture, living conditions and work ethics of the new
country. Hence, this study is novel and unique and it
contributes to the spouse adjustment and expat adjustment
of Pakistani expatriates who form a global workforce and
are present in almost every region of the globe. The
conceptual model presented in this study is based upon the
theoretical model (see Fig.1) which has been adapted from
the previous work on Expatriate‘s Family Adjustment
(Caligiuri and Lazarova, 2002) and cross-cultural
adjustment of female trailing spouses (Caligiuri, Hyland,
Joshi and Bross, 1998). Therefore, the aim of this study is
to explore the determinants of spouse adjustment in a
foreign location and then study its impact on the foreign
adjustment of an expat. The outcome of this study will
assist multinational corporations in devising organizational
support systems keeping in view the expats‘ family
preferences and spouse adjustability. Previous researches
have been conducted in Asian continent including Japan,
Malaysia, India and Indonesia as well as Western
continents of Europe and America. Adding information from
the context of Pakistani trailing spouse in a foreign soil
would be an addition in the academic literature. This
unexplored segment warrants a potential to conduct a
research in this area.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Cultural Intelligence
The term Cultural intelligence or cultural quotient (CQ) has
been widely used by academic researchers in the context of
business, education, government and organizational
behavioral theories. It denotes the capability of an individual
to work efficiently across various cultures. This concept was
first introduced by Earley and Ang in the year 2003 and is
based upon the Theory of successful intelligence given by
Sternberg and Dettermans (1986) and the theory of multiple
facets of intelligence by Gardener (1993). Current
researches in multidisciplinary areas have emphasized the
importance of cultural intelligence in today‘s multicultural
work environment and settings. As per the literature
generated on Cultural Intelligence since the year 2002 till
date, it has been found that cultural intelligence effects
negotiation performance (Imai and Gelfand, 2010), global
leadership (Sutton et al., 2013), expatriation intention
(Richter et al., 2019) and job performance (Ang et al., 2007,
Wu, and Ang, 2011). As per literature, two determinants of
cultural intelligence have been recognized namely,
exposure to other cultures (such as acquiring education in a
foreign environment or working in a foreign country) and the
level of exposure from these experiences (Crowne, 2008).
During the past twenty years, tremendous research has
been carried out to explore different dimensions of
intelligence. They include including emotional, cultural,
social and practical intelligence (Sternberg and Detterman
1986). Literature supports the concept of cultural
intelligence as a predecessor of different variables such as
job performance (Jyoti and Kour, 2017), cross border
leadership effectiveness (Rockstuhl, Seiler, Ang, Van Dyne,
and An,namelynen, 2011) and job effectiveness in different
cultural environments (Ott and Michailova, 2018). In a
globalized world that is marked by diversity in work force, it
is crucial for a business leader to understand the
international business in the presence of societal and
cultural influences as the managers and leaders are in
charge of multicultural teams. The development of such
global leadership requires high Cultural Intelligence of a
leader (Tuleja, 2014). Cultural intelligence was found to
have mainly four dimensions, namely: cognitive, meta
cognitive, behavioral and motivational dimensions (Ang et
al., 2007). The dimensions metacognitive, cognitive and
motivation are related to conceptual capabilities however
behavioral are considered as overt actions. Meta cognitive
cultural intelligence denotes the ability of a person to be
culturally aware and apply cultural knowledge in order to
adapt to a culture while interacting in a foreign culture (Ang
and Dyne, 2008). It was emphasized by Bogilovic and
Skerlava (2016) that the higher the metacognitive skill of an
individual, the greater will be the creativity of an individual in
a multicultural setting. Cognitive Cultural intelligence
denotes the knowledge of a person about values, norms,
practices, aesthetics, conventions, manners, religious
practices, occasions, festivals, legal systems, languages,
cultural differences and cultural similarities. This knowledge
can be acquired through various methods including
experience and education (Ang and Dyne, 2008).
Motivational Cultural quotient is divided into three types
namely efficacy, enhancement and consistency (Ng and
Earley, 2006). These components have both a direct and
an indirect influence on the capability of an individual to
adjust to a new nation in terms of cultural values.
Behavioral dimension of cultural intelligence refers to the
social behavior of an individual in a multi-cultural
environment. People with a great degree of behavioral
cultural intelligence are aware of applying the correct
words, gestures, tones and facial expressions in order to
meet the anticipation of others (Ang et al., 2007).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
3
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
Adjustment has been studied as a mediator between
cultural intelligence and expatriate job performance
(Ramalu, Rose, Uli, and Kumar, 2012). It is essential for
corporations to improve the level of cultural quotient of their
expat employees through cultural trainings so as to be
successful internationally. Organizational social support and
logistical help such as schooling, housing and spousal
employment aids expat to reduce the anxiety and ambiguity
experienced during their process of cross-cultural
adjustment to a foreign cultural environment (Shaffer,
Harrison, and Gilley, 1999; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005).
Cultural intelligence has spillover effects over expat and
their spouse‘s cross-cultural adjustment (Ramalu, Rose, Uli,
and Kumar, 2012; Ang and Van Dyne, 2015.A research
conducted in Malaysia supported the importance of cultural
intelligence in building spouse general and interactional
adjustment in a foreign country (Malek and Budhwar, 2013).
Henceforth, the above information leads to the development
of the following hypothesis:
H1: Cultural Intelligence has a positive impact on Spouse
Adjustment.
Literature supports the idea that higher cultural intelligence
leads to well adjustment in a novel cultural setting and it
leads to increased job performance of an expatriate. It is
vital for multinational enterprises to provide trainings to their
personnel in order to enhance their Cultural intelligence and
prepare the prospective applicants for global projects.
Human resource development and training programs such
as mentoring from both the host and the home country
managers and peers, role play, cultural simulations, may
assistance expatriate adjustment and allow them to
performance efficiently in a multicultural business
environment. The advent of globalization, management of
multi-cultural work force and diversification is vital for the
success of any organization. Cultural Quotient envisions a
variety of vital consequences in intercultural contexts,
namely expatriate performance, multicultural team
processes, cultural adaptation, intercultural negotiation and
global leadership (Van Dyne, Ang, Ng, Rockstuhl, Tan, and
Koh, 2012). Cultural intelligence has been found to have a
significant impact on the performance of an expatriate in a
foreign country (Guðmundsdóttir, 2015). It has further been
found that Cultural quotient significantly influences the
cross-cultural adjustment (general, interaction, and work) of
an expat (Templer, and Chandrasekar,2006). Cultural
intelligence is a surviving tool for an expatriate in a foreign
country as it helps to overcome the cultural shock and
assist in the adaptation process (Lin, Chen, and Song,
2012). Cultural intelligence plays a vital role on the
performance of an expat by affecting the adjustment of an
expat on a foreign assignment (Wang et al.,2019). Thus,
the above information leads to the development of the
following hypothesis:
H2: Cultural Intelligence is positively associated with Expat
Adjustment.
2.2 Perceived Organizational Support
In the domain of Organizational behavior and employee
relationships, the most notable theory has been
acknowledged as the Social exchange theory (Cropanzano,
Anthony, Daniels, and Hall, 2017). This theory emphasizes
the importance of trust and support in the relationship
between personnel and their corporations (Yu, Mai, Tsai
and Dai, 2018). An organization‘s supportive work place
environment results in positive outcomes including
employee engagement, loyalty and commitment (Nazir and
Islam, 2017). Perceived Organizational support is
considered to be the determinant of high efficiency of an
employee due to high level of trust and commitment. Thus,
the relationship between the personnel and their
organization is greatly dependent upon the perceived
organizational support (Kim, Eisenberger and Baik,2016).
Perceived organizational support reduces employee stress,
anxiety, health concern and depression therefore it results
in an employees‘ positive work outcomes. Academic
researchers have applied the logic of Perceived
Organizational Support to the discipline of global human
resource management and specifically to the study of
expatriate management practices (Ekrot, Rank, Kock, and
Gemünden, 2018). As per the Organizational support
theory the employees make a general perception about the
degree to which an organization values its employees
contribution and the attention that it pays about the
wellbeing of its employees (Kurtessis, Eisenberger, Ford,
Buffardi, Stewart, and Adis, 2017).The level of
organizational support in any company depends upon the
organizational structure, organizational ethics and
organizational culture (Winnubst, 2017).Organizations not
only are responsible for the financial needs of an employee
including the wages, health benefits etc. But they are also
in charge of the socio emotional needs of employees that
include factors like respect, recognition and care. Perceived
Organizational support has a direct and positive impact on
employee commitment and job satisfaction (Byrne and
Hochwarter, 2008). It decreases the turnover rate and
absenteeism within organizations (De Stobbeleir, 2018).
2.3 Perceived Organizational Support And Adjustment
Organizational social support includes financial support,
career support and adjustment support. Career support
states the degree to which an enterprise takes into
consideration an expatriate employees‘ personal goals
related to career development both pre and post
expatriation. Over sees tasks serve as the basis for the
development of an employees‘ international management
skills (Tungli and Peiperl 2009). The second dimension of
Perceived Organizational Support includes finance support
which refers to the magnitude of financial support from the
parent company to the expatriate post international transfer.
Financial support includes allowances, housing provisions
and cost of living (Kraimer and Wayne 2004, Wu and Ang
2011). Third aspect of perceived organizational support
includes Adjustment organizational support. Adjustment
organizational support includes the level at which an
organization supports the expatriate and his/her family
during the adjustment process. It includes all forms of social
support such as cross-cultural training, environmental
briefing, cultural assimilation programs, language training,
relocation assistance such as support in finding appropriate
schools for children (Wu and Ang 2011). It also includes
support by an Organization in dealing with legal issues and
housing issues (Aycan 1997). Past research has
acknowledged the importance of a developing a career
counselling program for the trailing spouses by corporations
(Coyle,1996). The requisite of cross-cultural transfer
training was also supported in the past (Black and
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
4
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
Mendenhall, 1990; Tung ,1987). It is crucial to take suitable
measures for preparing a trailing spouse to adjust in a new
country through pre departure training programs and
ensuring career options by providing a work permit for the
spouse. The support given to the family members specially
the wives of expats in turn helps the expatriates to adjust
easily in the new environment (Lazarova, McNulty, and
Semeniuk, 2015). Hence the following hypothesis has been
conceptualized. Therefore, the above information leads to
the development of the following hypothesis:
H3: Perceived Organizational Support has a positive impact
on Trailing Spouse Adjustment.
The level and the quality of the psychological contract
between an expatriate and an organization is reflected
through perceived support provided by that organization.
The organizational support in the form of cultural trainings,
language trainings and environmental briefings, prior to the
departure of an expat to a new destination, serve as the
foundation of the process of preparing an expat employee
for the foreign task (Chen and Shaffer,2017). As per prior
literature the perceived organizational support moderates
the relationship between home or host country Leader
member exchange and expatriate employee voice (Sher,
Zhuang, Wang, Peng, and Lee, 2019). As per a research
conducted by Kraimer and Wayne (2004), it is claimed that
organizational support has a direct impact on expat
adjustment (Froese, and Peltokorpi, 2011). Previous
literature has supported the idea that perceived
organizational support has a positive and significant impact
on expatriate‘s adjustment in a foreign country (Du-
Babcock,2018). Hence the subsequent proposition is
hypothesized:
H4: Perceived organizational support has a positive impact
on expatriate adjustment.
2.4 Expat Adjustment
The performance of an expatriate on a foreign assignment
depends greatly upon four factors, namely length of the
assignment, Reluctance to accept an overseas project,
Psychological and work-related factors (Dowling, Festing,
and Engle;2008). Low expat work performance and high
expat failures have been associated with the inability of an
expatriate to adjust to the new culture (Shin, Morgeson and
Campion, 2007). The technical competency of the
personnel has a minute effect on an employee‘s capability
to adjust to a novel culture (Selmer, 2000; Harvey and
Novicevic; 2001). As per literature the most important
psychological factor that effects an expat‘s adjustment is
the adjustment of the spouse. Failed assignments are a
result of spouse dissatisfaction and the spouse's inability
to adapt to a foreign environment (Lazarova, McNulty and
Semeniuk,2015). Literature proves that organizational
support in terms of emotional and psychological support is
essential to expat adjustment (Gudmundsdottir,
Gudlaugsson, and Adalsteinsson,2019). Prior literature
strongly supports the impact of spouse cross cultural
adjustment on expatriate adjustment in a foreign
environment (Takeuchi et al. (2002). A well-adjusted, happy
trailing spouse makes their working spouse happy and
more productive for their company (Barnett, Marshall, and
Sayer, 1992, Lambert;1990). Such employees are more
likely to be successful on foreign posts. Thus, we conclude
the following hypothesis:
H5: Trailing Spouse Adjustment is positively associated
with Expat Adjustment.
2.5 Spouse Adjustment
Trailing spouses differ in their approach to move from the
home country to the host country. Some may embrace the
adventure of moving to a foreign destination, however
others may feel a great sense of stress, fear and
depression to leave behind their immediate family members
and friends. Many trailing spouses usually females have to
leave their professional careers to accompany their
expatriate spouses (Suutari and Brewster, 2000). These
spouses face challenges that are different from their
counterpart. They are usually responsible for setting-up the
new accommodation, finding right schools for the children,
and managing the logistical dimensions of relocation. The
term used to describe these spouse (usually women) is
―trailing spouses or forgotten partners (McNulty, 2015).
Mostly organizations have support programs and trainings
for their employees but they usually neglect the spouses of
expats leaving them with no support group. This results in
spouse depression, isolation and feelings of loneliness (De
Cieri et al., 1991).It has been argued that spouse has a
greater challenging role in a foreign location as compared
to the expat( Adler and Kwon ,2002).Cultural shock has a
greater impact on the trailing spouse than it does on the
expatriate employee. Loss of identity, leaving friends,
family, career path and a familiar network is a major factor
that results in lack of adjustability leading to unhappiness of
the trailing spouse (Debra Brysonand Charise Hogi).
Trailing Spouses‘ overall satisfaction with the foreign
environment is positively related to expatriates‘ non-work
satisfaction caused by crossover effects (Shaffer and
Harrison, 1998). Moreover, literature suggests that partner
adjustment affects not only expatriate adjustment but can
also cross over to expatriate engagement in both the work
and the family context (Lazarova et al., 2010). The general
living conditions including the climate, health and safety
conditions, housing and education are critical for a spouse
(Harvey, 1985; Black and Gregersen; 1991). Interaction
with the Host country nationals guides the spouse to better
understand the host culture, behaviors, etiquettes and
norms. (Black and Gregersen; 1991). Social interaction also
positively affects the adjustment process of the spouse
(Black and Gregersen;1991). It is important for the trailing
spouse too overcome the cultural shock due to the foreign
environment. Three family characteristics as described by
the family theory, contribute to adjustment among
expatriate spouses, namely; cohesion, adaptability and
communication. (Van Der Zee and Sanders; 2003). A
happy trailing spouse in turn makes the expatriate happy
resulting in increased productivity and longer stay of the
expat (Barnett, Marshall and Sayer, 1992; Lambert; 1990).
Adjustability behavior depends on personality traits. As per
literature extroverts adjust easily to a new environment,
however people who stay aloof, nervous, quiet take a
greater time to adjust to new locations. Cultural intelligence
enhances an individual‘s ability to communicate with host
country nationals. Literature supports the strong impact of
cultural intelligence on cross cultural training moderated by
work experience (Jyoti, Pereira, and Kour,2019). Moreover,
it has been suggested that cross cultural adjustment plays
the role of a mediator between cultural intelligence and
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
5
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
knowledge sharing relationship (Jyoti, Pereira, and
Kour,2019). Culturally intelligent people have a high degree
of adaptability and adjustment abilities. Spouse with a high
cultural intelligence can easily adjust to a foreign
environment due to their ability to communicate
successfully with individuals belonging to dissimilar cultural
backgrounds. Therefore, they assist their expat partners to
adapt and adjust to a foreign environment while working
oversees. The following hypothesis is conceptualized:
H6: Trailing Spouse Adjustment mediates the association
between Cultural Intelligence and Expat Adjustment.
Multinational organizations must initiate organizational
support strategies for trailing spouses, as failure to do so
could endanger their expansion activities in Asian countries.
Several studies on the importance of spouse adjustment in
effecting expat‘s ability to work oversees highlight the
necessity for Organizational support policies that focus on
spouses (Black and Gregersen, 1991; Brett and Stroh,
1995). Organizations that do not undergo the practice of
training the expats and their families for overseas
assignments have been considered to ―send people into
combat without teaching them how to fight‖ (Carpenter,
2001). Literature suggests that organizational support such
as cross-cultural training has a significant impact on
expatriate and their spouse‘s adjustment (Deshpande and
Viswesvaran, 1992). A happy trailing spouse causes the
expat employee to be more successful, productive, and
satisfied (Mohr and Klein, 2004). Literature suggests that
cross cultural adjustment plays the role of a mediator in the
relationship between organizational social support and
expatriate adjustment (Ramos, Mustafa, and Haddad,
2017). Previous studies suggest that organizations should
focus their support activities towards the adjustment of
spouses of their expats (Tahir and Oasis, 2019). Thus, the
following hypothesis has been conceptualized:
H7: Trailing Spouse Adjustment mediates the association
between Organizational Support and Expat Adjustment.
This research contributes to the field of international Human
resource management and organizational behavioral
studies. The findings of this research can be utilized by HR
managers to design organizational support programs for
both the expat and their spouses keeping in view their
cultural intelligence. This research therefore gives a road
map for the nature and duration of pre departure training to
be provided to expats and their families prior to departure. It
further stresses the need for a constant socio support
system for expat and their families during relocation. This
research has implications for training as well as for the
management of foreign assignments and it creates new
avenues for research on expatriate management. Hence,
the above discussion leads to the development of the
following three major research questions:
1. What are the factors impacting the expatriate
adjustment on a foreign soil?
2. Does trailing spouse mediates the association
between cultural intelligence and organizational
support with expat adjustment?
3 METHODOLOGY
This is a quantitative study and the data was collected from
the spouses of Pakistani expatriates residing in different
parts of the world through an online survey method. The
selected countries were USA, Canada, Europe (Great
Britain), Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Oman,
Kuwait), Singapore, Malaysia and Australia. Moreover,
the snowball sampling technique was used to determine the
sample size. A well-devised questionnaire on a five-point
Likert scale was developed and sent to 320 expat‘s
spouses residing in the countries mentioned above. The
main reason for choosing the stated countries was due to
the maximum presence of Pakistani expats over the last
couple of years. Moreover, the combination of various
regions would give a substantial and in-depth finding over
the subject matter. Hence. A wholesome finding from
various regions would add value to the academic literature.
The questionnaire was adapted from past studies and
modified as per the study objectives (Ang, Van Dyne, Koh,
Ng, Templar, Tay and Chandrasekar 2007; Yvonne
McNulty 2012; Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven 2000,
2001; Black and Stephens 1989). The researchers assured
the rigor by following the robust process of data collection.
At the initial stage, a pre-test was conducted wherein the
survey questionnaire was sent to the domain experts,
ensuring the right content/wording of the survey questions.
The response was positive and encouraging; however, few
changes were made in terms of the statements being asked
in the questionnaire. Once the pre-testing was completed,
the pilot test was carried out with 40 respondents to check
the reliability of the survey instrument. The results of the
reliability analysis permitted the researcher to move further
for the final data collection stage. The final survey
administered to 320 respondents via online media such as
email, skype and social media. Before entering the final
data, the questionnaires were checked for any missing
data. This initial screening revealed that out of 320
questionnaires 300 filled correctly. Therefore, the response
rate was 94 percent. Data normality was also checked by
reviewing the residual plots, which found to be at an
acceptable level, the skewness and kurtosis values were
also near to zero. Thus, the conception of normality was
taken into consideration. Hence, the notion of reliability and
validity was not ignored by the researcher. Partial Least
Square (PLS) method was utilized to assess the outcomes
of the study. Reinartz, Haenlein, and Henseler, (2009)
suggested that Partial Least Square (PLS) method is very
convenient even when sample size is small. According to
Hair, Sarstedt and Ringle (2012), PLS delivers complete
examination about variables and items used in the scale.
Chin (1998) proposed that PLS method is capable of
measuring partial relationships in absence of complete
structured model and handle latent constructs where data is
not normal.
4 RESULTS
4.1 Demographic Profile Of The Respondents
The responses collected on 320 survey questionnaires from
expat and their spouses were evaluated for completeness
and only 300 questionnaires were found duly filled, so 20
incomplete questionnaires were excluded from the study.
Therefore, only 300 questionnaires were processed for data
analysis. The participants were either currently trailing
spouses or have been a trailing spouse in the past 5
years.32.4% of the participants were relocated in United
States of America,13.1% were based in Singapore, 22.1%
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
6
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
in Middle East,8.5% in United Kingdom and 23.9% in other
destinations. All the participants were females. 1.4 %
respondents lie in the age bracket of 18 -22 years, 20.1 %
lie between 23 -27 years, 32.2% females were aged
between 28-32years, 26.2% were in the bracket 33-40
years and 20.1% lie above 40 years. Average family size of
the respondents was 4 members per house hold. Moreover,
the average time spent by the trailing spouse in the host
country was 3.09 years.
4.2 Measurement Model Analysis
Hair, Hult, Ringle, and Sarstedt, (2017), recommends that
internal consistency of measurement model can be
validated by construct reliability and validity which can be
confirmed by results of composite reliability, average
variance extracted, factor loading, Cronbach alpha,
convergent and discriminant validity. Hair, Black, Babin,
Anderson and Tatham (2006), recommended that factor
loading values should be 0.7 or higher in this study factor
loading of all constructs items are ranging from 0.706 to
0.933 which are considered as good. Brakeman and
Gottman (1986) suggested Cronbach‘s Alpha values 0.7 or
higher for the reliability of constructs. Fornell and Larcker,
(1981) proposed minimum composite reliability values 0.7
and average variance extracted values 0.5 for convergent
validity of constructs. All the values mentioned in Table 1
below depicts acceptable range of reliability and convergent
validity of measurement model. Henseler, Ringle and
Sarstedt (2015), proposed Heterotrait-monotrait HTMT
method for the assessment of discriminant validity, where
values under 0.85 are acceptable for discriminant validity.
Discriminant validity values depicted in Table 2 confirms
that latent constructs have no issue of collinearity and
measurement model fulfill the discriminant validity criteria.
Table: 1 Summary of Reliability and Validity of
Measurement Model
Factor
Loading
Cronbach's
Alpha
Composite
Reliability
Average
Variance
Extracted
(AVE)
Cultural
Intelligence
0.971
0.973
0.645
CI1
0.806
CI10
0.798
CI11
0.716
CI12
0.756
CI13
0.865
CI14
0.829
CI15
0.822
CI16
0.811
CI17
0.755
CI18
0.727
CI19
0.788
CI2
0.79
CI20
0.774
CI3
0.757
CI4
0.707
CI5
0.887
CI6
0.858
CI7
0.83
CI8
0.856
CI9
0.892
Expat
Adjustment
0.96
0.961
0.625
EA1
0.722
EA10
0.836
EA11
0.833
EA12
0.816
EA13
0.774
EA14
0.759
EA15
0.782
EA16
0.737
EA2
0.706
EA3
0.709
EA4
0.788
EA5
0.789
EA6
0.858
EA7
0.877
EA8
0.809
EA9
0.829
Organizational
Support
0.939
0.94
0.597
OS1
0.738
OS10
0.804
OS11
0.827
OS12
0.809
OS2
0.772
OS3
0.725
OS4
0.775
OS5
0.748
OS6
0.742
OS7
0.774
OS8
0.782
OS9
0.77
Trailing Wives
Adjustment
0.99
0.991
0.729
TSA1
0.895
TSA10
0.852
TSA11
0.892
TSA12
0.824
TSA13
0.868
TSA14
0.857
TSA15
0.771
TSA16
0.885
TSA17
0.876
TSA18
0.798
TSA19
0.854
TSA2
0.817
TSA20
0.816
TSA21
0.824
TSA22
0.898
TSA23
0.899
TSA24
0.883
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
7
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
TSA25
0.85
TSA26
0.852
TSA27
0.846
TSA28
0.848
TSA29
0.838
TSA3
0.853
TSA30
0.82
TSA31
0.895
TSA32
0.907
TSA33
0.89
TSA34
0.875
TSA35
0.857
TSA36
0.867
TSA37
0.909
TSA38
0.933
TSA4
0.892
TSA5
0.736
TSA6
0.794
TSA7
0.789
TSA8
0.775
TSA9
0.869
Table: 2 Discriminant Validity Heterotrait- Monotrait
Ratio (HTMT)
4.3 Structural Model Fit Analysis
SMF (Structure model fit) is normally tested by R square
(coefficient of determination) value, as it identifies whether
the model is fit or not. R square represents the change in
dependent variable explain by all independent variables
linked with dependent variable (Hair, Hult, Ringle and
Sarstedt, 2017). In this study value of R square for expat
adjustment (EA) and trailing spouse adjustment (TSA) are
0.306 (30%) and 0.214 (21%) which is good for model
fitness. Further SRMR (standardized root mean square
residual value) is an absolute measure of fit, which is
standardized and shows the relationship between observed
and model implied matrix Hu and Bentler, (1999) identified
that SRMR value must be Less than 0.08 and SRMR value
of this model is 0.045, which is a good fit, so result of
measurement model (MM) and structural model(SM)
confirmed that model of this study is valid to run data in
PLS.
Table: 3 Summary of PLS analysis
Original
Sample
T Statistics
P Values
CI -> EA
0.28
3.066
0.002
CI -> TSA
0.341
5.247
0
OS -> EA
0.327
4.077
0
OS -> TSA
0.2
3.115
0.002
TSA -> EA
0.233
3.634
0
CI -> TSA -> EA
0.079
2.865
0.004
OS -> TSA -> EA
0.047
2.217
0.027
Table: 4 Hypotheses Assessment Summary
Hypothesis
Results
H1: Cultural Intelligence is positively related with
Trailing Wives Adjustment.
Supported
H2: Cultural Intelligence is positively related with
Expat Adjustment.
Supported
H3: Organizational Support is positively related with
Trailing Wives Adjustment.
Supported
H4: Organizational Support is positively related with
Expat Adjustment.
Supported
H5: Trailing Wives Adjustment is positively related
with Expat Adjustment.
Supported
H6: Trailing Wives Adjustment mediates the
association between Cultural Intelligence and Expat
Adjustment.
Supported
H7: Trailing Wives Adjustment mediates the
association between Organizational Support and
Expat Adjustment.
Supported
5 DISCUSSION
According to the Year Book by Ministry of Overseas
Pakistanis (2018), there are around 8.84 million OPs
working and living worldwide, representing a major segment
of the global workforce, and for them job relocation remains
a concern. Having scored high on collectivism (Country
Comparison - Hofstede Insights, 2020) the role of spouse
adjustment for successful overseas assignment of Pakistani
expats should not be ignored. Additionally, due to
belongingness from male dominant society, the
organizations as well as the male spouses do not take into
consideration the consent of the female spouses for
overseas assignments (Iftikhar and Awan,2019) leaving
them with the only option to move abroad. Given the
scenario, the role of cultural intelligence and organizational
support towards the trailing spouse adjustment and expat
adjustment held significant importance for successful job
relocation. During the research, 7 hypotheses were tested
and all of them are accepted. The research supported the
positive relationship between cultural intelligence and
trailing spouse adjustment which is consistent with the
research by (Malek and Budhwar, 2013) while the positive
relationship between cultural intelligence and expat
adjustment was also tested and supported as did in the
work presented by (Guðmundsdóttir, 2015; Templer and
Chandrasekar 2006) (Lin, Chen, and Song, 2012; Wang et
al., 2019). Other than cultural intelligence, the role of
perceived organizational support towards trailing spouse
adjustment was also studied and the results donated a
significant positive relationship between them as highlighted
by (Lazarova, McNulty and Semeniuk, 2015). In addition,
the role of perceived organizational support towards
expatriate adjustment was tested and there exists a
significant positive relationship between them as well; as
CI
EA
OS
TSA
CI
EA
0.423
OS
0.438
0.463
TSA
0.429
0.428
0.354
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
8
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
mentioned previously by (Chen & Shaffer,2017; Du-
Babcock, 2018). Positive relationship between trailing
spouse adjustment and expat adjustment is also supported
as stated by (Takeuchi et al., 2002; Barnett, Marshall and
Sayer, 1992) (Lazarova et al., 2010). Furthermore, the
mediating role of trailing spouse adjustment between
cultural intelligence and expat adjustment was also studied
and found to be supported and seconding (Jyoti, Pereira,
and Kour,2019) whereas the role of trailing spouse
adjustment in mediating the association between
organizational support and expat adjustment was also
supported as consistent with the researches by (Mohr &
Klein, 2004; Ramos, Mustafa and Haddad, 2017).
Effectively handling and dealing people of diverse culture is
required in today‘s global management and cultures that
are high on collectivism provide different challenges to
managers as compared to individualism. The research
provides an insight to international human resource
managers regarding how to accommodate and help expats
and their spouses in foreign relocation. The move abroad is
regarded as a transitionary phase for the expat and spouse,
demanding organization‘s support throughout the process.
In Pakistan, nearly all trailing spouses are wives and the
male dominant nature of the society contains the
organizations to seek female spouse approval consequently
impacting them emotionally and psychologically, which in
return might have an impact on expat‘s job performance.
5.1 Practical Implications
An improved understanding of the cultural intelligence of
expatriates and their spouses is considered imperative for
providing the desired training for adjusting in an alien
environment. Other than cultural training, organization
should provide the trailing spouse and the family with an
opportunity to get in touch with likeminded people or groups
in assigned country for getting hands on experience for
reducing their uncertainties.
5.2 Future Research
Further research can be done in this area by comparing the
role of different country‘s culture in facilitating spouse
adjustment, which can assist the multinational enterprises
in selecting appropriate individuals for their international
assignments. Further a qualitative phenomenological
interview can also be conducted wherein the participants
lived experience can be gauged and reported. Along with
the in-depth interviews, researchers can also conduct the
focus group study to enrich the data from diversified
participants at a given point in time. From a quantitative
perspective, a larger sample size can be used to further
extract the research findings. Besides, there is also an
opportunity of a mixed method study aimed to investigate
the relationship between the stated factors and expatriate
adjustment.
Figure: 1 Path coefficients and significant values of Model
REFERENCES
[1]. Ang, S., and Van Dyne, L. (2015). Conceptualization
of cultural intelligence: Definition, distinctiveness, and
nomological network. In Handbook of cultural
intelligence (pp. 21-33). Routledge.
[2]. Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K. Y., Templer, K.
J., Tay, C., and Chandrasekar, N. A. (2007). Cultural
intelligence: Its measurement and effects on cultural
judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation and
task performance. Management and organization
review, 3(3), 335-371.
[3]. Bakeman R, Gottman JM. Observing interaction: An
introduction to sequential analysis. New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press; 1986
[4]. Black, J. S., and Stephens, G. K. (1989). The influence
of the spouse on American expatriate adjustment.
Journal of Management,15(4), 529.
[5].Bogilovic, S., and Skerlavaj, M. (2016). Metacognitive
and motivational cultural intelligence: Superpowers for
creativity in a culturally diverse environment/
metakognitivna in motivacijska kulturna inteligentnost:
Super moci za ustvarjalnost v kulturno raznolikem
okolju. Economic and Business Review for Central and
South-Eastern Europe, 18(1), 55.
[6] .Bralove, M. (1981). Husband's hazard. Wall Street
Journal, 1-2.
[7]. Byrne, Z. S., and Hochwarter, W. A. (2008). Perceived
organizational support and performance. Journal of
Managerial Psychology.
[8]. Caligiuri, P., and Lazarova, M. (2002). A model for the
influence of social interaction and social support on
female expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment.
International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 13(5), 761-772.
[9]. Cangià, F. (2018). Precarity, Imagination, and the
mobile life of the ‗trailing spouse‘. Ethos, 46(1), 8-26.
[10]. Chen, Y. P., and Shaffer, M. A. (2017). The influences
of perceived organizational support and motivation on
self-initiated expatriates‘ organizational and community
embeddedness. Journal of World Business, 52(2),
197-208.
[11]. Chew, E. Y., Ghurburn, A., Terspstra-Tong, J. L., and
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
9
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
Perera, H. K. (2019). Multiple intelligence and expatriate
effectiveness: the mediating roles of cross-cultural
adjustment. The International Journal of Human
Resource Management, 1-33.
[12].Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach
to structural equation modeling. Modern methods for
business research, 295(2), 295-336.
[13]. Cropanzano, R., Anthony, E. L., Daniels, S. R., and
Hall, A. V. (2017). Social exchange theory: A critical
review with theoretical remedies. Academy of
Management Annals, 11(1), 479-516.
[14]. Crowne, K. A. (2008). What leads to cultural
intelligence? Business horizons, 51(5), 391-399.
[15]. De Stobbeleir, K. E., De Clippeleer, I., Caniëls, M.
C., Goedertier, F., Deprez, J., De Vos, A., and
Buyens, D. (2018). The inside effects of a strong
external employer brand: how external perceptions
can influence organizational absenteeism
rates. The international Journal of human resource
management, 29(13), 2106-2136.
[16]. Dollwet, M. (2013). Socializing Expatriates and
Their Spouses: New Considerations for Expatriate
and Spouse Adjustment through Organizational
Onboarding (Doctoral dissertation, The Claremont
Graduate University).
[17]. Dowling, P. J., Festing, M., and Engle Sr, A. D.
(2008). International Human Resource
Management, 5th edition Thomson.
[18].Du-Babcock, B. (2018, October). Perceived
Organizational Support for Communication and
Expatriate Adjustments: A Case of a China-Based
Multinational Corporation. In 83rd Annual
International Conference.
[19]. Ekrot, B., Rank, J., Kock, A., and Gemünden, H. G.
(2018). Retaining and satisfying project managers–
antecedents and outcomes of project managers‘
perceived organizational support. The International
Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(12),
1950-1971.
[20]. Eriksson, M. M., and Lindström, R. (2013).
International assignments: An updated picture of
important factors for expatriate spouse adjustment.
[21]. Fornell, C., and Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural
equation models with unobservable variables and
measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal
of marketing research, 382-388.
[22]. Forster, N. (2000). The myth of the ‗international
manager'. International Journal of Human
Resource Management, 11(1), 126-142.
[23]. Froese, F. J., and Peltokorpi, V. (2011). Cultural
distance and expatriate job
satisfaction. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 35(1), 49-60.
[24]. Government of Pakistan Ministry of Overseas
Pakistanis and Human Resource Development
Islamabad, 2019. Year Book 2017-18. [online]
Available at:
<http://www.ophrd.gov.pk/SiteImage/Downloads/Y
ear-Book-2017-18.pdf> [Accessed 25 March 2020].
[25]. Guðmundsdóttir, S. (2015). Nordic expatriates in
the US: The relationship between cultural
intelligence and adjustment. International Journal
of Intercultural Relations, 47, 175-186.
[26]. Gudmundsdottir, S., Gudlaugsson, T. O., and
Adalsteinsson, G. D. (2019). The diplomatic
spouse. Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of
Expatriate Management Research.
[27]. Gupta, R., Banerjee, P., and Gaur, J. (2012).
Exploring the role of the spouse in expatriate
failure: a grounded theory-based investigation of
expatriate'spouse adjustment issues from
India. The International Journal of Human
Resource Management, 23(17), 3559-3577.
[28]. Haile, S., and White, D. (2019). Expatriate Failure
Is a Common Challenge for Multinational
Corporations: Turn Expatriate Failure to Expatriate
Success. International Journal of Business and
Public Administration, 16(1).
[29]. Haile, S., and White, D. (2019). Expatriate Failure
Is a Common Challenge For Multinational
Corporations: Turn Expatriate Failure To Expatriate
Success. International Journal of Business and
Public Administration, 16(1).
[31]. Hair J.F., Black W.C., Babin B.J., Anderson R.E.,
and Tatham R.L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis
6th Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
[32]. Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt,
M., and Thiele, K. O. (2017). Mirror, mirror on the
wall: a comparative evaluation of composite-based
structural equation modeling methods. Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, 45(5), 616-
632.
[33]. Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., and Sarstedt, M.
(2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant
validity in variance-based structural equation
modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, 43(1), 115-
135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
[34]. Hofstede Insights. 2020. Country Comparison –
Hofstede Insights. [online] Available at:
<https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-
comparison/pakistan/> [Accessed 22 March 2020].
[35]. Hu, L.T., and Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria
for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis:
Conventional criteria versus new
alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–
55.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
[36]. Iftikhar, R., and Awan, M. A. (2019). Break the
Silence: Pakistani Women Facing
Violence. Journal of Political Studies, 26(2).
[37]. Islam, N. (2004). Sifarish, sycophants, power and
collectivism: Administrative culture in
Pakistan. International Review of Administrative
Sciences, 70(2), 311-330.
[38]. Jyoti, J., and Kour, S. (2017). Cultural intelligence
and job performance: An empirical investigation of
moderating and mediating variables. International
Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 17(3), 305-
326.
[39]. Jyoti, J., Pereira, V., and Kour, S. (2019).
Examining the impact of cultural intelligence on
knowledge sharing: role of moderating and
mediating variables. In Understanding the role of
business analytics (pp. 169-188). Springer,
Singapore.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
10
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
[40]. Kim, K. Y., Eisenberger, R., and Baik, K. (2016).
Perceived organizational support and affective
organizational commitment: Moderating influence
of perceived organizational competence. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 37(4), 558-583.
[41]. Kurtessis, J. N., Eisenberger, R., Ford, M. T.,
Buffardi, L. C., Stewart, K. A., and Adis, C. S.
(2017). Perceived organizational support: A meta-
analytic evaluation of organizational support
theory. Journal of management, 43(6), 1854-1884.
[42]. Lazarova, M., McNulty, Y., and Semeniuk, M.
(2015). Expatriate family narratives on international
mobility: Key characteristics of the successful
moveable family. In Work and family interface in
the international career context (pp. 29-51).
Springer, Cham.
[43]. Lin, Y. C., Chen, A. S. Y., and Song, Y. C. (2012).
Does your intelligence help to survive in a foreign
jungle? The effects of cultural intelligence and
emotional intelligence on cross-cultural
adjustment. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 36(4), 541-552.
[44]. Malek, M. A., and Budhwar, P. (2013). Cultural
intelligence as a predictor of expatriate adjustment
and performance in Malaysia. Journal of world
business, 48(2), 222-231.
[45]. Nazir, O., and Islam, J. U. (2017). Enhancing
organizational commitment and employee
performance through employee
engagement. South Asian Journal of Business
Studies.
[46]. Ng, K. Y., and Earley, P. C. (2006). Culture+
intelligence: Old constructs, new frontiers. Group
and Organization Management, 31(1), 4-19.
[47]. Parfitt, J., and Jenkins, D. (2008). A career in your
suitcase. Cabal Group Limited.
[48]. Ramalu, S. S., Rose, R. C., Uli, J., and Kumar, N.
(2012). Cultural intelligence and expatriate
performance in global assignment: The mediating
role of adjustment. International Journal of
Business and Society, 13(1), 19.
[49]. Ramos, H. M., Mustafa, M., and Haddad, A. R.
(2017). Social support and expatriate spouses'
wellbeing: The mediating role of cross-cultural
adjustment. International Journal of Employment
Studies, 25(2), 6.
[50]. Reinartz, W., Haenlein, M., and Henseler, J.
(2009). An empirical comparison of the efficacy of
covariance-based and variance-based
SEM. International Journal of research in
Marketing, 26(4), 332-344.
[51]. Rockstuhl, T., Seiler, S., Ang, S., Van Dyne, L.,
and Annen, H. (2011). Beyond general intelligence
(IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ): The role of
cultural intelligence (CQ) on cross‐border
leadership effectiveness in a globalized
world. Journal of Social Issues, 67(4), 825-840.
[52]. Salgado, J. F., and Bastida, M. (2017). Predicting
expatriate effectiveness: The role of personality,
cross‐cultural adjustment, and organizational
support. International Journal of Selection and
Assessment, 25(3), 267-275.
[53]. Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., Henseler, J., and Hair,
J. F. (2014). On the emancipation of PLS-SEM: A
commentary on Rigdon (2012). Long range
planning, 47(3), 154-160.
[54]. Sher, P. J. H., Zhuang, W. L., Wang, M. C., Peng,
C. J., and Lee, C. H. (2019). Moderating effect of
perceived organizational support on the
relationship between leader–member exchange
and expatriate voice in multinational
banks. Employee Relations: The International
Journal.
[55]. Shin, S. J., Morgeson, F. P., and Campion, M. A.
(2007). What you do depends on where you are:
Understanding how domestic and expatriate work
requirements depend upon the cultural
context. Journal of International Business
Studies, 38(1), 64-83.
[56]. Tahir, R., and Oasis, D. S. (2019). Expatriate
Spouse Adjustment: An Analysis of Challenges
Facing Western Female Expatriate Spouses in the
United Arab Emirates. Unpublished research.
[57]. Templer, K. J., Tay, C., and Chandrasekar, N. A.
(2006). Motivational cultural intelligence, realistic
job preview, realistic living conditions preview, and
cross-cultural adjustment. Group and Organization
Management, 31(1), 154-173.
[58]. Tuleja, E. A. (2014). Developing cultural
intelligence for global leadership through
mindfulness. Journal of Teaching in International
Business, 25(1), 5-24.
[59]. Tung, R. L. (1982). Selection and training
procedures of US, European, and Japanese
multinationals. California management
review, 25(1), 57-71.
[60]. Tung, R. L. (1982). Selection and training
procedures of US, European, and Japanese
multinationals. California management
review, 25(1), 57-71.
[61]. Tung, R. L. (1987). Expatriate assignments:
Enhancing success and minimizing
failure. Academy of Management
Perspectives, 1(2), 117-125.
[62]. Tung, R. L. (1987). Expatriate assignments:
Enhancing success and minimizing
failure. Academy of Management
Perspectives, 1(2), 117-125.
[63]. Vainikka, M. (2016). Adjustment of foreign workers‘
spouses: the factors influencing satisfaction and
adjustment of foreign workers‘ spouses in Finland.
[64]. Vainikka, M. (2016). Adjustment of foreign workers‘
spouses: the factors influencing satisfaction and
adjustment of foreign workers‘ spouses in Finland.
[65]. Van der Zee, K. I., and Van Oudenhoven, J. P.
(2000). The multicultural personality questionnaire:
A multidimensional instrument of multicultural
effectiveness. European Journal of Personality, 14,
291–309.
[66]. Van der Zee, K. I., and Van Oudenhoven, J. P.
(2001). The multicultural personality questionnaire:
Reliability and validity of self- and other ratings of
multicultural effectiveness. Journal of Research in
Personality, 35, 278–288
[67]. Van der Zee, K. I., and van Oudenhoven, J. P.
(2014). Personality and multicultural effectiveness.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH VO`LUME 10, ISSUE 02, FEBRUARY 2021 ISSN 2277-8616
11
IJSTR©2021
www.ijstr.org
[68]. Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., Ng, K. Y., Rockstuhl, T.,
Tan, M. L., and Koh, C. (2012). Sub‐dimensions of
the four factor model of cultural intelligence:
Expanding the conceptualization and measurement
of cultural intelligence. Social and personality
psychology compass, 6(4), 295-313.
[69]. Wang, C. H., and Varma, A. (2019). Cultural
distance and expatriate failure rates: the
moderating role of expatriate management
practices. The International Journal of Human
Resource Management, 30(15), 2211-2230.
[70]. Wang, C. Y. P., Lien, M. C., Jaw, B. S., Wang, C.
Y., Yeh, Y. S., and Kung, S. H. (2019).
Interrelationship of expatriate employees'
personality, cultural intelligence, cross-cultural
adjustment, and entrepreneurship. Social Behavior
and Personality: an international journal, 47(12), 1-
16.
[71]. Webber, E. L., and Vögel, A. J. (2019). The
preparation, training and support requirements of
expatriate trailing spouses. South African Journal
of Economic and Management Sciences, 22(1), 1-
10.
[72]. Winnubst, J. (2017). Organizational structure,
social support, and burnout. In Professional
burnout (pp. 151-162). Routledge.
[73]. Wu, P. C., and Ang, S. H. (2011). The impact of
expatriate supporting practices and cultural
intelligence on cross-cultural adjustment and
performance of expatriates in Singapore. The
International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 22(13), 2683-2702.
[74]. Yu, M. C., Mai, Q., Tsai, S. B., and Dai, Y. (2018).
An empirical study on the organizational trust,
employee-organization relationship and innovative
behavior from the integrated perspective of social
exchange and organizational
sustainability. Sustainability, 10(3), 864.